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 is ATOMS
J.J. Thomson’s Plum Pudding model of an atom
- The positive charge is uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the atom
- The negatively charged electrons are embedded in it like seeds in a watermelon

Rutherford’s nuclear model (PYQ 2020)

The entire positive charge and most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in a small volume called the nucleus
with electrons revolving around the nucleus just as planets revolve around the sun

Drawback-
It could not explain the unique emission spectrums of atoms.

Rutherford’s Alpha-Particle scattering experiment

The following observations were made during the experiment-
1. Most of the alpha particles passed through the foil, undeflected.
2. Only about 0.14% of the incident α-particles scatter by more than 1°
3. About 1 in 8000 deflect by more than 90°.

The following inferences were made according to the observations-

1. Most of the space inside the atom is empty •
2. The greater part of the mass of the atom and its positive charge were concentrated tightly at its center.

Note: Rutherford’s experiments suggested the size of the nucleus to be about 10-15 to 10-14 m

Alpha particle trajectory

The trajectory traced by an α-particle depends on the impact parameter,
b of collision. The impact parameter is the perpendicular distance of the
initial velocity vector of the α-particle from the center of the nucleus.

ima
It is seen that-
- An α-particle close to the nucleus (small impact parameter)
suffers large scattering.
- In case of head-on collision, the impact parameter is minimum and
the α-particle rebounds back (θ ≅ π).
- For a large impact parameter, the α-particle goes nearly undeviated •
and has a small deflection (θ ≅ 0).

Electron Orbits
- According to Rutherford’s model, an atom is an electrically neutral sphere consisting of a very small, massive and
positively charged nucleus at the center surrounded by electrons revolving in dynamically stable orbits.
- The electrostatic force of attraction, Fe between the revolving electrons and the nucleus provides the requisite
centripetal force (Fc) of attraction to keep them in their orbits.
- Thus, for a dynamically stable orbit in a hydrogen atom-

- Relation between the radius of orbit and the velocity of electron is –

- Kinetic energy (K) of the electron in a hydrogen atom-

- Potential energy (U) of the electron in a hydrogen atom-

- Thus, the total energy (E) of an electron in the hydrogen atom-

BB

Note: 1. The negative sign in U signifies that the electrostatic force is in the -r direction
2. The total energy of the electron is negative. This implies the fact that the electron is bound to the nucleus. If E
were positive, an electron will not follow a closed orbit around the nucleus.

Atomic Spectra
1. Emission spectrum
When an atomic gas or vapor is excited at low pressure, usually by passing an electric current through it, the
emitted radiation has a spectrum which contains certain specific wavelengths only. A spectrum of this kind is
termed as emission line spectrum and it consists of bright lines on a dark background.
Study of emission line spectra of a material can therefore serve as a type of “fingerprint” for identification
of the gas.

2. Absorption spectrum
When white light passes through a gas and we analyze the transmitted light using a spectrometer we find some
dark lines in the spectrum. These dark lines correspond precisely to those wavelengths which were found in the
emission line spectrum of the gas. This is called the absorption spectrum of the material of the gas.

Spectral series (PYQ 2019, 2018, 2017, 2016)

Set of spectral lines with regularly decreasing distance between them is called a spectral series.
The hydrogen spectrum consists of the following spectral series-

S.NO Name of series n1 Region

1. Lyman 1 UV
2. Balmer 2 Visible
3. Paschen 3 I.R.
4. Brackett 4 I.R.
5. Pfund 5 Far I.R.

Note: Balmer found a simple formula for the wavelengths of the spectral lines observed in the visible region, called
as the Balmer formula-

(n= 3,4,5......)
Where λ is the wavelength and R is Rydberg’s constant. Value of R = 1.097 ×107 m-1
This formula can also be applied to all the other series in the hydrogen spectrum by using the appropriate value of n1

Lyman series-

Paschen series-

Bracket series-

n= 5,6,7...

Pfund series-

n=6,7,8
g.
So, the general formula can be written as-

Note: This formula is only applicable to single electron system e.g., hydrogen atom, singly ionized helium, doubly
ionized lithium.
This formula can also be written in terms of frequency of the light -

Important PYQs i¥E÷7

Ques: Calculate the shortest wavelength of the Brackett series and state to which part of the electromagnetic
spectrum does it belong (PYQ 2019) [1M]

Ans: It belongs to the I.R. region of the electromagnetic spectrum

We know, for bracke; series-

For shortest wavelength, n should be infinity.

Ques: Calculate the ratio of Bloodgood
wavelength of the radiation emitted due to transition of electron in a hydrogen atom from
frequencies
its i) second permitted energy level to the first level and ii) highest permitted energy level to the second level (PYQ
2018) [2M]

Ans: We know-

i)

ii)

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of an atom

1. We know that an object which moves in a circle is being constantly accelerated
the acceleration being centripetal in nature. According to classical
electromagnetic theory, an accelerating charged particle emits radiation in the
form of electromagnetic waves. The energy of an accelerating electron should
therefore, continuously decrease. The electron would spiral inward and eventually
fall into the nucleus. Thus, such an atom cannot be stable.

2. Further, according to the classical electromagnetic theory, the frequency of the

electromagnetic waves emitted by the revolving electrons is equal to the frequency
of revolution. As the electrons spiral inwards, their angular velocities and hence their
frequencies would change continuously, and so will the frequency of the light emitted.
Thus, they would emit a continuous spectrum, in contradiction to the line spectrum actually observed.

Important PYQs ¥i÷÷

Ques: Which of the following statements is not correct according to the Rutherford model?
a) Most of the space inside the atom is empty
b) The electrons revolve around the nucleus under the influence of coulomb force
c) Most part of the mass of the atom and its positive charge are concentrated at the center
d) The stability of the atom was established by this model (PYQ 2020) [1M]

Ans: d) The stability of the atom was established by this model.

Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2016, 2015)
Bohr combined classical and early quantum concepts and gave his theory in the form of three postulates. These are:

1. Bohr’s first postulate was that an electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the emission
of radiant energy, contrary to the predictions of electromagnetic theory. According to this postulate, each atom
has certain definite stable states in which it can exist, and each possible state has definite total energy. These are
called the stationary states of the atom.
2. Bohr’s second postulate defines these stable orbits. This postulate states that the electron revolves around the
nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular momentum is some integral multiple of h/2π where h is the
Planck’s constant (= 6.6 × 10-34 J s). Thus, the angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is quantized. That is-
3. Bohr’s third postulate states that an electron might make a transition from one of its specified non-radiating orbits
to another of lower energy. When it does so, a photon is emitted having energy equal to the energy difference
between the initial and final states. The frequency of the emitted photon is then given by-

where Ei and Ef are the energies of the initial and final states and Ei > Ef

The angular momentum L is given by-

L= mvr

And according to Bohr’s second postulate-

Where n= 1,2,3…. And rn is the radius of the nth orbit and vn is the velocity of the nth orbit. We know relation between
r and v is-

Form these two equations we get-

For n=1, radius is called Bohr radius and is represented by a˳

Substitution of h, m, ε˳, and e gives a˳= 5.29 × 10-11 m.

Form the above discussion, we can deduce that the radius of orbit Is directly proportional to n2-

Also, substituting the expression for r in the expression obtained for total energy of an electron In a hydrogen atom
we get-

Substituting values, we get-

OR

Note: For the derivations of the above equations, we have assumed that the shape of the orbits is circular but the
same equations also hold true for elliptical orbits.

Energy Levels
- The energy of an atom is the least (largest negative value) when its
electron is revolving in an orbit closest to the nucleus i.e., the one
for which n = 1.
- For n = 2, 3, ... the absolute value of the energy E is smaller, hence the
energy is progressively larger in the outer orbits.
- The lowest state of the atom, called the ground state, is that of the
lowest energy, with the electron revolving in the orbit of smallest radius,
the Bohr radius, a˳. The energy of this state (n = 1), E1 is –13.6 eV.
- Therefore, the minimum energy required to free the electron from the
ground state of the hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV. It is called the ionization
energy of the hydrogen atom.
- The highest energy state corresponds to n =∞ and has an energy of 0 eV.
This is the energy of the atom when the electron is completely removed
(r = ∞) from the nucleus and is at rest.
- When electrons acquire some energy due to electronic collisions, they get
excited and move from lower energy level to higher energy level. Such
electrons are said to be in an excited state.
- From these excited states the electron can then fall back to a state of
lower energy, emitting a photon in the process.

The Line spectra of Hydrogen Atom

According to the third postulate of Bohr’s model, when an atom makes a transition from the higher energy state with
quantum number ni to the lower energy state with quantum number nf (nf < ni), the difference of energy is carried
away by a photon of frequency νif such that-

Where R (Rydberg constant) is –

Important PYQs ¥÷?÷7

W
.

Ques: Find the relation between λ1, λ2, λ3 (PYQ 2016) [2M]

Energy associated with electron transfer from C to A-

Also,

Balancing energy,
 Success of The Bohr Model of an Atom
It was successfully able to explain the hydrogen atom spectrum

De Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s Second Postulate of Quantization (PYQ 2020, 2016, 2012)
Louis de Broglie argued that the electron in its circular orbit, as proposed
by Bohr, must be seen as a particle wave. In analogy to waves travelling
on a string, particle waves too can lead to standing waves under resonant
conditions. We know that when a string is plucked, a vast number of
wavelengths are excited. However only those wavelengths survive which
have nodes at the ends and form the standing wave in the string. It means
that in a string, standing waves are formed when the total distance travelled
by a wave down the string and back is any integral number of wavelengths.
Waves with other wavelengths interfere with themselves upon reflection
and their amplitudes quickly drop to zero. For an electron moving in nth
circular orbit of radius rn, the total distance is the circumference of the
orbit, 2πrn. Thus-

Important PYQs ¥EW÷?÷?

.

o
Ques: According to Bohr’s atomic model, the circumference of an electron orbit is always an_______ multiple of De
Broglie wavelength (PYQ 2020) [1M]

Ans: Integral

Limitations of Bohr’s Model of an atom

1. The Bohr model is applicable to hydrogenic atoms. It cannot be extended even to mere two electron atoms such
as helium. This is because of the fact that each electron interacts not only with the positively charged nucleus but
also with all other electrons.
2. While the Bohr’s model correctly predicts the frequencies of the light emitted by hydrogenic atoms, the model is
unable to explain the relative intensities of the frequencies in the spectrum. In emission spectrum of hydrogen,
some of the visible frequencies have weak intensity, others strong.

ET
Some Definitions and Derivations
Ques: Using Bohr’s atomic model, derive the expression for radius of the nth orbit of the revolving electron in a
hydrogen atom (PYQ 2020, 2015) [1M]

Ques: State Bohr’s quantization condition of angular momentum (PYQ 2019, 2016) [1M]

Ques: Calculate the orbital period of the electron in the first excited state of the hydrogen atom (PYQ 2019) [1M]

Ques: How does de Broglie hypothesis explain stationary orbits? (PYQ 2016, 2012) [1M]
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Que : A beam of light of wavelength 500 nm is incident on a photosensitive surface. If the threshold
wavelength for the surface is 663 nm, then calculate : (PYQ 2022, 3 Marks)

1. the work function for the surface, and

2. the maximum kinetic energy (in eV) of the photoelectrons.

Que : Ultraviolet light of wavelength 300 nm from a 100 W mercury source irradiates a photocell
made up of a metallic surface. If the stopping potential is 1·5 V, then calculate (PYQ 2022, 3 Marks)
1. the work function of the metal in eV, and
2. the number of photoelectrons emitted per second.

Assume that 60% of the photons emitted from the source cause photoelectric emission in this case.
Que : Photoelectrons are emitted from a metal surface when illuminated with UV light of
wavelength 330 nm. The minimum amount of energy required to emit the electrons from the
surface is 3.5 x 10-19 J. Calculate : (PYQ 2022, 3 Marks)
1. the energy of the incident radiation, and

2. the kinetic energy of the photoelectron.

 Que : Plot suitable graphs to show the variation of photoelectric current with the collector
plate potential for the incident radiation of (PYQ 2021, 3 Marks)

1. the same intensity but different frequencies 𝝂𝟏 , 𝝂𝟐 , 𝝂𝟑 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝝂𝟏 < 𝝂𝟐 < 𝝂𝟑

2. the same frequency but different intensities I1, I 2 and I3 (I1 < I 2 < I 3)

Que : A photosensitive surface is illuminated with a beam of (i) yellow light, and (ii)
red light, both of the same intensity. (PYQ 2021, 3 Marks)
In which case will

(I) photoelectrons have more Ek ?

(II) more numbers of electrons be emitted ? Justify your answer in each case.

Que : Photoelectric emission occurs when a surface is irradiated with the (PYQ 2022, 2 Marks)
radiation of frequency (i) v1, and (ii) v2. The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons emitted in the
two cases are K and 2K respectively. Obtain the expression for the threshold frequency for the
surface
 Que : What are matter waves ? A proton and an alpha particle are accelerated through the same
potential difference. Find the ratio of the de Broglie wavelength associated with the proton to that
with the alpha particle. (PYQ's 2022, 2 marks)

Que : Find the ratio of the de Broglie wavelengths associated with an alpha
particle and a proton, if both (PYQ's 2022, 3 marks)
1. have the same speeds,

2. have the same kinetic energy,

3. Are accelerated through the same potential difference.

Que : A heavy particle initially at rest splits spontaneously into two particles of masses m1 and
m2 having non-zero velocities. The ratio of de Broglie wavelengths associated with the
particles is
𝒎𝟏
1. (PYQ's 2021, 1 marks)
𝒎𝟐
𝒎𝟐
2. 𝒎𝟏
3. 1
ÿ 𝒎
4. ÿ 𝒎
𝟐

Que : An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 100 V. Calculate the de

Broglie wavelength associated with it. (PYQ's 2023, 1 marks)
Que : A proton and a deuteron are moving with the same speed. Find the ratio of the de
𝝀𝒑
Broglie wavelength ( ) associated with them. (PYQ's 2023, 2
𝝀𝒅
marks)
 ( PYQ 2021,20,19,17 )

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 if Electromagnetic Induction
The phenomenon in which electric current is generated by varying magnetic fields in called Electromagnetic
Induction.

The experiments of Faraday and Henry

'

Experiment 1
Consider a coil C1 connected to a galvanometer as shown in the figure. When the north pole of a bar magnet is
pushed towards the coil, there is a deflection in the galvanometer indicating the presence of electric current in the
coil.
- The current flows for as long as the magnet is in motion, there is no deflection when magnet is stationary.
- When the north pole is pulled away from the coil, there is a deflection in the opposite direction i.e. current flows in
the opposite direction
- When the south pole of the magnet is pushed/pulled, the deflection is opposite to that when the north pole was
being moved.
- The deflection is larger when the magnet is pushed/pulled faster
- Even when the magnet is fixed and the coil C1 is moved, there is a deflection.

Conclusion: Relative motion between the coil and magnet is responsible for generation (induction) of current in the
coil.

Experiment 2
The bar magnet in experiment 1 is replaced by a coil C2 connected to a battery. Steady current in the coil C2 sets up a
steady magnetic field. when C2 is moved towards C1, the galvanometer records a deflection. This indicates current is
induced in C1
- When C2 is moved away, there is a deflection in the opposite direction
- The deflection lasts as long as the coil C2 is in motion
- When C2 is fixed and C1 is moved, the same effects are recorded

Conclusion: Relative motion between the two coils is responsible for inducing electric current

Experiment 3
Consider the two coils C1 and C2 but this time C2 is connected to the battery through a key. When the key is closed
the galvanometer records a momentary deflection. After closing the key for a long time, there is no deflection. When

taxi
tiniest
. .
 the key is opened, there is again a momentary deflection but in the opposite direction. The deflection increases by
many folds when an iron rod is inserted into the coils along their axis

Note: Uniform field – field constant w.r.t. position | Steady field- field constant w.r.t. time

Magnetic Flux (φB) ( PYQ 2022,21,19,18 )

It gives a measure of the number of magnetic field lines intersecting a given area. The magnetic flux through area A
due to field B can be written as-

Where θ is the angle between B and area vector A

SI unit – weber (Wb) or tesla meter squared (Tm2) | scalar quantity

÷i÷¥ Faraday’s law of Induction

1st Law- If the flux linked with a coil varies with time, an EMF is induced across the coil

2nd Law- The magnitude of induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linked with coil

The negative sign indicates the direction of ε and the direction of current in the loop
For a coil of N turns-

Note: Flux can be varied by varying B, A or θ. Therefore, emf can be induced by-
1. Changing B (e.g. time varying field)
2. Changing the shape of the coil (area changes)
3. Rotating coil in a magnetic field so that angle θ between B and A changes
Ann #
' 1

RAKSHA
# c ,
Lenz’ Law and conservation of Energy (PYQ
(PYQ2021,20,19,17,15)
2017, 2013, 2012, 2011)
The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which opposes the change in magnetic flux that
produced it. This is a consequence of conservation of Energy.
The negative sign in the expression for flux in Faraday’s law represents this effect.

Consider the following two cases- (PYQ 2013)

v u
n

Mahatmas Bent
ftp.a.BMMB.at
§
taboo
Bind

.
Biafra I

As the north pole of the magnet is pushed towards If the north pole of the magnet is pulled away
The coil, the flux through the coil increases. Hence, from the coil , the flux through the coil will
Current is induced in the coil such that it opposes the decrease so current will be induced such that
Increase in flux. For the observer, this will happen when flux through coil increases. For the observer,
Current is induced in the anticlockwise direction. This will happen when current flows in the
This will result in a north pole being formed facing the clockwise direction which will result in an
Magnet which will repel the magnet and oppose the attractive force which opposes the decrease
Increase in flux. In flux.

Note: If an open circuit is used instead of a closed loop, an emf is still generated with polarity according to Lenz’ law.

Correctness of Lenz’s Law-

Suppose that the current induced was in the direction which supported the change in flux. Then in the first case, the
induced south pole of the coil would face the north pole of the magnet. This means that the magnet will
continuously be accelerated towards the coil. A gentle push will initiate the acceleration of the magnet and its
velocity and K.E will go on increasing without any expenditure of energy (perpetual motion) but this violates the law
of conservation of energy and hence can’t happen.

According to Lenz’ law, the magnet experiences a repulsive force. So, to keep the magnet in motion, work has to be
done by an external agent on the magnet. This work done is seen as the heat produced due to circulating current in
the coil in accordance with Joule’s law of heating effect of current.

Important PYQs t÷E7

Ques: Predict the polarity of the capacitor in the following case (PYQ 2017,
(PYQ 2011) [1M]
2021,20,18,17)

Ans: according to Lenz’s law, the induced current opposes the change in magnetic flux which causes it so on the
right-side current will flow clockwise so as to form south pole and, on the left, anti-clockwise so as to form north
pole. Therefore, the polarity will be as shown-

K
Lind
APRIL
thirtieth
# c ,
Ques: Predict the directions of induced currents in metal rings 1 and 2 lying in the same plane where current I is
increasing steadily (PYQ 2012) [1M]

Ans: The magnetic field on the sides of the wire is as shown in the figure. As current is increasing, the field and hence
flux through the rings will also increase. So, to oppose the increase the change in flux, current will be induced
according to Lenz law-

S
VI
•• B

N Tt
B

Methods of generating EMF-

1. B as a function of time (t)
Consider a solenoid with a time varying current i= I˳sinωt, no of turns per unit length n and radius a. A loop of N
turns and radius b (b>a) is placed as shown. Let’s find the emf ε induced in the loop.

is
(Not.Fib as field only /ll a)

g
Ea
n n
'
n

Case 2: θ as a function of time (PYQ 2011)

Consider a coil of radius a and N turns kept in a uniform magnetic field B with its plane perpendicular to the field. It
is rotated about an axis perpendicular to the field, in the plane of the loop with an angular velocity ω. The flux
through the loop at a time t is-
w
u

A N B

Ami
Thirst . .
 Motional EMF (PYQ 2020,2018, 2011) (Removed for 2023-24)
The emf generated by moving a conductor in a magnetic field i.e. by changing the flux in the circuit is called motional
EMF.

In the figure, there is a rectangular conductor PQRS kept in a magnetic field B, in which arm PQ of length L is free to
move. The rod PQ is moved towards left with a constant velocity v. Assume that there is no loss of energy due to
friction.
Explanation 1: Using Faraday’s Law (Removed for 2023-24)
As PQ is moved, the area enclosed by PQRS keeps on changing. At time t let RQ= x, then the flux associated with
PQRS –

Since x is changing w.r.t. time, the flux through PQRS will also vary with time and hence due to Faraday’s law, an EMF
will be induced which can be written as-

(Where dx/dt = -v as x is
Decreasing with time)

Explanation 2: Using Lorentz force (Removed for 2023-24)

Consider a charge q in the conductor PQ. As PQ moves towards the left with velocity v, the charge will also move
with same velocity. As the charge is moving in a magnetic field, it will experience a force F = qvB towards Q. All like
charges will experience the same force in the same direction. The work done in moving a charge from P to Q-

EMF is the work done per unit charge-

- Direction of positive polarity of motional emf is given by direction of v × B.

- The magnitude of motional emf is the product of B, L, v in mutually perpendicular directions. For e.g.-

B K
Y Z

t) t
go
v Gino B
U

Direc/on of emf

l K
'
Y z

Ii) v
e vcosgo B

APRIL
B ( i.e. if any 2 of B,l,v are parallel, e=0)
e= 0

thirtieth
# c ,
 Note: General formula-

emf induced in a stationary conductor kept in a varying magnetic field-

In case of stationary conductor, the force on its charges will be-

Since v=0, the force must be due to E. therefore, to explain the induction of current we must assume that a time
varying magnetic field generates an Electric field. but, the electric field due to static charges and that due to varying
magnetic field have different properties.

Important PYQs ¥iE¥÷

.
Ques: A rectangular frame of wire is placed in a uniform magnetic field directed outwards, normal to the paper. Ab is
connected to a spring which is stretched to A’B’ and then released at time t=0. Explain qualitatively how induced emf
in the coil would vary with time (neglect damping of oscillations of spring) (PYQ 2018) [2M] (Removed for 2023-24)

Ans: As AB is pulled to A’B’, it experiences a force due to the spring

which causes it to perform simple harmonic mo/on about AB.
As it performs SHM, the area and hence the flux through the
loop also varies and hence an emf is induced. The arm AB
doesn’t move with constant velocity hence the emf produced
is also not constant. It varies with /me periodically in both
magnitude and direc/on. Its frequency is same as that of SHM
of the arm AB.

i÷¥÷ Motional EMF in rotation (PYQ 2012)(Removed for 2023-24)

Consider a rod OP of length R rotating with an angular velocity ω as shown in the figure-

Method 1:
As the rod is rotated, the charges in the rod experience a force and move towards O. At a certain value of emf there
is no more flow of electrons and steady state is reached. Consider a differential element of length dx at a distance x
from O. As the rod moves perpendicular to the field, the magnitude of emf across dx will be-

Anti
#
' 1

RAKSHA
# c ,
Method 2:
Consider a closed loop OPQ with rod OP rotating with ω. As OP rotates, the area and hence flux linked with the loop
changes and an emf is induced across the loop. At time t, let angle between OP and OQ be θ. Area OPQ is-

Hence flux linked with loop is-

• •

Energy Conservation (Removed for 2023-24)

Let resistance of PQ be R and resistance of all other arms is negligible. Therefore, the net resistance is R and doesn’t
change as PQ moves. The current I in the circuit can be written as-

As current flows through the arm PQ, it will experience a force due to the magnetic field which can be written as-
or

The direction of this force will be towards right, opposite to that of its velocity.
To keep the rod moving with constant velocity v, an equal force in the opposite direction is needed. The power
required for this will be-

The power spent is dissipated as Joule’s heat and is given by-

Therefore, the mechanical energy required to move PQ is converted to electrical energy and then thermal energy.

ten
#
' 1

RAKSHA
# c ,
 Charge circulated

-
①

-
②

(From 1,2)

i÷¥÷ Eddy Currents (Removed for 2023-24)

When conductors are subjected to changing magnetic flux induced currents are produced in them. Their flow
patterns resemble swirling eddies in water hence they are called eddy currents.

Consider a copper a plate which allowed two swing like a pendulum

Between the pole pieces of strong magnets. We see that the motion
Of the plate is damped and that it comes to rest after a while. This is
Because the flux linked with the plate keeps on changing a sit moves
In and out of the region between the plates. This induces eddy currents
in the plate which opposes the motion of the plate. The direction of
eddy current is opposite when the plate swings in and out of the region.

Disadvantages of eddy currents

Eddy currents are undesirable as they heat up the core and dissipate electrical energy in the form of heat.

Methods of reducing eddy currents

1. Holes or slits made in the plate reduces the area available for eddy currents to flow

2. Laminations – laminations of a metal are used to make a core. The laminations are separated by an insulating
layer like lacquer. The plane of the laminations must be parallel to the magnetic field so that they cut across the
eddy current paths. This reduces the strength of eddy currents and hence the loss of energy as heat (P=I2R)

Advantages/ Uses of Eddy currents

1. Magnetic breaking in trains – Strong electromagnets are situated above the rails. When activated, they produce
eddy currents which oppose the motion of the train. As there is no mechanical contact, breaking is smooth
2. Electromagnetic damping- certain galvanometers have a fixed core made of nonmagnetic metallic material.
When the coil oscillates, the eddy currents generated in the coil oppose its motion and quickly bring the coil to
rest
3. Induction furnace- they are used to produce high temperatures to make alloys by melting the constituent
metals. Ahigh frequency A/C is passed through a coil which surrounds the metal to be melted. The eddy currents
induced in the metals produce high temperatures sufficient to melt it
4. Electric power meters- The shiny metal discs in the electric power meter rotates due to eddy currents. Electric
currents are induced in the disc by magnetic fields produced by sinusoidally varying currents in a coil

i÷¥÷ Electromagnetic damping (PYQ 2014) (Removed for 2023-24)

Take two cylindrical pipes of equal diameters, one of aluminum and the other of PVC. Drop a cylindrical magnet
through the pipes such that it does not touch the sides of the pipes. We observe that the magnet dropped through
the PVC pipe falls faster than the one dropped through the aluminum pipe. This is because as the magnet falls
through the aluminum pipe, the flux associated with it changes which generates eddy currents in the pipe that
oppose the motion of the magnet. Eddy currents are not generated in the PVC pipe as it is an insulator.

Ann
#
' 1

RAKSHA
# c ,
 Important PYQ t.EE?
c
Ques: Two spherical bobs of one metallic, and the other of glass of the same size are allowed to fall freely from the
same height above the ground. Which of the two will reach early and why? (PYQ 2014) [1M]

Ans: As the metal ball falls, it experiences a force due to gravity downwards. But, as it falls, the flux through it due to
earth’s magnetic field is changing due to which eddy currents are induced in the metal sphere such that they oppose
its motion. So, it experiences a retarding force upwards. However, since glass is an insulator, no eddy currents are
induced and it experiences only a force due to gravity. Therefore, the glass sphere reaches before the metal sphere.
a

Glass sphere
Metal sphere
g g

i÷t÷÷ Inductance
An electric current can be induced in a coil by flux change produced by another coil nearby or flux change produced
by the same coil. In both cases the flux produced is directly proportional to the current.

If geometry of coil remains constant with time then-

For a coil of N turns, the magnetic flux is linked with each turn therefore the net flux will be N times of the flux
associated with a single turn i.e.-

Where L is a constant of proportionality which is called inductance. Inductance only depends on the geometry of the
coil and intrinsic material properties.

- Inductance- scalar| SI unit- henry (H)

How to calculate inductance of a coil of a certain geometry?

Step 1: Pass current I through the coil, calculate the field and hence the expression for flux through the coil
Step 2: Compare this expression with φ = LI to find out L

÷÷t÷ Mutual inductance (PYQ 2019, 2017, 2016, 2015)

The phenomenon due to which an emf is induced in a coil due to a varying flux produced by a coil kept nearby is called
mutual induction.
Consider two long coaxial solenoids each of length l. Let radius of inner solenoid S1 be r1 and number of turns per unit
length be n1 and for outer solenoid S2 be r2 and n2. Let total turns be N1 and N2
When a current I2 is set up in S2, it links a magnetic flux through S1. Let the flux through S1 be φ1-

-
①

Where M12 is mutual inductance/ coefficient of mutual induction of S1 w.r.t. S2

Ann#
' 1

RAKSHA
# c ,
 We now consider the reverse case. A current I1 is flown through S1. The flux linked with S2-
-

③
Where M21 is mutual inductance/ coefficient of mutual induction of S2 w.r.t. S1

-
④
From 3,4.

Therefore, we see that M12= M21 = M.

If there was a medium of relative permeability µR in the solenoids then,

Note: The mutual inductance of a pair of solenoids also depends on their separation and their relative orientation

If current through one of the coils is varied with time, an emf is set up in the other coil which is calculated as-

-
①

Also, -

(From 1,2)

Important PYQs ¥÷¥i÷7

Ques: A pair of adjacent coils have a mutual inductance of 1.5 H. if the current in one coil changes from 0 to 20 A in
0.5s, what is the change influx linkage of the other coil? (PYQ 2016) [2M]

Ans:

'

Self inductance (PYQ 2019, 2017, 2013, 2012, 2010)

The phenomenon due to which an emf is induced in a coil due to varying current through the same coil is called self
induction. In this case, the flux through a coil of N turns is directly proportion to the current in the coil-

Where L is a proportionality constant knows as self inductance/ coefficient of self induction

Ann
#
' 1

RAKSHA
# C ,
Inductance of solenoid
Consider a solenoid of no of turns per unit length n, radius a, current I. we know-

-
①

Also,
-
②

From 1,2

For a solenoid with a core of relative permeability µR -

if current through the coil is varied with time an emf is induced-

Also,

(From 1,2)

Note: Self induced emf is also called back emf as it opposes any change in the current in a circuit. Physically, self
inductance plays the role of inertia. It is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in mechanics.

Important PYQs ¥E÷÷7

:

Ques: A plot of magnetic flux versus current is shown in the figure for two inductors A and B. which of the two has a
larger self-inductance (PYQ 2010) [1M]

Ans: We know-

Therefore, greater the slope, greater is the self inductance.

i.e. A has greater self-inductance than B

Ques: If number of turns of solenoid is doubled without changing the length and area of cross-section. The self-
inductance of the solenoid will become___________? (PYQ 2020) [1M]

Ans: It will be doubled (Since,

Ques:

•
Ans:
(PYQ 2013) [3M]

i)
4. ii) E

ok I
-
Catt
April
±
Thirst . .
 iii) U

'

U = LI

Energy stored in inductor (PYQ 2012) (Removed for 2023-24)

As back emf opposes any change of current in a circuit, some work needs to be done against it to setup steady current
in the circuit. This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy-

This expression can be compared with the kinetic energy of a body in mechanics . this shows that L is
analogous to m (i.e. L is electrical inertia and it opposes growth and decay of current in the circuit).

In general-
Consider the case of current flowing simultaneously in two nearby coils. The flux through one coil will be the sum of
the two fluxes –

Where M11 is the inductance due to the same coil. Using faraday’s law-

M11 is self inductance and is written as L1-

i÷¥ AC Generator (PYQ 2013, 2011, 2010)

Use: It converts mechanical energy to electrical energy

Principle: if flux linked with a coil varies with time, an EMF is induced in the coil

Ann
#
' 1

RAKSHA
# c ,
 Construction: - it consists of a coil mounted on a rotor shaft kept in a strong magnetic field. The axis of rotation of the
coil is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field.
- The coil is connected to external circuit with the help of slip rings and brushes

Working-
- The coil of area A is rotated in field B, the flux through the loop will be BAcosθ where θ is the angle between field and
area vector.
- As the coil rotates, θ and hence the flux through the coil changes which sets up an induced emf in the coil
- Let the coil rotate with a constant angular velocity ω. The angle between A and B at a time t is θ = ωt, assuming θ= 0°
at t=0, the flux at any time t can be written as -

Since value of sine function varies between +1 and – 1, the polarity of the emf also varies. Hence, direction of current
also varies periodically with time therefore, current is called alternating current.

Types of commercial generators-

1. Hydro-electric generators- mechanical energy required to rotate armature is provided by water falling from a
height
2. Thermal generators- water is heated using coal to produce high pressure steam to rotate the armature
3. Nuclear generators- instead of coal, nuclear fuel is used.

Note: Frequency of rotation of armature/ electromagnets – India = 50Hz | USA= 60Hz

Important PYQs
t÷E
-
Ques: For an A/C generator, show a plot of variation of-
1. Magnetic flux
2. Alternating emf versus time generated by a loop of wire rotating in a magnetic field (PYQ 2013) [2M]

Ans: For a coil rotaGng in a magneGc field with constant angular velocity

Ann
Titian A
# C ,
 QB
BA

Tt
E
Eo 11 11 11

#
t
544 T
174 The

SOmE MoRe PyQS

"

(Removed for 2023-24)

gates
Treated
thongs HE
w

s
e

(PYQ 2017) [2M]

agog
(Removed for 2023-24) .

④V
The situaGon is as shown in the figure e
Since all three , B, L, and v are in mutually perpendicular
direcGons, the induced EMF-

→
→

DirecGon of emf is given by v X B-

Ann
Thirst. .
 mm

DEfInItIoNs aNd dErIvAtIoNs aSkEd aS pYqs

Ques: Define mutual inductance (PYQ 2016) [1M]

Ques: a) Define mutual inductance and write its SI unit

b) Derive an expression for the mutual inductance of two long co-axial solenoids of same length wound over one
another
c) In an experiment, two coils C1 and C2 are placed close to each other find out the expression for the induced emf in
coil C1 due to change in current through C2. (PYQ 2015) [5M]

Ques: State Lenz law (PYQ 2013) [1M]

Ques: Define self inductance of a coil. Show that magnetic potential energy required to build up current I in the coil
of self conductance L is given by LI2/2 (PYQ 2012) [2M]

Ques: A metallic rod of ‘L’ length is rotated with angular frequency ω with one end hinged at the center and the
other end at the circumference of a circular metallic ring of radius L about an axis passing through the center and
perpendicular to the plane of the ring. A constant and uniform magnetic field B parallel to the axis is present
everywhere. Deduce the expression for emf between the center and the metallic ring (PYQ 2012) [2M]
(Removed for 2023-24)

Ques: State the working of an AC generator having N turns each of area A, is rotated with constant angular velocity
ω. Deduce the expression for alternating emf generated in the coil. (PYQ 2011) [5M]

Ques: Describe briefly, with the help of a well labelled diagram, the basic elements of an AC generator. State its
underlying principle. Show diagrammatically, how an alternating emf is generated by a loop of wire rotating in a
magnetic field. write the value for the instantaneous value of the emf in the coil. (PYQ 2010) [5M]

Anti
Thirst
. .
 a. Alternating Current
The current which changes in direction and magnitude with time is called alternating current. For e.g. the electric
mains supply in our homes which varies sinusoidally with time. AC voltage is represented as-
@

t
o

Average value of a function

The average value of any function y = f(x) over an interval from x1 to x2 can be calculated as-

The following are some results for average value of trigonometric functions which should be memorized-

1)

2)

For a sinusoidal wave, the average value in one time period will be 0 as equal current flows in forward and backward
direction. Therefore, the average value is calculated over half a time period-

Root mean squared (RMS) value/ Effective value

RMS value for an ac current is that value of dc current which when applied to the same resistor for the same amount
of time, produces the same amount of heat as ac.
Mathematically,

Note: - ‘An ac current of 4A’ implies that the RMS value is 4A

Let current be I = i˳ Sin(ωt), where i˳ is the peak value. The RMS value is related to peak value as-

IBE
rn s
Similarly, the rms voltage or effective voltage-

AC voltage applied to a Resistor (Removed for 2023-24)

Consider a resistor of resistance R is connected to an alternating voltage source v= v˳Sinωt, where v˳ is the amplitude
of the oscillating potential difference and ω is the angular frequency. Using Kirchhoff’s loop law-

t t

Where-

In the graph, both v and i reach minimum and maximum values

Simultaneously. Therefore, for a resistor voltage and current are
In phase with each other i.e. phase difference = 0.

Power consumed
In complete cycle, since equal current flows in both directions, the avg current over a complete cycle is 0 but the
average power consumed is not zero. This is because the power consumed is given by i2R (according to Joule’s law)
which depends on i2 and not i and i2 is always positive whether i is positive or negative. Thus, there is Joule heating
and dissipation of electrical energy when ac current passes through a resistor.
Instantaneous power dissipated in the circuit-

Therefore, average power dissipated-

Also-

From 1

Note: The instantaneous values of ac current/ voltage obey dc laws like Kirchhoff’s loop and junction law.
Representation of AC voltage and current by Rotating vectors- Phasors
A phasor is a vector which rotates about the origin with angular speed ω. The orthogonal components of phasors v
and I give the instantaneous values v and i and their magnitude represents the amplitude v˳ and i˳

W
O

=
wt
•

Note: Though the voltage and current in an ac circuit are represented by vectors they are not vectors themselves.
They are scalar quantities.

AC voltage applied to an inductor (PYQ 2011)for 2023-24)

(Removed
Consider an inductor of self inductor L and negligible resistance in its windings. Thus, the circuit is purely inductive.
Let the voltage be v= v˳ Sinωt. Using Kirchhoff’s loop law-

t
+
The negative sign is in accordance with Lenz’ law

The integration constant has dimensions of current and is time independent. Since the source emf and the current
oscillate symmetrically about zero, the integration constant will be 0

Inductive reactance (XL)

The quantity ωL is analogous to resistance and is called Inductive reactance.
L

- Dimensions are same as Resistance | SI Unit- Ohm (Ω)

Phasor
Comparing the expression for current and voltage in a purely inductive circuit, we see that the current lags behind
voltage by π/2 or 1/4 th of the cycle.

Vo
Io
Power consumption
The instantaneous value of power supplied to the inductor is-

The average power over a complete cycle-

Thus, the average power supplied to an inductor in one complete cycle is zero

Magnetization and demagnetization of an inductor

0-1 Current i flows through the coil entering at A and 1-2 current in the coil is positive but decreasing
Increases from 0 to maxm value and the core gets the core gets demagnetized. v Is negative as
Magnetized. Current and voltage are both positive di/dt is negative and hence vi is also negative
So, P=vi is positive. Hence, energy is absorbed from i.e. energy is returned to the source
source

2-3 current I becomes negative entering at B. The polarity 3-4 current decreases and reaches 0. The voltage is
Of the magnet is revered, v and i are negative hence vi is positive but current is negative hence vi is
Positive. Hence, energy is being absorbed. Negative. Hence power is returned to the source.

Hence, over the entire cycle, net power absorbed or lost is zero.

AC voltage applied to a capacitor (PYQ 2015, 2017) (Removed for 2023-24)

Consider a capacitor of capacitance C connect to an ac voltage v= v˳ Sinωt.
When a capacitor is connected to an ac source, it limits or regulates the +

The current but does not completely limit the flow of charged. The capacitor + tttt

Is repeatedly charged and discharged as the current reverses direction every - -

- - -

Half cycle. Let q be the charge on a capacitor at a time t. the instantaneous -

Voltage v across the capacitor will be-

Using Kirchhoff’s law

Capacitive reactance (XR) (PYQ 2015)
( PYQ 2020,17,16 )
Comparing i˳= v˳/R for a purely resistive circuit, we find that 1/ωC plays the role of resistance. It limits the magnitude
of current in a purely capacitive circuit just like resistance limits the value of current in a purely resistive circuit
- SI unit- Ohm (Ω) C

Phasor
Comparing the expression for voltage and current for a purely capacitive circuit we see that current leads voltage by
π/2 or by ¼ th of a period

Io Vo

Power consumed
The instantaneous value of power supplied to a capacitor is-

The average power over a complete cycle-

Thus, the average power supplied to a capacitor in complete cycle is zero.

 Charging and discharging of a capacitor

0-1 the current flows starting from its maximum 1-2 the current I reverses direction so the charge is
value. Plate A is charged +vely and B is charged depleted and capacitor is discharged. The voltage
-vely. The charge on plate becomes maxm and is reduced but remains +ve and I is -ve therefore
Current becomes 0. Let charge on capacitor at p=vi is negative i.e. energy is returned to the
Time t be q, then, voltage v = q/C. Since P=vi is source.
+ve, energy is absorbed from the source.

2-3 as current continues to flow from A to B, the 3-4 the current again reverses its direction. The
capacitor is charged to reverse polarity. Both charge is again depleted and the voltage v is reduced
current and voltage are -ve so P=vi is +ve. Hence, till it becomes 0 and capacitor is discharged. P=vi is
energy is absorbed from the source -ve hence, energy is returned to the source

important PYQs
t.ie?
. Ques: A device X is connected to an ac source V=V˳Sinωt. The variation and voltage, current and power in one cycle
is shown in the following graph
a. identify X
b. which of the curves A, B, C represent the voltage,
current, and the power consumed in the circuit? Justify
c. how does its impedance vary with frequency of ac source?
Show graphically
d. obtain an expression for the current in the circuit and its phase
relation with ac voltage (PYQ 2017) [5M] (Removed for 2023-24)

Ans: b) From the informa@on in the ques@on we can conclude c) Since it is a purely capaci@ve circuit, the impedance will be
that- I
equal to the capaci@ve reactance hence-
B- V | C- I | A- power. This is because the current will
have a phase difference of -11/2 With the voltage and the
power will have twice the frequency of the voltage/
Z
current. =
C

a) from the diagram we can see that the current leads the
W
voltage by a difference of 1172 . Therefore the device is a
capacitor
d) already done above in notes. Refer to capacitor
in an ac circuit
AC voltage applied to series LCR circuit (PYQ 2020, 2018, 2016, 2015,2014, 2013, 2012, 2010)
Consider a resistance R, capacitor C and inductor L, connected to
an ac source v= v˳Sinωt. Let charge on C be q and current in the
circuit be i= i˳Sinωt then using Kirchhoff’s loop law-

Phasor solution
To calculate the current i in the circuit let us take help of the phasors. Since all 3 components L, C, R are in series the
current through all of them will be same. In the phasor diagram let this current be represented by I˳. let voltage
across R, C and L be VR, VC, VL respectively and net voltage be V˳. We know that for a resistor current is in phase with
voltage, for a capacitor current leads by π/2 and for an inductor, current lags by π/2. This can be shown as-
K

#
Vr

÷
Dividing the voltages by I˳ we can draw the same diagram as-

Xc

(since, VR/I˳ = R, VC/I˳ = XC, VL/I˳ = XL)

Now, since VL and VC are in the same line their net result can be written as- |VL – VC| and then the net voltage V˳ can
be written as-

v:
' '

:
(Where Is phase diff between voltage and current)
Impedance (Z)
We define a quantity called impedance in an ac circuit which is analogous to resistance in a dc circuit| SI unit- Ohm

R
l l l
W
Impedance diagram C

Impedance diagram is a right-angled triangle with Z as its hypotenuse.

(where ɸ is the phase difference b/w current i and

Voltage v in the circuit)
From the diagram, we can see-
Z

Note: 1. Equation (1) gives the amplitude of the current and equation (2) gives its phase angle.
2. If XC > XL, ɸ is +ve, the circuit is predominantly capacitive and the current leads the voltage.
3. If XL > X C, ɸ is -ve, the circuit predominantly inductive and the current lags behind the voltage.

Disadvantages of using Phasors-

1. The phasor diagram gives nothing about the initial condition
2. The solution obtained is called the steady state solution and it is not a general solution
3. We have a transient solution which exists for v= 0. The general solution is the sum of the transient solution
and the steady state solution. After sufficiently long time, the effects of the transient solution dies out and
only the steady state solution defines the circuit.

Analytical solution (Removed for 2023-24 )

Using Kirchhoff’s law we can write-

This is like the equation for a forced, damped oscillator. So let us assume-

Subs@tu@ng these in 3

We know-

From impedance diagram

Comparing both sides we get-

Therefore, current in the circuit-

 Where-

Choke coil (PYQ 2014) (Removed for 2023-24)

A choke coil (inductor) is a device which is kept in series with a fluorescent tube light so that it provides the required
potential across the coil without consuming any energy.
50 V 100W ,
p- 0 =

Mme

u
Choke coil

220 V

Important PYQs t.EE?.3

¥ Ques: A resistance R and a capacitor C are connected in series to a source v= v˳Sinωt. Find:
.

a. The peak value of the voltage across the i. resistance and the ii. Capacitor
b. The phase difference between the applied voltage and current. Which one of them is ahead? (PYQ 2020)
[3M] (Removed for 2023-24)
Ans: We know-
a)

Also, current in the circuit-

b) Since there is no induc@ve element,

current will lead the voltage

Ques: a. Draw graphs showing variation of inductive reactance and capacitive reactance with the frequency of the
applied ac source
b. Draw the phasor diagram for a series RC circuit connected to an ac source
c. An alternating voltage of 220V is applied across a device X, a current of 0.25 A flows, which lags behind the
voltage by a phase difference of π/2. If the same voltage is applied across another device Y, same current flows but
now it is in phase with the applied voltage
i. name devices X and Y
ii. Calculate the current in the circuit when the same voltage is applied across series combination of X and Y (PYQ
2018) [5M]

Ans: a) C
c) i) X- inductor ; Y- Resistor

ii) ATQ-

Illy
.

Therefore-

Io

b)
V
R So, current in the circuit-

V
C
Ques: An inductor L of inductive reactance XL is connected in series with a bulb B and an ac source. How would the
brightness of the bulb change when i. number of turns in the inductor are reduced ii. An iron rod is inserted in the
inductor iii. A capacitor of capacitive reactance Xc = XL is inserted in series. Justify (PYQ 2015) [3M]
(Removed for 2023-24)
Ans: i) As number of turns are reduced, the inductance and iii) as a capacitor of same reactance is introduced,
hence the induc@ve reactance decreases, therefore the the inductance becomes minimum and hence
impedance decreases and hence current in the circuit current increases and bulb glows more brightly
increases. So, brightness of bulb increases
ii) as an iron rod is inserted, the inductance and hence
the reactance increases. Therefore current decreases so Circuit will be in resonance and amplitude of current
bulb glows less brightly will be maximum

Ques: A capacitor C, a variable resistor R and a bulb B are connected in series to the ac mains in the circuit as shown.
The bulb glows with some brightness. How will the glow of the bulb change if i. a dielectric is introduced between
the plates of the capacitor, keeping the resistance R to be the same, ii. the resistance R is increased keeping the
capacitance same? (PYQ 2014) [2M] (Removed for 2023-24)

Ans: i) the dielectric increases the capacitance ii) as resistance is increased the
and hence reduces the reactance. So, the impedance increases and
impedance decreases and hence the bulb current decreases so, bulb glows
glows more brightly less brightly

Ques: An electric lamp having coil of negligible inductance connected in series with a capacitor and an AC source is
glowing with certain brightness. How does the brightness of the lamp change on reducing the i. capacitance and ii.
The frequency. Justify (PYQ 2010) [2M]

Ans: We know that- So on reducing he capacitance and the frequency, the capaci@ve reactance increases.
This increases the impedance and hence reduces the current in the circuit.
Therefore, the bulb glows less brightly.

Resonance (PYQ 2016, 2013, 2012, 2010)

The phenomenon of resonance is a characteristic of systems which have a tendency to oscillate at a particular
frequency. This frequency is called the system’s natural frequency. If such a system is driven by an external energy
source at a frequency almost equal to the system’s natural frequency, then the amplitude of oscillation becomes
very large.
Consider an RLC circuit with amplitude of voltage= v˳ and frequency ω. The current in the circuit can be written as-

So, if ω is varied, then at a particular frequency (ω˳), XC = XL , impedance will be minimum-

This frequency is called the resonant frequency

Genius) R l l l
W
At resonant frequency, the current amplitude is maximum- C
Uses of resonance in LCR circuit

Tuning of radio set or TV- to hear the signal from particular station, we need to tune the radio for which we vary the
capacitance of a capacitor such that the resonant frequency of the circuit becomes almost equal to the frequency of
the radio signal received. When this happens, the amplitude of the current with the frequency of the signal becomes
maximum.

In which circuit does resonance take place?

Resonance is only exhibited by a circuit only if both L and C are present in the circuit. Only then do the voltages
across L and C cancel each other as they are out of phase and current amplitude is maximum i.e. the total source
voltage appears across R. This means we cannot have resonance in a RL and RC circuit.

Sharpness of resonance (Removed for 2023-24)

The amplitude of current in the series LCR circuit is given by-

We know that it is maximum for ω=ω˳= and the maximum value is-

For values other than ω˳, the amplitude of current is less than the maxm value. Consider a value for ω at which the
amplitude becomes 1/√2 times the maxm value. At this value, the power dissipated becomes half (P∝ I2)
From the graph above, we see that there are two such values for ω. Let them be ω1 and ω2 –

Bandwidth of the circuit

The difference ω1 - ω2 = 2Δω is called the bandwidth of the circuit.

The quantity ω˳/2Δω is called the sharpness. The smaller the value of Δω, the sharper or narrower is the resonance.
We know that the relation b/w I˳ for ω1 and I˳ for ω˳ is as follows-

l l l I

1) ( I
Therefore, sharpness of resonance is given by-

Quality factor (Q) (PYQ 2013) (Removed for 2023-24)

The ratio ω˳L/R is called the quality factor of the circuit

We see that-

So, larger the value of Q, the smaller the value of 2Δω or the bandwidth of the circuit and sharper is the resonance.

Using ω˳2 = 1/LC we get-

Selectivity of the circuit

If the resonance is less sharp, not only is the maxm current less, the circuit is close to resonance for a larger range
(Δω) of frequencies and tuning of the circuit is not good. So, less sharp is the resonance, less is the selectivity of the
circuit or vice versa.
Also, if Q is large i.e. R is low or L is large, selectivity is also large.

Important PYQs
¥÷i?E3
Ques: In a series LCR circuit connected to an ac source of variable frequency and voltage V= Vm Sinωt, draw a plot
showing the variation of current I with angular frequency ω for two different resistances R1 and R2 (R1>R2). Write the
condition under which resonance takes place. For which out of the two curves, a sharper value of resonance is
produced? Define Q factor of the circuit and give its significance (PYQ 2013) [5M] (Removed for 2023-24)

Ans: a) I
C) Greater is the value of Q, sharper is the
resonance, therefore, resonance is sharper for R

Air
- z

(b and d already shown in notes)

# w

Ques: the figure shows a series LCR circuit with L= 5.0 H, C= 80 µF, R= 40 Ω connected to a variable frequency 240 V
source. Calculate-
a. The angular frequency of the source which drives the circuit
At resonance
b. The current at resonating frequency
c. The rms potential drop across the capacitor at resonance
(PYQ 2012) [3M]

Ans: a)

b)
 c)

Ques: Define quality factor and write its SI unit (PYQ 2016) [1M] (Removed for 2023-24)

¥÷7s
Ans: It is defined as the ratio ω˳L/R. it is dimensionless and unitless quantity

Boards)
Power in an AC circuit: Power factor (PYQ 2017, 2010) (not in CBSE
syllabus for
2020

Consider a series RLC circuit with a voltage source v=v˳Sinωt. Let current in the circuit be i=i˳Sin(ωt+ɸ). We know-

Therefore, the instantaneous power supplied by the source is-

Average power-
The average of the time dependent term in one complete cycle will be 0 hence the average power-

Where Cosɸ is the power factor of the circuit

case(i): Resistive circuit- If the circuit contains only pure R, it is called resistive. For such a circuit-

therefore, there is maximum power dissipation.

Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit- If the circuit contains only a capacitor or an inductor, the phase
difference is π/2. Therefore, cosɸ=0 i.e. no power is dissipated even though a current flows. This is called Wattless
current.

Case(iii)- LCR series circuit- In series LCR circuit power is given by –

So ɸ may be non 0 is RLC, RL or RC circuits. Even here, power is dissipated only across R.

Case (iv): Power dissipated at resonance- maximum power is dissipated (through R) at resonance

Important PYQs

Ques: In a series LR circuit XL = R and power factor of the circuit is P1. When a capacitor with capacitance C such that
XL = XC is put in series, the power factor becomes P2. Calculate the ratio P1/P2 (PYQ 2017) [1M]

Ans:
LC oscillations (Removed for 2023-24)
We know that a capacitor and inductor can store electrical and magnetic
energy respectively. Consider a capacitor C, initially charged(q˳), connected
to an inductor L. As the circuit is completed, current begins to grow in the
circuit and the charge on the capacitor decreases. Let q and i be the charge
on the capacitor and the current in the circuit resp. Using Lenz law and
Kirchhoff’s loop law-

We can write i= -dq/dt (as q decreases, i increases) therefore,

Comparing this equation with that of a simple harmonic motion-

We see that the charge is oscillating and the natural frequency of oscillation is-

Further, we can also deduce that charge varies with time as-

Where q˳ is the amplitude/ maxm value of charge and ɸ is phase constant. For the case given above, q=q˳ @ t=0 ,
ɸ=0 so-

For current-

Note: Since circuit has no dissipative element, total energy remains constant

Visualization of LC oscillations
1. At t=0, the charge on capacitor is q˳ and the current in the circuit is 0. Hence, there is no energy stored in the
inductor and the total energy of the circuit is the electrical energy stored in the capacitor-

2. When the switch is closed, current starts growing in the circuit, the charge on the capacitor and hence the
electrical energy starts decreasing and then some energy gets stored as magnetic energy in the inductor. If
at time t current is I then the magnetic energy-

3. At time t= T/4, current reaches its maximum value i˳, all the energy is stored as magnetic energy and the
capacitor has no charge and no energy.
4. As the current continues to flow, it again starts charging the capacitor. This process continues till the
capacitor is again fully charged at t=T/2 but in the opposite polarity.
5. This whole process repeats itself till the system is reverted to its original state. Thus, the energy oscillates
between the capacitor and inductor
This oscillation can be compared to that of a block connected to a spring-
0

Here ω˳= √k/m where k is the spring constant. Comparing the two equations, we see that L is analogous to mass ‘m’.
L is a measure of resistance to change in current in the circuit.
For an LC circuit-

And for a spring-

So, 1/C is analogous to k. the constant k= F/x tells us the force required to produce unit displacement similarly, 1/C=
v/q tells us the potential difference required to store unit charge

The above discussion is not realistic because-

1. Every inductor has some resistance. The resistance causes damping of charge and current which causes the
oscillations to die away
2. Even if the total resistance is 0, the total energy will not remain constant, it is radiated away in the form of
electromagnetic waves.

Transformer (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017, 2015, 2011)

It is a device used to step up or step-down alternating voltage
Principle- mutual induction
Construction- A transformer consists of two sets of coils insulated from each other. They are wound over a soft iron
core either on top of each other or on separate limbs of the core. One of the coils, known as the primary coil has N1
turns and the other coil, called secondary coil has N2 turns. Usually, primary coil is for input and secondary coil is for
output.

Working- When an alternating current is passed through the primary coil, an alternating magnetic flux is induced in
the coil. Through mutual induction, the alternating emf in the primary coil sets up an alternating emf and hence
alternating current in the secondary coil. We assume that the coils have no resistance and entire flux of the primary
coil is linked with the secondary coil i.e. there is no flux leakage. According to Faraday’s laws, the emf induced in N1
turns of the primary coil-
Similarly, the emf induced in N2 turns of the secondary coil-

Assuming ε1=V1 and ε2=V2 where V1 and V2 are the potential across primary and secondary coil respectively

Dividing both we get-

Now assuming that there is no power loss-

Power at primary = power at secondary

Where I1 and I2 are currents in primary and secondary coils respectively. Therefore,

Assumptions made-
1. The primary resistance the current is small
2. Entire flux of primary coil is linked with the secondary coil i.e. there is no flux leakage
3. The secondary current is small

Types of transformers-
1. Step-up transformer
if the number of turns of secondary coil is more than that of the primary coil i.e. N1<N2, we can see that V2>V1.
Such a transformer is called a step-up transformer

2. Step-down transformer
If number of turns of primary coil is more than that of the secondary coil i.e. N1>N2, we can see that V2<V1.
Such a transformer is called step down transformer

Energy losses in transformers/ factors affecting efficiency of a transformer (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017, 2011)
1. Flux leakage- The complete flux of primary and secondary coil cannot be linked. There are always some
leakages. It can be reduced by winding the coils over one another.
2. Resistance of the windings- The windings have some resistance which causes loss of energy in the form of heat.
They are minimized by using thick wires
3. Eddy currents- The alternating emf induces eddy currents and causes loss of energy as heat
4. Hysteresis- The magnetization of core is continuously reversed by alternating magnetic field which causes loss of
energy due to hysteresis. It can be reduced by using materials of low hysteresis loss.

Use of transformers-
The large-scale transmission of electrical energy is done with the help of transformers. The source voltage is stepped
up to reduce current and hence minimize I2R losses. At the point of consumption, the voltage is stepped down to
about 240 V which reaches our home.

Efficiency of a transformer (η) (PYQ 2018)

It is defined as the ratio of useful output power to the input power
 Important PYQS ¥??EE3
¥ Ques: Laminated iron sheets are used to minimize___________ currents in the core of a transformer (PYQ 2020)
.

[1M] (Removed for 2023-24)

Ans: Eddy currents

Ques: A small town with a demand of 1200 kW of electric power at 220V is situated 20 km away from an electric
plant generating power at 440V. The resistance of the two-wire line carrying power is 0.5 Ω per km. the town gets
power from the line through a 4000-220 V step down transformer at a sub-station in the town. Estimate the line
power loss in the form of heat. (PYQ 2019) [2M]

Ans: Total resistance- Heat loss-

Current in the wires-

Ques: Calculate the current drawn by the primary of a 90% efficient transformer which steps down 220V to 22V, if
the output resistance is 440Ω (PYQ 2018) [2M]

Ans:

Ques: The primary coil of a step-up transformer has 100 turns and transformation ratio is also 100. The input
voltage and power are respectively 220V and 1100W. calculate
a. Number of turns in secondary
b. Current in primary
c. Voltage across secondary
d. Current in secondary
e. Power in secondary (PYQ 2017) [3M]

Ans: Since it is a step up transformer-

a) d)

b)

e)
c)

Ques: Is it possible to use a transformer to bring down high dc voltage? Explain (PYQ 2015) [1M]
 Ans: No, a transformer cannot be used to step down dc voltage because the working principle of a transformer is
mutual induction which requires a time varying magnetic flux and hence a time varying current. Since, dc is not time
varying, it can’t produce a variable flux and hence cannot be stepped down.

ET
Derivations and definitions asked as PYQs
Ques: Define capacitive reactance and write its SI unit (PYQ 2015) [1M]

Ques: show that in an ac circuit containing a pure inductor, the voltage is ahead of current by π/2 in phase (PYQ 2011)
[2M] (Removed for 2023-24)

Ques: A series LCR circuit is connected to an ac source having voltage v= vm Sinωt. Derive the expression for the
instantaneous current I and its phase relationship to the applied voltage
Obtain the condition for resonance to occur. Define power factor and state the conditions where it is i. maximum ii.
Minimum (PYQ 2010) [5M]

Ques: An ac voltage source V= V˳ Sinωt is connected to a series combination of L, C and R. use the phasor diagram to
obtain an expression for the impedance of the circuit and the phase angle between voltage and current. Find
the condition where the current will be in phase with the voltage. What is this circuit condition called? (PYQ
2016) [4M]

Ques: Why is a choke coil needed in the use of fluorescent tubes with ac mains (PYQ 2014) [1M] (Removed for 2023-24)

Ques: Define Q factor of a circuit and give its significance (PYQ 2013) [1M] (Removed for 2023-24)
Ques: With the help of a labelled diagram, explain the working of a step-up transformer. Give reason to explain the
following-
1. The core of a transformer is laminated
2. Thick copper windings are used in windings (PYQ 2020) [3M]

Ques: Draw the diagram of the device used to decrease high ac voltage into a low ac voltage and state its working
principle. Write 4 sources of energy loss of this device (PYQ 2019) [3M]

Ques: 1. state working principle of transformers

2. define efficiency of a transformer
3. state two factors which affect the efficiency of a transformer (PYQ 2018) [3M]

Ques: write the function of a transformer. State its working principle with the help of a labelled diagram. Mention
various energy losses in the device (PYQ 2017) [3M]

Ques: What device is used to bring high ac voltage down to low voltage ac. What is the principle of working? (PYQ
2015) [1M]

- Ques: Mention the various energy losses of a transformer (PYQ 2011) [2M]
 (Removed for
2023-24)

(Removed for
(Removed for 2023-24)
2023-24)

(Removed for
2023-24)

(Removed for
2023-24)

(Qualitative Study)
(Qualitative Study)

APNI KAKSHA 1
 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

Introduction
• The earth behaves as a magnet with the magnetic field pointing approximately from the
geographic south to the north.
• When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it points in the north-south direction. The tip which
points to the geographic north is called the north pole and the tip which points to the
geographic south is called the south pole of the magnet.
• Like poles of the magnet repel and unlike poles attract.
• We cannot isolate the north, or south pole of a magnet. If a bar magnet is broken into two
halves, we get two similar bar magnets with somewhat weaker properties. Unlike electric
charges, isolated magnetic north and south poles known as magnetic monopoles do not exist.
• It is possible to make magnets out of iron and its alloys.
Bar magnet
A bar magnet is rectangular piece of magnet which has two poles. One pole is designated as the
north pole and the other as the south pole. When suspended freely, these poles point towards
the magnetic north and south poles, respectively.

Magnetic field lines

• The magnetic field lines of a magnet (or a solenoid) form continuous closed loops. This is
unlike the electric dipole where these field lines begin from a positive charge and end on the
negative charge or escape to infinity.
• The tangent to the field line at a given point represents the direction of the net magnetic field
B at that point.
• The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger is the magnitude of
the magnetic field B. In Fig., B is larger around region (ii) than in region(i).
• The magnetic field lines do not intersect, for if they did, the direction of the magnetic field
would not be unique at the point of intersection.

APNI KAKSHA 2
Note:
1. For a bar magnet (or a current carrying solenoid) the direction of magnetic field is from the
north pole to the south pole outside the magnetic and from the south pole to the north pole
inside the magnet.
2. Unlike in electrostatics, the magnetic field lines do not indicate the direction of force on a
moving charge.
Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid (Removed for 2023-24 , Remember only Formula)
All magnetic phenomena can be explained in terms of circulating currents. The resemblance
of magnetic field lines for a bar magnet and a solenoid suggest that a bar magnet may be
thought of as a large number of circulating currents in analogy with a solenoid.
consider a solenoid of length 2𝑙 and radius a, carrying current I, having no of turns per unit
length as 𝑛. Let us calculate the field at a point P on its axis at a distance 𝑟 from its center. In
fig.(a), consider a differential element of thickness 𝑑𝑥 at a distance 𝑥 from the center. It
consists of 𝑛𝑑𝑥 turns. We know the expression for field due a to a circular element at a point
on its axis-
μ0 ndxIa2
dB =
2[(r − x)2 + a2 ]3/2
μ0 nIa2 l dx
⇒ B = ∫ dB = ∫ 2 2 3/2
2 −l [ (r − x) + a ]

For r ≫ a, r ≫ l;
[(r − x)2 + a2 ]3/2 ≈ r 3
μ0 nIa2 l μ0 nIa2
⇒B= ∫ dx = × 2𝑙 … (1)
2r 3 −l 2r 3
∵ Magnetic moment = m = n(2𝑙)I(πa2 )
μ0 2m
∴ B= ⋅
4π r 3
• This is also the magnetic field for a bar magnet a point far on its axis (obtained
experimentally). Thus, a bar magnet and a solenoid produce similar magnetic fields. The
magnetic moment of a bar magnet is thus equal to that of an equivalent solenoid which
produces the same magnetic field.
Dipole in a uniform magnetic field (Removed for 2023-24)
In fig.(b), consider a magnetic needle of magnetic moment 𝑚 and moment of inertia I kept in a
magnetic field B making an angle θ with the field. The needle experiences a torque which is given

by- ⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗B ⇒ τ = mBsinθ

τ⃗ = m ( Remember this Formula )

APNI KAKSHA 3
Here τ is restoring torque and θ is the angle between m and B.
d2 θ
Therefore, in equilibrium, I 2 = −mBsinθ
dt
For small angular displacements (θ → 0), sin θ → θ therefore,
d2 θ mB d2 θ mB
2
= − θ ⇒ 2
+ ( )θ = 0
dt I dt I
this represents a simple harmonic motion with angular frequency (ω),

mB
where, ω = √
I

I
Time period, T = 2π√
mB

Magnetic potential energy (Removed for 2023-24)

Potential energy of dipole in magnetic field can be calculated similar to that in electrostatic field.
the potential energy Um is given by-

Um = ∫ τ(θ)dθ = ∫ mBsin θdθ = −mBcos θ

⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ ⃗B
Um = −m
Note: The zero of potential energy is taken when the dipole is perpendicular to the field i.e. θ =
90∘. Potential energy is minimum at θ = 0∘ (stable equilibrium) and it is maximum at θ =
180∘ (unstable equilibrium).

Magnetic pole strength/Magnetic charge (𝐪𝐦 )

• It is called magnetic charge and is analogous to electric charge
• It’s SI unit is A-m (ampere-meter).
• It depends on area of cross-section and intensity of magnetization.
• North pole has a magnetic charge +qm and south pole has −qm .
• Magnetic moment of a bar magnet of length 2l can be written as –
m = qm (2𝑙)

• Consider a solenoid of length 𝑙, current I and 𝑛 is no of turns per unit length. Its magnetic
moment can be written as- m = n𝑙IA and also m = qm 𝑙
⇒ qm 𝑙 = n𝑙IA
⇒ qm = nIA
μ qm
The magnetic field strength due to qm at a distance r can be written as B = 4π0 ⋅ r2

APNI KAKSHA 4
Electrostatic Analog (Removed for 2023-24, Do only formula)
The equation for magnetic field due to bar magnet of moment m can be obtained from the
equation of field due to an electric dipole of moment p by making the following replacements
E → B, p → m, 1/4πε0 → μ0 /4π
The field at equatorial position (BE ) of a bar magnet at a distance r(r >> L), where L is the
length of the magnet-

μ0 (−m
⃗⃗⃗ )
⃗BE = ⋅ 3
4π r
The field at axial position (BA ) of a bar magnet at a distance r(r ≫ L), where L is the length of
the magnet-

μ0 (2m
⃗⃗⃗ )
⃗BA = ⋅ 3
4π r
The following table summarises the analogy between electric and magnetic dipoles.

Quantity Electrostatics Magnetism

1/ε0 μ0

Dipole moment ⃗
p ⃗⃗⃗
m

Equatorial field ⃗ /4πε0 r3

−p ⃗⃗⃗ /4πr 3
−μ0 m

Axial field ⃗ )/4πε0 r 3

(2p ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ /4πr3
μ0 (2m)

Torque ⃗
⃗ ×E
p ⃗
⃗⃗⃗ × B
m

Potential Energy −p ⃗
⃗ ⋅E −m ⃗
⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ B

Q. What is the magnitude of the equatorial and axial fields due to a bar magnet of
length 𝟓. 𝟎 𝐜𝐦 at a distance of 𝟓𝟎 𝐜𝐦 from its mid-point? The magnetic moment
of the bar magnet is 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 𝐀 𝐦𝟐. [NCERT Exercise]
μ0 m 10−7 × 0.4
𝐒𝐨𝐥. BE = =
4πr 3 (0.5)3
10−7 × 0.4
= = 3.2 × 10−7 T
0.125
μ (2m)
From Eq. BA = 0 3
4πr
= 6.4 × 10−7 T

APNI KAKSHA 5
Gauss's law of magnetism (Removed for 2023-24)
Gauss' law in magnetism states that the net flux through any closed surface is zero

∮ ⃗B ⋅ ds = 0
This follows from the fact that magnetic field lines always form closed loops so for any given
gaussian surface, the no of field lines entering the surface will be equal to the number of field
lines exiting the surface. Gauss' law for magnetism is a reflection of the fact that magnetic
monopoles do not exist.

Earth's magnetism (Removed for 2023-24)

The earth's magnetic field is thought to arise due to electric currents produced by convection
and rotation of molten metallic fluids (nickel and iron) in the outer core of the earth. This is
known as the dynamo effect. The magnetic field lines of the earth resemble that of a hypothetical
magnetic dipole located at the center of the earth. The axis of this dipole is at angle of 11.3∘ to
the axis of rotation of the earth. The pole near the geographical north pole is called the north
magnetic pole and that near the geographical south pole is called the south magnetic pole
But the field lines enter the earth from the north magnetic pole and exit from the south magnetic
pole. This convention came around because magnetic north was the direction in which the north
pole of a magnet pointed. Thus, in reality the north magnetic pole of earth behaves like the south
pole of a bar magnet and vice-versa.
Geographic meridian
Vertical plane containing the longitude circle and the axis of
rotation of the earth is called the geographic meridian.
Magnetic meridian
Vertical plane approximating a great circle passes through north
and south magnetic poles is called magnetic meridian. At a given place it is a vertical plane
containing a freely suspended magnet.
Declination(𝛉) - Angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian is
called declination. The declination is greater at higher latitudes and smaller
near the equator.
Note-
• Earth's magnetic field is vertically upwards at magnetic south pole.
• Earth's magnetic field is vertically downwards at magnetic north pole.
• Earth's magnetic field is parallel to surface at equator.
• Earth's magnetic field is inclined above the horizontal in southern hemisphere.
• Earth's magnetic field is inclined below the horizontal in northern hemisphere.

APNI KAKSHA 6
Angle of dip/Inclination(𝛅) (Removed for 2023-24)
It is the angle that a freely suspended magnet makes with the horizontal. The earth's magnetic
field BE at a point can be resolved into a horizontal component HE and a vertical component ZE .
The angle that BE makes with HE is the angle of dip δ.

HE = BE cosδ
ZE = BE sinδ
Z
tan δ = E
HE

BE = √HE2 + ZE2

• Dip in the northern hemisphere is positive & southern hemisphere is negative

• Dip needle- it is a compass pivoted to move in a vertical circle containing the magnetic field
of the earth.
• The range of dip is from −90∘ (at the south magnetic pole) to +90∘ (at the north magnetic
pole). It is 0∘ at magnetic equator.
• Compass needle will point downward in the northern hemisphere (positive dip) and will
point upward in the southern hemisphere (negative dip).

Q. In the magnetic meridian of a certain place, the horizontal component of the

earth's magnetic field is 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝐆 and the dip angle is 𝟔𝟎∘. What is the magnetic
field of the earth at this location? (Removed for 2023-24) [NCERT Exercise]
Sol. Using formula, HE = BE cos δ, we have
1
0.26 = BE × cos 60∘ ⇒ 0.26 = BE × ⇒ BE = 0.52G
2

Time period of oscillation in earth's magnetic field (Removed for 2023-24)

For a compass in the horizontal plane, time period is given by

I
T = 2π√
mHE

Neutral points
Neutral points are those points where field
due to a magnet cancels out the horizontal
component of the earth's magnetic field at
that point.

APNI KAKSHA 7
In Case (1); The field due to the magnet will be opposite to HE along the axial line, and there
will be two neutral points, both of which will be on the magnet's axial line or axis.
In Case (2); Field due to the magnet will be opposite to HE in the equatorial plane, and there
will be infinite neutral points in the equatorial plane.

Magnetisation and Magnetic intensity

⃗⃗⃗ ) - It is a characteristic of material. The magnetic moment of various
Magnetisation (𝐌
electrons in a bulk material can add up vectorially and give a non-zero
net magnetic moment. The magnetization of a sample is defined as the
net magnetic moment per unit volume.

⃗m
⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ =
M
V
• It is a vector quantity.
• It's SI unit is A/m and dimensional formula is [L−1 A].
⃗⃗ )
Magnetic intensity (𝐇
The capability of a magnetic field to magnetize a material medium is called its magnetic intensity
• It's SI unit is A/m.

B
H=
μ

Relation between 𝐇, 𝐁 and 𝐌

Let B0 be magnitude field in the interior of a solenoid. If the interior of the solenoid is filled with
a material with non-zero magnetization, the field inside the solenoid will be greater than B0 . the
net field B may be expressed as-
B = B0 + Bm
Where Bm is the field contributed by the material core. It is found that this additional field is
directly proportional to M-

Bm = μ0 M
B
Also; H = −m
μ0

or B = μ0 (H + m)

APNI KAKSHA 8
Here we see that the net magnetic field inside the solenoid is due to two factors. One, due to
external factors like current in the solenoid which is represented by H, and two, due to nature of
magnetic material represented by M. mathematically, we can write-

M = χm H
Where χm is a dimensionless quantity called magnetic susceptibility. So, we can write-
B = μ0 (1 + χm )H = μ0 μr H ⇒ B = μH

Where μ = μ0 μr = μ0 ( 1 + χm )
Magnetic susceptibility (χm ) –
It is a dimensionless quantity and measure of how a magnetic material responds to an external
field.
Relative magnetic permeability (𝛍𝐫 )-
It is a dimensionless quantity given by-
μr = 1 + χm
It is the analog of dielectric constant in electrostatics. The magnetic permeability of a substance
thus can be written as-

μ = μ0 μr = μ0 ( 1 + χm )

Calculation of Magnetic field intensity

(1) Solenoid - Consider a solenoid with number of turns per unit length n and carrying
current I. We know,
B = μ0 nI and B = μ0 H
equating both; μ0 H = μ0 nI
⇒ H = nI
(2) Toroid - Consider a toroid of total turns N and current I. we know,
μ0 NI
B= and B = μ0 H
2πR
μ NI
equating both; μ0 H = 0
2πR
NI
⇒ H=
2πR
Magnetizing current (𝐈𝐌 )
It is the additional amount of current that needs to be passed through the windings of the
solenoid in absence of the core which would give the value of B as in the presence of the core.

B = μr μo nI = μ0 n(I + IM )

APNI KAKSHA 9
 Q. A solenoid has a core of a material with relative permeability 400. The windings
of the solenoid are insulated from the core and carry a current of 𝟐 𝐀. If the
number of turns is 1000 per metre, calculate (a) 𝐇, (b) 𝐁, (c) 𝐌 and (d) the
magnetising current 𝐈𝐦 . [NCERT Exercise]
Sol. (a) The field H is dependent of the material of the core, and is
H = nI = 1000 × 2.0 = 2 × 103 A/m.
(b) The magnetic field B is given by
B = μr μo H = 400 × 4π × 10−7 (N/A2 ) × 2 × 103 (A/m) = 1.0 T
(c) Magnetisation is given by
M = (B − μ0 H)/μ0 = (μr μ0 H − μ0 H)/μ0 = (μr − 1)H = 399 × H ≅ 8 × 105 A/m
(d) B = μ0 n(I + IM ). Using I = 2 A, B = 1 T.
1 = 4π × 10−7 × 1000 × (2 + IM ), we get IM = 794 A.

Magnetic properties of Material

(1) Diamagnetism
• The substances which are weakly repelled by magnetic field are called diamagnetic
substances.
• They move from a region of stronger field to a weaker field.
• The resultant magnetic moment of a diamagnetic atom is zero.
E.g. Bismuth, Copper, Lead, Silicon, Nitrogen (STP), Water, NaCl
Explanation of diamagnetism
when an external field is applied, those electrons having orbital magnetic moment in the same
direction slow down and those in the opposite direction speed up. This happens due to induced
current in accordance with lenz's law. Thus, the substance develops a net magnetic moment in
direction opposite to that of the applied field and hence repulsion.
Susceptibility
For diamagnetic materials, it is small and negative. It is independent of temperature.
Superconductors
They are the most exotic diamagnetic materials. They are metals which when cooled to very low
temperatures exhibit perfect conductivity and perfect diamagnetism. Here, the magnetic field
lines are completely expelled out of the substance. For a superconductor -
χ = −1, μR = 0

The phenomenon of diamagnetism in super conductors is called Meissner effect. They are used
to make magnetically levitated superfast trains.

APNI KAKSHA 10
(2) Paramagnetism
• They are substances which weakly magnetized when kept in an external field. They are
weakly attracted towards the field.
• They move from a region of weak field to strong field.
E.g. Aluminum, Sodium, Calcium, Oxygen (STP), Copper Chloride
Explanation of paramagnetism
The individual atoms/ions/molecules of a paramagnetic material have a permanent magnetic
dipole moment. In the absence of an external field, due to random thermal motion of the
constituent atoms, the net magnetic moment of a paramagnetic material is zero. But, in the
presence of an external field Bo and at low temperatures, the magnetic moments of constituent
atoms align in the direction of field and we get a net magnetic moment in the direction of external
field. The field lines get concentrated inside the material and the field inside the material gets
enhanced.
Susceptibility
For paramagnetic materials, it is small and positive.
Curie's Law
The magnetisation of a paramagnetic substance is inversely proportional to absolute
temperature.
B0 μ
M=C or χ = C 0 , where C is curie′s constant
T T
Note:
As the field is increased or the temperature is lowered, the magnetization increases until it
reaches its saturation Ms at which point the dipoles are perfectly aligned with the field. Beyond
this point, curie's law is no longer valid.
(3) Ferromagnetism
• They are materials which get strongly magnetized when placed in an external magnetic field.
• They move from region of weak field to region of strong field i.e. they are strongly attracted .
Explanation of ferromagnetism
The constituent atoms/ions/molecules of ferromagnetic substances possess a permanent dipole
moment and they align themselves in a common direction over a macroscopic volume called
domain (a domain contains about 1011 atoms). In absence of external field, the orientation of the
domains is random and hence there is no net magnetic moment. In the presence of external field,
the domains orient themselves in its direction.
Hence, the field inside the ferromagnet
becomes stronger and the field lines inside
become extremely dense.

APNI KAKSHA 11
Hard ferromagnets
When external field is removed, in some ferromagnetic substances, the magnetization persists.
E.g. Alnico(an alloy of iron, aluminum, nickel, cobalt and copper) and lodestone. They are used
to make permanent magnets like compass needle.
Soft ferromagnets
when external field is removed, the magnetization is also removed. E.g. Soft Iron
Susceptibility- for ferromagnetic substances, it is very large and positive.
Curie-Weiss Law
At temperatures above Curie Temperature ( Tc ), ferromagnets become paramagnetic. The
domain structures disintegrate with increase in temperature. The susceptibility above the cur ie
temperature is described as-
c
χ= (This C is NOT curie′s constant)
T − Tc
here ε is a small positive number.

Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

−1 ≤ χ < 0 0<χ<ε χ≫1

0 ≤ μr < 1 1 < μr < 1 + ε μr ≫ 1

μ < μ0 μ > μ0 μ ≫ μ0

Hysteresis curve (Removed for 2023-24)

Hysteresis means 'lagging behind'. Let us study the relation between
B and H . Consider a unmagnetized ferromagnetic substance kept
inside a solenoid.
• As the current in the solenoid is increased, the value of B also rises
and becomes saturated as shown in the curve oa. At this point all
the domains are aligned with external field.
• Now, when H (or I) is decreased to zero, we see that B does not
come down to 0, represented with curve ab. This value of B at H = 0 is called retentivity or
remanence.
• Next, the current in solenoid is increased in the opposite direction till the value of B becomes
0, represented by curve bc. The value of H when B = 0 is called coercivity.
• Therefore, we conclude that for a given value of H, B is not unique but depends on the
previous history of the sample. This phenomenon is called hysteresis.
• The area under B-H curve of hysteresis cycle gives loss of energy per unit volume during a
cycle of magnetization and demagnetization.

APNI KAKSHA 12
Permanent Magnets (Removed for 2023-24)
Substances which at room temperature retain their ferromagnetic property for a long period of
time are called permanent magnets.
Preparation
1. Hammering an iron rod kept in the north-south direction.
2. Stroking a steel rod with one end of a bar magnet in the same sense repeatedly.
3. Placing a ferromagnet in the center of a solenoid and pass a current. The magnetic field of the
solenoid magnetizes the rod.
Properties of materials used as permanent magnets
1. High retentivity- so that magnet is strong.
2. High coercivity- so magnetization is not removed by stray fields, temperature fluctuations or
minor mechanical damage.
3. High permeability
e.g.- steel, alnico, cobalt, steel and ticonal (alnico + Titanium)

Electromagnets (Removed for 2023-24)

They are ferromagnetic materials which are made into magnets by passing a current through it
using a coil.
Properties of materials used to make electromagnets
1. High permeability
2. Low retentivity e.g.- soft iron
3. The area under hysteresis curve should be small so that loss of energy in cycle of
magnetization and demagnetization is less e.g. in the case of transformer cores and telephone
diaphragm.
4. high resistivity- to lower eddy current losses.
Uses- electric bells, loudspeakers, telephone diaphragm, cranes.

APNI KAKSHA 13
NCERT Practice Questions
Q.1 The primary origin(s) of magnetism lies in
(a) atomic currents.
(b) Pauli exclusion principle.
(c) polar nature of molecules.
(d) intrinsic spin of electron.
Sol. (A, D)
Orbital motion of an electron is analogous to the current carrying loop and also a spin
magnetic moment associated with it due to electron itself spinning on its own axis. hence
atomic currents and intrinsic spins of electrons are responsible for origin of Magnetism.
Q.2 Let the magnetic field on earth be modelled by that of a point magnetic dipole at
the centre of earth. The angle of dip at a point on the geographical equator
(a) is always zero. (Removed for 2023-24)
(b) can be zero at specific points.
(c) can be positive or negative.
(d) is bounded.
Sol. (B, C, D)
Points where magnetic equator crosses geographical equator, angle of dip will be zero.
The range of dip is from −90∘ (at the south magnetic pale) to +90∘ (at the north magnetic
pole). It is 0∘ at magnetic equator. It's value is bounded between −90∘ to 90∘.
Q.3 A permanent magnet in the shape of a thin cylinder of length 10 cm has
𝐌 = 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐀/𝐦. Calculate the magnetisation current I M.
m Im
Sol. M= = ⇒ Im = M × 𝑙 = 106 × 0.1 = 105 A
V 𝑙

Q.4 A paramagnetic sample shows a net magnetisation of 𝟖𝐀𝐦−𝟏 when placed in an

external magnetic field of 𝟎. 𝟔 𝐓 at a temperature of 𝟒 𝐊. When the same sample is
placed in an external magnetic field of 𝟎. 𝟐 𝐓 at a temperature of 𝟏𝟔 𝐊 , the
magnetisation will be
𝟑𝟐 𝟐
(A) 𝐀𝐦−𝟏 (B) 𝐀𝐦−𝟏 (C) 𝟔 𝐀𝐦−𝟏 (D) 𝟐. 𝟒 𝐀𝐦−𝟏 .
𝟑 𝟑

Sol. (B)
Using Curie's law of Magnetisation,
B
M∝
T
M1 B1 T2 8 0.6 × 16 2
⇒ = ⇒ = ⇒ M2 = A/m
M2 B2 T1 M2 0.2 × 4 3

APNI KAKSHA 14
Q.5 Consider the plane 𝐒 formed by the dipole axis and the axis of earth. Let 𝐏 be point
on the magnetic equator and in 𝐒 . Let 𝐐 be the point of intersection of the
geographical and magnetic equators. Obtain the declination and dip angles at 𝐏
and 𝐐. (Removed for 2023-24)

Sol. Since points P and Q lie on magnetic equator, hence angle of dip for both will be zero.
∵ p lies on a plane which contains both dipole axis and axis
of earth, hence angle between the magnetic meridian and
geographic meridian will be zero. At point P, declination is
zero. at point Q , declination is 11.3∘ because both
magnetic meridian & geographic meridian inclined 11.3∘
to each other.
Q.6 A vector needs three quantities for its specification. Name the three independent
quantities conventionally used to specify the earth's magnetic field.
Sol. To describe the magnetic field of the earth at a point on its surface, we need to specify
three quantities, the declination D, the angle of dip or the inclination I and the horizontal
component of the earth's field HE . These are known as the element of the earth's magnetic
field. (Removed for 2023-24)
Q.7 A bar magnet of magnetic moment 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐉 𝐓 −𝟏 lies aligned with the direction of a
uniform magnetic field of 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 𝐓.
(a) What is the amount of work required by an external torque to turn the magnet
so as to align its magnetic moment: (Removed for 2023-24)
(i) normal to the field direction, (ii) opposite to the field direction?
(b) What is the torque on the magnet in cases (i) and (ii)?
Sol. ⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ ⃗B = −mBcosθ
Magnetic potential energy = −m
(a) work done by an external torque = −mB(cosθ2 − cosθ1 ).
(i) work done = −mBcos 90∘ + mBcos 0∘ = mB = 1.5 × 0.22 = 0.33 J
(iii) work done = −mBcos 180∘ + mBcos 0∘ = 2mB = 0.66 J
(b) Torque = |m ⃗ | = mBsin θ
⃗⃗⃗ × B
(i) τ = 1.5 × 0.22 × sin 90∘ = 0.33Nm, (ii) t = 1.5 × 0.22 × 0 = 0
Q.8 A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 𝟑𝟎∘ with a uniform external magnetic
field of 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝐓 experiences a torque of magnitude equal to 𝟒. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐉. What is the
magnitude of magnetic moment of the magnet?
Sol. ⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗B| = mBsin θ
Torque experienced by magnet = |m
⇒ 4.5 × 10−2 = m × 0.25 × sin 30∘
1 1
⇒ 4.5 × 10−2 = m × × ⇒ m = 0.36 Am2
4 2
APNI KAKSHA 15
Q.9 A Rowland ring of mean radius 𝟏𝟓 𝐜𝐦 has 3500 turns of wire wound on a
ferromagnetic core of relative permeability 800 . What is the magnetic field 𝐁 in
the core for a magnetising current of 𝟏. 𝟐 𝐀 ? (Removed for 2023-24)
μ0 μr nI
Sol. Magnetic field = 2πR

4π × 10−7 × 800 × 3500 × 1.2

=
2π × 15 × 10−2
= 448 × 10−2 = 4.48 T
Q.10 A closely wound solenoid of 800 turns and area of cross section 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐦𝟐
carries a current of 𝟑. 𝟎 𝐀. Explain the sense in which the solenoid acts like a bar
magnet. What is its associated magnetic moment?
Sol. A current - carrying solenoid produces a magnetic field along it's axis and hence solenoid
acts like a bar magnet.
Magnetic moment = nIA = 800 × 3 × 2.5 × 10−4 = 0.6 J/T
Q.11 A magnetic needle free to rotate in a vertical plane parallel to the magnetic
meridian has its north tip pointing down at 𝟐𝟐∘ with the horizontal. The horizontal
component of the earth's magnetic field at the place is known to be 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝐆 .
Determine the magnitude of the earth's magnetic field at the place.
Sol. Horizontal component of Magnetic field (BH ) = Bcos δ It is given that;
BH = 0.35G, δ = 22∘ (Removed for 2023-24)
⇒ 0.35 = B × cos 22∘
0.35 0.35
⇒ B= ∘
≈ ≈ 0.37G
cos 22 0.93
Q.12 A short bar magnet has a magnetic moment of 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝐉 𝐓 −𝟏. Give the direction and
magnitude of the magnetic field produced by the magnet at a distance of 𝟏𝟎 𝐜𝐦
from the centre of the magnet on (a) the axis, (b) the equatorial lines (normal
bisector) of the magnet.
μ 2m
⃗⃗⃗
Sol. (a) ⃗B (axial ) = 4π0 ⋅ r3
2×0.48
∣ ⃗B( axial ) ∣= 10−7 × (0.1) 3
= 0.96 × 10−4 T = 0.96G

⇒ Magnitude of magnetic field on the axis is 0.96G directed along the direction of
magnetic moment.
μ0 |−m
⃗⃗⃗ |
(b) ∣ ⃗B (equatorial) ∣= ⋅ = 0.48G.
4π r3

⇒ Magnitude of magnetic field on the equatorial lines is 0.48G directed opposite to the
direction of magnetic moment.

APNI KAKSHA 16
Q.13 A certain region of space is to be shielded from magnetic fields. Suggest a method.
Sol. A certain region of space can be shielded from magnetic fields if it is surrounded by a soft
iron rings. In such arrangements, the magnetic lines are drawn out of the region.
Q.14 A magnetic dipole is under the influence of two magnetic fields. The angle between
the field directions is 𝟔𝟎∘, and one of the fields has a magnitude of 𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐓. If
the dipole comes to stable equilibrium at an angle of 𝟏𝟓∘ with this field, what is the
magnitude of the other field?
Sol. since magnetic dipole tends to rotate in external magnetic field, hence at the stable
equilibrium,
Torque due to B1 = Torque to due B2 .
mB1 sin 15∘ = mB2 sin 45∘
B1 sin 15∘ 1.2 × 10−2 × 0.259
⇒ B2 = = = 1.2 × 10−2 × 0.366
sin 45∘ 1
( )
√2
Hence, magnitude of other magnetic field is 4.39 × 10−3 T

APNI KAKSHA 17
 (Removed for
2023-24)

(Removed for 2023-24)

APNI KAKSHA 1
 Moving Charges and Magnetism
Introduction
• Oersted experimentally demonstrated that a current in a straight wire caused deflection in a
nearby magnetic compass needle.
• Moving charges or currents produce a magnetic field in the surrounding space.
• we adopt the following convention: A current or a field (electric or magnetic) emerging out
of the plane of the paper is depicted by a dot (⊙). A current or a field going into the plane of
the paper is depicted by a cross (⊗).
Magnetic field
• Magnetic field is the space around a moving charge or a magnetic material in which its
magnetic influence can be experienced.
• It is a vector quantity.
• It's SI unit is Tesla (= weber /m2 ). [1 gauss = 10−4 Tesla].
• It's dimensional formula is given by [MT −2 A−1 ].
• Principle of superposition: the magnetic field of several sources is the vector addition of
magnetic field of each individual source.
Magnetic force
• Consider a charge q moving with velocity V in a magnetic field B, then magnetic force on
⃗ B = q(V
charge q is given by F ⃗ ×B
⃗)

• It depends on q, V and B. Force on a negative charge is opposite to that on a positive charge.

• The magnetic force is zero if charge is not moving (as then |V| = 0 ) or velocity and magnetic
field are parallel or antiparallel.
• Magnetic force is perpendicular to both velocity and magnetic field. Its direction is given by
the screw rule or right hand rule for vector (or cross) product.
Magnetic force on a current – carrying conductor
Consider a rod of a uniform cross-sectional area A and length ℓ. Let the number density of these
mobile charge carriers in it be n. Then the total number of mobile charge carriers in it is nℓA.
let drift velocity be Vd . then total magnetic force on the rod in presence of external magnetic field
is F = (nℓA)eVd B
⇒ F = (neAVd )ℓB = IℓB (∵ I = ne AVd )

in vector form; F ⃗ ×B
⃗ = I(ℓ ⃗)

where ⃗ℓ is a vector of magnitude ℓ, the length of the rod, and with a direction identical to the
current ℓ.

APNI KAKSHA 2
 Q. A straight wire of mass 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐠 and length 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐦 carries a current of 𝟐 𝐀. It is
suspended in mid-air by a uniform horizontal magnetic field 𝐁. What is the
magnitude of the magnetic field? [NCERT Exercise]
Sol. We can say that there is an upward force F, of magnitude I𝑙B,. For mid-air suspension,
this must be balanced by the force due to gravity:
mg = I𝑙B
mg 0.2 × 9.8
B= = = 0.65T
I𝑙 2 × 1.5

Motion in a magnetic field

(i) Let a charge particle of mass m enters in a magnetic field of magnitude B. First consider the
case of v perpendicular to B. The perpendicular force, qv × B, acts as a centripetal force and
produces a circular motion perpendicular to the magnetic field. The particle will describe a
circle if v and B are perpendicular to each other (Fig.). Let radius of circle is r.
mv 2
Therefore; q∨B=
r
mv
⇒ r=
qB
Time period of revolution,
2πr 2πm
T= =
v qB
Angular Frequency,
2π qB
ω= =
T m
(ii) Now consider velocity makes an angle θ with magnetic field. Here velocity, will have a
component along B and this component remains unaffected due to magnetic field. Motion in
the plane perpendicular to the B is circular because of component of velocity perpendicular
to B, thereby producing a helical motion.
For circular motion;
m(vsinθ)2
q(vsin θ)B =
r
mvsin θ
r=
qB

2πr 2πm
Time period = T = =
vsinθ qB

APNI KAKSHA 3
Pitch: The distance moved along the magnetic field in one revolution is called Pitch.
2πm
So p = vcosθ ×
qB
2π mv cosθ
P=
qB

Q. What is the radius of the path of an electron (mass 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝐤𝐠 and charge
𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 C) moving at a speed of 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝐦/𝐬 𝐢𝐧 a magnetic field of 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐓
perpendicular to it? What is its frequency? Calculate its energy in keV.
(𝟏𝐞𝐕 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝐎−𝟏𝟗 𝐉). [NCERT Exercise]
Sol. Using Eq. r = mv/(qB), we have
r = 9 × 10−31 kg × 3 × 107 m s −1 /(1.6 × 10−19 C × 6 × 10−4 T)
= 26 × 10−2 m = 26 cm
frequency = v/(2πr) = 2 × 106 s −1 = 2 × 106 Hz = 2MHz
E = (1/2)mv 2 = (1/2)9 × 10−31 kg × 9 × 1014 m2 /s2 = 40.5 × 10−17 J
≈ 4 × 10−16 J = 2.5keV

Motion in combined electric and magnetic field

(i) Lorentz force
Consider a charge q with velocity v enters in a region with both electric and magnetic field.
The electric charge will experience both electrostatic and magnetic force. This was given first
by H.A. Lorentz and it is called as Lorentz force.
So ⃗ =F
F ⃗E+F
⃗B
⃗F = qE
⃗ + q(V
⃗ × ⃗B)
(2) velocity selector
Consider a charge q with velocity v enters in region with both electric and magnetic field.
⃗ ,B
From Fig. V ⃗ ,E
⃗ are mutually perpendicular to each – other.
So net force, ⃗ = qEȷ̂ − q ∨ Bȷ̂
F
if charge passes the region without deflection. Then
E
⃗ = 0 ⇒ qE = qVB ⇒ V =
F
B
This condition can be used to select charged particles of a particular
velocity out of a beam containing charges moving with different speeds.
The crossed E and B fields, therefore, serve as a velocity selector.
e
• J.J. Thomson used this method to measure m ratio.
• The principle is also employed in Mass Spectrometer a device that separates charged
particles, usually ions, according to their charge to mass ratio.
APNI KAKSHA 4
(3) Cyclotron (Removed for 2023-24)
The cyclotron is a machine to accelerate charged particles or
ions to high energies.
Principle: A cyclotron works on the principle that the
frequency of the revolution of a charged particle in
magnetic field is independent speed or energy.
Construction
It consists of two semicircular disc-like metal containers D1 and D2 separated by a small distance
which are called dees as they look like the letter D. It also contains an oscillator which produces
an oscillating electric field. The cyclotron makes use of crossed electric and magnetic field to
increases the energy of charged particles.
Working
Inside the dees, the particle is shielded as no electric field acts on it. The magnetic field acts on
the charged particle and makes it go in a circular trajectory. Every time the charged particle
moves out of one of the dees, it is acted upon by the electric field. The direction of electric field
changes in tune with the circular motion of the charge such that it is always accelerated by the
electric field. Each time the charge is accelerated, its energy increases and hence its radius
increases as well. So, it moves in a spiral trajectory. The increase in kinetic energy of the particle
is qV (V is potential difference across the dees at that time) every time it crosses one of the dees.
These ions are repeatedly accelerated till they have enough energy to have a radius
approximately that of the dees. They are then directed by a magnetic field and leave the system
through an exit slit.
Calculations
When positively charged particles like protons are released in the center of the dees, they move
in a semicircular path in one of the dees and then arrive in the gap between them in a time
interval T/2 which is given by-
2πm
T=
qB
1
T=
fc
qB
fc =
2πm
This frequency is known as the cyclotron frequency. The frequency of the applied voltage is
adjusted such that the polarity of the dees is reversed in the same time that the particle takes to

APNI KAKSHA 5
complete one half revolution i.e. frequency of applied voltage = cyclotron frequency. This
condition is called resonance condition. We can also calculate kinetic energy of the ions-
mv
R=
qB 1 q2 B2 R2
| K ⋅ E = mv 2 =
qBR 2 2m
V=
m
Uses
1. Bombard nuclei with energetic particles to study nuclear reactions.
2. To implant ions in solids to modify their properties or synthesize new materials.
3. Used in hospitals to produce radioactive substances used in diagnosis and treatment.
Biot - Savart law
Consider a conductor carrying current I and a small element dl on conductor. let dB is magnetic
field due to this element at point p at a distance r. According to Biot - Savart's law, the magnitude
of the magnetic field dB is proportional to the current I, the element length |dl|, and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance r. Its direction is perpendicular to the plane containing
dl and r. Thus, in vector notation,
⃗⃗⃗ × r
Idl
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∝
dB
r3
⃗⃗⃗ × r
μ0 Idl
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dB =
4π r 3
where μ0 /4π is a constant of proportionality. The above expression
holds when the medium is vacuum. The magnitude of this field is,
μ0 I dlsin θ
|dB| = (μ0 is called permeability of free space)
4π r 2
μ0
= 10−7 Tm/A
4π
• SI unit of Magnetic field is Tesla (= Weber /m2 ).
• Dimensional formula of Magnetic field is given by [MT −2 A−1 ].
Similarities between Electrostatic and magnetic field
• Both are long range forces, since both follow inverse square law.
• The principle of superposition applies to both fields.
• Both are linear in their sources.
Differences between Electrostatic and Magnetic field
• The electrostatic field is produced by a scalar source, namely, the electric charge. The
magnetic field is produced by a vector source I d𝐥.

APNI KAKSHA 6
• The electrostatic field is along the displacement vector joining the source and the field
point. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane containing the displacement vector 𝐫
and the current element I d𝐥.
• There is an angle dependence in the Biot-Savart law which is not present in the
electrostatic case.
Relation between speed of light, 𝛍𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛆𝟎 :
1 1 1
μ0 ε0 = 4π × 10−7 × 9
= 16
= 2
4π × 9 × 10 9 × 10 c
1
c=
√μ0 ε0

Magnetic field on the axis of a circular current loop

Consider a circular current loop in YZ – plane and a point p on the axis at a distance x from the
center of loop. Consider a conducting element dl on the loop. Magnetic field due to this element
at point P is
⃗⃗⃗ × r)
μ0 I(dl
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
dB ×
4π r3
⃗⃗⃗ ⊥ r
∵ dl
μ0 Idl
∴ dB = ⋅ … (1)
4π r 2
⃗ can be written as dB
dB ⃗ = dBcosθî + dBsinθȷ̂

so; net magnetic field ⃗B = ∫ dBcos θî + ∫ dBsin θȷ̂

Due to symmetry ∫ dBsin θ = 0
so;
μ0 Idl
⃗B = ∫ ⋅ cos θî
4π r 2
μ0 I dl × R μ0 IR
⃗B = ∫ î = ∫ dlî
4πr 2 r 4πr 3
μ0 IR × 2πR μ0 IR2
⃗B = = î
4πr 3 2r 3
by putting r = √x 2 + R2 , we get

μ0 IR2
⃗B = î
2(x 2 + R2 )3/2
Field at the centre of loop
μ0 I
(x = 0); B0 =
2R

APNI KAKSHA 7
Ampere's circuital Law
⃗ ⋅ dl of a magnetic field along a closed loop is equal to μ0
Ampere's law states that the integral ∮ B
times the total current passing through the loop.

∮ ⃗B ⋅ dl = μ0 I

• Let the fingers of the right-hand be curled in the sense the boundary is traversed in the loop
integral ∮ B ⋅ dl. Then the direction of the thumb gives the sense in which the current I is
regarded as positive.
• The closed loop through which current is passing is called an amperian loop.
• Ampere's law is useful where
(i) B is tangential to the loop and is a non-zero constant B.
(ii) B is normal to the loop.
(iii) B vanishes.
Magnetic field due to infinite straight current carrying wire
Consider an infinitely long straight wire with current I and a point p at a distance r from wire.
consider a circular amperian loop passing through point p.
Hence ∮B ⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ Bdlcos 0∘
⃗ ⋅ dl

= ∮ Bdl = B∮ dl = B × 2πr
using Ampere's law; ∮ ⃗B ⋅ dl = μ0 I
B × 2πr = μ0 I
μ0 I
B=
2πr
• The field at every point on a circle of radius r is same i.e. the magnetic field due to a long
straight current carrying wire has cylindrical symmetry.
• The direction of the field at any point on the circle is tangential to it. Thus, the field lines of
constant magnitude form concentric circles.
• Even though the wire is infinite, the field due to it at finite distance is not infinite. It only
blows up when we come very close to the wire.
• Direction of field is given by right hand rule.
• Right hand rule – Grasp the wire in your right hand with your extended thumb pointing in
the direction of the current. Your fingers will curl around in the direction of the magnetic
field.
• Right hand rule and Right hand Thumb rule are NOT the same

APNI KAKSHA 8
 Q. Figure shows a long straight wire of a circular cross-section (radius a) carrying
steady current. The current 𝐈 is uniformly distributed across this cross-section.
Calculate the magnetic field in the region 𝐫 < 𝐚 and 𝐫 > 𝐚. [NCERT Exercise]
Sol. (a) For r > a. The Amperian loop, labelled 2, is a circle
concentric with the cross - section. For this loop, L = 2πr
Ie = current enclosed by the loop = I
The result is the familiar expression for a long straight wire
B(2πr) = μ0 I
μ0 I
B=
2πr
1
B ∝ (r > a)
r
(b) r < a. The Amperian loop is a circle labelled 1. For this
loop, taking the radius of the circle to be r,
πr 2 Ir 2
L = 2πr; Ie = I ( ) =
πa2 a2
Ir2
Using Ampere's law, B(2πr) = μ0 a2
μ0 I
B=( )r
2πa2
B∝r (r < a)

Solenoid
It is a piece of equipment which generates magnetic field. It consists of an insulated conducting
wire which is wound (like a helix) around a core. For an ideal solenoid-
• The windings are tightly placed.
• The length of the solenoid is very large as compared to its radius.
• Field outside the solenoid is negligibly small.
• Field around the middle region of its length is uniform and constant.
• Direction of field is given by right hand rule.
• Field can be made stronger by inserting a soft iron core inside the solenoid.

APNI KAKSHA 9
Magnetic field inside a solenoid (using ACL) (No Derivation, only Formula)
Consider the following solenoid with number of turns per unit length as n, current I. Consider a
rectangular Amperian loop ABCD (with AB = l)

⃗ ⋅ dl = ∫ ⃗B ⋅ dl + ∫ ⃗B ⋅ dl + ∫ ⃗B ⋅ dl + ∫ ⃗B ⋅ dl
∮B
ab bc cd da

∮bc ⃗B ⋅ dl = ∮da ⃗B ⋅ dl = 0(∵ ⃗B ⊥ dl)

⃗ ⋅ dl = 0
and ∮Cd B (∵ outside solenoid, field is negligible)

⃗ ⋅ dl = ∫ ⃗B ⋅ dl = ∫ Bdl = B ∫ dl = Bl
so; ∮B
ab ab ab

now using Ampere's law; ∮ ⃗B ⋅ dl = μ ⋅ Ienc

∵ number of turn per unit length = n
∴ number of turn in l length = nl
⇒ Total inclosed current = nlI
⇒ Bl = μ0 nlI
B = μ0 nI

Toroid (Removed for 2023-24)

The toroid is hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of a wire are closely wound.
It can be viewed as a solenoid which has been bent in a circular shape to close on itself.
Consider the following toroid of inner radius a and outer radius b with current I and total turns
N.
Case (1) 𝐫 < 𝐚
⃗ ⋅ dl = μ0 Ienc = 0(∵ Ienc = 0)
∮B
⇒B=0
Case (2) 𝐫 > 𝐛
∮ ⃗B ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗
dl = μ0 Ienc = 0
(∵ Ienc = 0, current coming out of the plane is cancelled by that going into the plane).
⇒B=0
Case (3) 𝐚 < 𝐫 < 𝐛
∮ ⃗B ⋅ dl = μ0 Ienc = μ0 NI
B∮ dl = μ0 NI
μ0 NI
B × 2πr = μ0 NI ⇒ B =
2πr

APNI KAKSHA 10
 Q. A solenoid of length 𝟎. 𝟓 𝐦 has a radius of 𝟏 𝐜𝐦 and is made up of 500 turns. It
carries a current of 𝟓 𝐀. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field inside the
solenoid? [NCERT Exercise]
Sol. The number of turns per unit length is,
500
n= = 1000 turns /m
0.5
B = μ0 nI
= 4π × 10−7 × 103 × 5
= 6.28 × 10−3 T

Force between two parallel currents

Consider two long, parallel conductors A and B separated by a distance d. A carries a current Ia
and B carries a current Ib (in the same direction). The conductor A produces a field Ba at all
points along B. the direction of the field will be downwards (conductors placed horizontally).
From cross product rule, we can see that the direction of force will be towards the left.
The Fba , force on a line segment L of b due to a = Ib × Ba × L
μ0 Ia
Fba = Ib × ×L
2πd
μ0 Ia Ib
Fba = L
2πd
Similarly Fab , force on a line segment L of a due to b = Ia × Bb × L
μ0 Ib μ0 Ia Ib
⇒ Fab = Ia × ×L = L
2πd 2πd
∵ direction of Fab and Fba are opposite to each other but their magnitudes are equal.
∴ ⃗Fab = −F
⃗ ba ⇒ It follows Newton's third law.
Now if F is force per unit length, then
|Fab | |Fba | μ0 Ia Ib
F= = =
L L 2πd
• Parallel currents attract, and antiparallel currents repel.
• The above expression can be used to define the ampere (A). 'An ampere is that value of steady
current which when flows in each of the two long, straight, parallel conductors of negligible
cross section, placed one meter apart in vacuum, produces on each of these conductors a
force of 2 × 10−7 N per meter of length.'
• Similarly, we can define the Si unit of charge
When a steady current of 1 A flows through a conductor, the quantity of charge that flows
through it in one second is 1C.
APNI KAKSHA 11
Torque on a current loop, Magnetic dipole
Rectangular loop carrying a steady current I and placed in a uniform magnetic field experiences
a torque. It does not experience a net force and it is analogous to that of electric dipole in a
uniform electric field.
(i) Consider a rectangular loop placed in a uniform magnetic
field such that field is in the plane of loop. The field exerts
no force on the two arms AD and BC of the loop. It is
perpendicular to the arm AB of the loop and exerts a force
F1 on it which is directed into the plane of the loop. Its
magnitude is,
F1 = IbB
Similarly it exerts a force F2 on the arm CD and F2 is directed out of
the plane of the paper.
F2 = Ib B = F1
Thus, the net force on the loop is zero.
There is a torque on the loop due to the pair of forces F1 and F2 .
a a
⇒ τ = F1 × + F2 × = IabB
2 2
T = IAB (where A = ab is the area of the rectangle)
(ii) Consider plane of loop makes an angle with magnetic field. let
θ be the angle between the field and the normal to the plane of
loop. The forces on BC and AD are equal and passes through
axis of the loop resulting no net force & torque. Torque due to
force F1 and F2 is
a a
τ = F1 × sin θ + F2 × sin θ
2 2
τ = IabBsin θ = IABsin θ = mBsin θ

⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗B
so τ⃗ = m

Note: When θ → 0, the perpendicular distance b/w the forces also approaches zero, therefore
the forces become collinear and net torque on the loop also becomes zero.

APNI KAKSHA 12
Magnetic moment/Magnetic dipole
A current carrying coil or loop of any shape behaves like a magnetic dipole.
• The face of the loop with clockwise current acts South Pole, anticlockwise current acts as
North pole. We define the magnetic moment (m) of the loop as-
⃗
⃗⃗⃗ = IA
m
• Direction of m
⃗⃗⃗ is same as direction of Area vector, where the direction of the area vector A is
given by the right-hand thumb rule.
• Unit of magnetic moment is Am2 and dimension is [AL2 ].
• When m and B are parallel, the equilibrium is stable one and when they are antiparallel, the
equilibrium is unstable.
• If the loop has N closely wound turns, the expression for torque still holds, with
m = NIA
Circular current loop as a magnetic dipole (Removed for 2023-24)
Consider a circular loop of radius R, carrying a steady current I. Magnetic field on the axis of loop
at a distance x is
μ0 IR2
B=
2(x 2 + R2 )3/2
when x ≫ R, and Area (A) = πR2 :
μ0 IA μ0 2m μ0 2m
⃗⃗⃗
B= 3
= ⋅ 3 ⇒ ⃗B = ⋅ 3
2πx 4π x 4π x
The expression is very similar for electric field due to dipole. It can be seen if we substitute
μ0 → 1/ε0 ∣ m → p | B → E
If we make the above-mentioned substitutions, we obtain the result for B at a point in the plane
of the loop, at a distance x from the center (for x >> R)-
μ0 m
B≃ ; x >> R
4π x 3
• An electric dipole is built up of two elementary units- charges/electric monopoles but in
magnetism, the magnetic dipole (any current carrying loop) is the most elementary element
i.e. magnetic monopoles do not exist.
• We have seen that a current carrying loop
(i) Produces a magnetic field and behaves like a magnetic dipole at large distances.
(ii) Experiences a torque in external magnetic field like a magnetic needle.

APNI KAKSHA 13
Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron (Removed for 2023-24)
Consider an electron revolving around a circular orbit of radius r. A current is set up in opposite
e
direction of revolution and it is given by, I = T
2πr
where T is time period of revolution, T = V
eV
substituting value of T, we get, I = 2πr

∵ magnetic moment (m) = IA

ev evr evr
⇒ m= × πr 2 = ⇒ m=
2πr 2 2
e eL
m= (m vr) =
2me e 2me
where L is angular momentum of electron; in vector form;

⃗
eL
⃗⃗ = −
m
2me

m e
Ratio ( ) = = constant
L 2me

The ratio m/L is called the gyromagnetic ratio and is a constant. Its value is 8.8 × 1010 C/kg for an
electron. From Bohr's model of an atom we know that angular momentum of an electron is
quantized i.e.- L = nh/2π

Substituting this in the previous expression-

enh
m= = 9.27 × 10−24 Am2 (for n = 1)
4πme
This value is called the Bohr magneton.
• Any charge in uniform circular motion will have a magnetic moment associated with it which
is called the orbital magnetic moment.

Moving coil galvanometer

Moving coil galvanometer is a device that can measure small values of current.
Principle: A current carrying loop in an external magnetic field experiences a torque.
Construction: It consists of a coil of many turns which is free to rotate about a fixed axis, in a
uniform radial magnetic field. It also consists a soft iron core which makes the field radial and
also increases the strength of the magnetic field. Cylindrical magnets are used to generate
radial fields so that the magnetic moment of the coil is always perpendicular to the field.

APNI KAKSHA 14
Working:
When a current flows through the coil, a torque acts on it.
This torque is given by τ = NIAB (∵ field is radial, sin θ = 1)
The galvanometer is fitted with a spring which provides a torque in the
opposite direction which balances the magnetic torque resulting in a
steady angular deflection. Let the spring have angle of twist ϕ and
torsional constant K.
Kϕ = NIAB
NIAB NAB
ϕ= =( )I ⇒ ϕαI ⇒ deflection increases as current increases.
K K

Galvanometer as an ammeter
To convert the galvanometer into an ammeter, we attach a very small resistance rs (called shunt
resistance) in parallel with the galvanometer so that most of the current passes through the
shunt. Since both are in parallel, the resistance of the combination is-
R G ⋅ rs
R= = rs (R G >> rs )
R G + rs
If rs has small value, then effect of measuring instrument is also
small and negligible.
current sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection per unit current-
NAB ϕ NAB
ϕ=( )I ⇒ =
K I K
We can increase the current sensitivity of the galvanometer by increasing the number of turns
N of the coil.

Galvanometer as a voltmeter
Galvanometer can also be converted to a voltmeter to measure the potential difference across a
section of the circuit for which it must be connected in parallel to the circuit and draw very less
current. To achieve this, we attach a large resistance R in series with the galvanometer.
Resistance of voltmeter = R G + R ≈ R If R has large value, voltmeter
draws negligible current and its effect on measurement is minimum.
Voltage sensitivity - It is defined as the deflection per unit voltage.
NAB ϕ ϕ NAB
ϕ=( )I ⇒ = =
K V IR KR
We cannot increase voltage sensitivity by increasing the number of
turns because if the number of turns increase, the resistance also increases by the same amount,
hence voltage sensitivity remains the same.

APNI KAKSHA 15
NCERT Practice Questions
Q.1 Biot – Savart law indicates that the moving electrons (velocity 𝐯⃗) produce a
⃗ such that
magnetic field 𝐁
(A) ⃗𝐁
⃗ ⊥ 𝐯⃗.

(B) ⃗𝐁
⃗ ∥ 𝐯⃗.
(C) it obeys inverse cube law.
(D) it is along the line joining the electron and point of observation.
Sol. (A)
Magnetic field produced by a moving charge having velocity v
⃗ , at distance r, is given by
μ ⃗ × r)
q(V
⃗B = ( 0 ) ⋅ ⇒ ⃗B ⊥ v
⃗
4π r3
Q.2 An electron is projected with uniform velocity along the axis of a current carrying
long solenoid. Which of the following is true?
(A) The electron will be accelerated along the axis.
(B) The electron path will be circular about the axis.
(C) The electron will experience a force at 𝟒𝟓∘ to the axis and hence execute a
helical path.
(D) The electron will continue to move with uniform velocity along the axis of the
solenoid.
Sol. (D)
Force on a charge q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field = q ∨ Bsinθ
∵ inside solenoid, magnetic field is parallel to axis.
⃗ and V
∴ Angle between B ⃗ will be zero.
⇒ no net force on electron.
⇒ electron will continue to move along axis with uniform velocity.
Q.3 In a cyclotron, a charged particle (Removed for 2023-24)
(A) undergoes acceleration all the time.
(B) speeds up between the dees because of the magnetic field.
(C) speeds up in a dee.
(D) slows down within a dee and speeds up between dees.
Sol. (A)
Inside dees, it experiences centripetal acceleration and outside dees, it experiences
acceleration because of presence of electric field.

APNI KAKSHA 16
Q.4 A charged particle would continue to move with a constant velocity in a region
wherein,
(A) 𝐄 = 𝟎, 𝐁 ≠ 𝟎. (B) 𝐄 ≠ 𝟎, 𝐁 ≠ 𝟎.
(C) 𝐄 ≠ 𝟎, 𝐁 = 𝟎. (D) 𝐄 = 𝟎, 𝐁 = 𝟎.
Sol. (A, B, D)
⃗ = qE
Lorentz force = F ⃗ + q(V
⃗ ×B
⃗)

To move with a constant velocity: ⃗F = 0

(A) If electric field is zero and charge moves along the direction of magnetic field, then
charge experiences no force.
(B) If resultant of forces due to both electric field and magnetic field is zero, then also
particle will move with constant velocity.
(D) If E = 0 & B = 0, then ⃗F = 0
Q.5 A circular coil of wire consisting of 100 turns, each of radius 𝟖. 𝟎 𝐜𝐦 carries a
current of 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 𝐀. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field 𝐁 at the centre of the
coil?
Sol. At the center of coil
μ0 NI
B=
2r
4π × 10−7 × 100 × 0.4
= = 3.14 × 10−4 T
2 × 8 × 10−2
Q.6 A long straight wire carries a current of 𝟑𝟓 𝐀. What is the magnitude of the field 𝐁
at a point 𝟐𝟎 𝐜𝐦 from the wire?
Sol. Magnetic field due to a long straight current carrying wire at a distance
μ0 I
r=
2πr
4π × 10−7 × 35
= = 3.5 × 10−5 T
2π × 0.2
Q.7 A horizontal overhead power line carries a current of 𝟗𝟎 𝐀 in east to west direction.
What is the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field due to the current 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐦
below the line?
Sol. Using right hand thumb rule, magnetic field at point P below 1.5 m will be in South
direction and its magnitude
μ0 I 4π × 10−7 × 90
= =
2πr 2π × 1.5
= 1.2 × 10−5 T

APNI KAKSHA 17
Q.8 What is the magnitude of magnetic force per unit length on a wire carrying a
current of 𝟖 𝐀 and making an angle of 𝟑𝟎∘ with the direction of a uniform magnetic
field of 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝐓 ?
Sol. Force on current carrying wire = I𝑙Bsinθ
Force
= IBsinθ = 8 × 0.15 × sin 30∘ = 0.6 N/m
length
Q.9 Two long and parallel straight wires A and B carrying currents of 𝟖. 𝟎 𝐀 and 𝟓. 𝟎 𝐀
in the same direction are separated by a distance of 𝟒. 𝟎 𝐜𝐦. Estimate the force on
a 𝟏𝟎 𝐜𝐦 section of wire A.
μ⋅Ia Ib
Sol. Force per unit length = 2πd
μ0 Ia Ib
Force on 10 cm of wire = × 0.1
2πd

4π × 10−7 × 8 × 5
= −2
× 0.1 = 2 × 10−5 N
2π × 4 × 10
Q.10 A closely wound solenoid 𝟖𝟎 𝐜𝐦 long has 5 layers of windings of 400 turns each.
The diameter of the solenoid is 𝟏. 𝟖 𝐜𝐦. If the current carried is 𝟖. 𝟎 𝐀, estimate the
magnitude of 𝐁 inside the solenoid near its centre.
turns
Sol. magnetic field inside solenoid = μ0 nI (n = )
length

μ0 NI 4π × 10−7 × 5 × 400 × 8
B= = = 2.5 × 10−2 T
𝑙 0.8
Q.11 A toroid has a core (non-ferromagnetic) of inner radius 𝟐𝟓 𝐜𝐦 and outer radius
𝟐𝟔 𝐜𝐦, around which 3500 turns of a wire are wound. If the current in the wire is
𝟏𝟏 𝐀, what is the magnetic field (a) outside the toroid, (b) inside the core of the
toroid, and (c) in the empty space surrounded by the toroid. (Removed for 2023-24)
Sol. Magnetic field due to toroid is zero both outside and in the empty space.
μ0 nI r1 +r2
Inside the core, B = ,r = = 25.5 cm
2πr 2

4π × 10−7 × 3500 × 11
B= = 3 × 10−2 T
2π × 25.5 × 10−2
Q.12 The wires which connect the battery of an automobile to its starting motor carry a
current of 300 A (for a short time). What is the force per unit length between the
wires if they are 𝟕𝟎 𝐜𝐦 long and 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐜𝐦 apart? Is the force attractive or repulsive?
Sol. ∵ current in two wires are in opposite direction
∴ Force will be of repulsive in nature.
Force μ0 Ia Ib 4π × 10−7 × 300 × 300
and = = = 1.2 N/m
length 2πd 2π × 1.5 × 10−2

APNI KAKSHA 18
Q.13 A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 𝟏𝟓𝛀 and the metre shows full scale
deflection for a current of 𝟒 𝐦𝐀. How will you convert the metre into an ammeter
of range 0 to 𝟔 𝐀 ?
Sol. Given that Ig = 4 mA, R g = 15Ω
For the 6 A current,
⇒ Ig R g = (6 − Ig )R S
⇒ 4 × 10−3 × 15 = (6 − 0.004)R s
4 × 10−3 × 15
RS = ≈ 10 mA
5.994
Q.14 A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 𝟏𝟐𝛀 and the metre shows full scale
deflection for a current of 𝟑 𝐦𝐀. How will you convert the metre into a voltmeter of
range 0 to 𝟏𝟖 𝐕 ?
Sol. It is given that,
Ig = 3 mA
R g = 12Ω
For 18 V potential difference;
18 = Ig R g + Ig R s = Ig (R g + R s )
18
⇒ Rg + Rs = = 6000Ω
3 × 10−3
R s = 5988Ω

APNI KAKSHA 19
Previous Year Questions:
Q1: A long wire is bent into a circular coil of one turn, and then into a circular coil of
smaller radius having 𝐧 turns. If the same current passes through the coil in both cases,
then find the ratio of the magnetic fields produced at their centers. PYQ 2021 (3 Marks)

Q2: Two identical circular wires 𝑷 and 𝑸 each of radius 𝑹 and carrying current ' 𝑰 ' are
kept in perpendicular planes such that they have a common centre as shown in the
figure. Find the magnitude and direction of the net magnetic field at the common centre
of the two coils. PYQ 2020, 19,18 (3 Marks)
Q3: An 𝜶-particle is accelerated through a potential difference of 𝟏𝟎𝒌𝑽 and moves along
𝒙-axis. It enters in a region of uniform magnetic field 𝑩 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑻 acting along 𝒚-
axis. Find the radius of its path. (Take mass of 𝜶-particle = 𝟔 ⋅ 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒈 )
PYQ 2029,20,21,22 (2 Marks)

Que 4: Two particles of masses 𝐦𝟏 and 𝐦𝟐 have equal charges. They are accelerated
from rest through a potential difference 𝐕 and then enter in a region of uniform
magnetic field ⃗𝐁
⃗ . If they describe circular paths of radii 𝐫𝟏 and 𝐫𝟐 , respectively, then the
value of 𝐦𝟏 /𝐦𝟐 is PYQ 2018,19,21,22 (2 Marks)
𝐫 𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐕 𝐫 𝟐 𝐫𝟏𝟐 𝐕
(A) ( 𝟐 ) (B) (C) ( 𝟏 ) (D)
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐁 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟐𝟐 𝐁
 Que 5: A square loop of side ' 𝐚 ' carrying a current 𝐈𝟐 is kept at distance 𝐱 from an
infinitely long straight wire carrying a current 𝐈𝟏 as shown in the figure. Obtain the
expression for the resultant force acting on the loop. PYQ 2019 (3 Marks)

Que 6: A conducting wire is bent in the shape of a square and another wire of equal
length into a circle. If they carry equal currents, their magnetic moments are in the ratio
of PYQ 2017,18,19,21 (1 Mark)
(A) 𝟐: 𝛑 (B) 𝛑: 𝟐 (C) 𝛑: 𝟒 (D) 𝟒: 𝛑
Que 7: State the principle of working of a galvanometer.
A galvanometer of resistance 𝑮 is converted into a voltmeter to measure up to 𝑽 volts by
connecting a resistance 𝑹𝟏 in series with the coil. If a resistance 𝑹𝟐 is connected in series
with it, then it can measure up to V/2 volts. Find the resistance, in terms of 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 ,
required to be connected to convert it into a voltmeter that can read up to 𝟐 𝑽. Also find
the resistance 𝑮 of the galvanometer in terms of 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 . PYQ 20219,20,21 (3 Mark)
CURRENT X

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Not included in CBSE 2020-21
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
"

'

D
'

Electric current (I)

"
⎯ Current is defined as the rate of flow of charge |Scalar quantity | SI Unit- ampere (A)
⎯ Direction of current through a cross section is the direction of flow of positive charge.
⎯ If the net charge that flows through a cross-section is negative, it implies a current in the backward direction.

Instantaneous current Average current

Iinst = dq/dt Iavg = ∆q/∆t

Electric current in conductors

"
Conductors: Materials which allow current to pass through them easily. The charge carriers inside metallic conductors
are free electrons. When an electric field is applied, the free electrons experience a force and an electric current is setup
inside the conductor.

Note: Charge carriers in various conductors-

Metals- free electrons | Electrolytes- +ve and –ve ions | semiconductors- free electrons and holes.

Inside a conductor-
A) In absence of electric field – In the absence of electric field, the free electrons move due to thermal energy. During
this thermal motion the electrons collide with each other and the fixed positive ions. After a collision with a +ve ion,
the electron emerges with the same speed as before. However, the direction of its velocity will be completely
random. Thus, on average, the number of electrons moving in a particular direction will be equal to the number of
electrons moving in the opposite direction. So, there will be no net electric current in the conductor in the absence
of an electric field.
B) In presence of electric field- When a constant electric field is applied to the ends of a conductor, the free electrons
experience a force in a direction opposite to that of electric field and hence start moving in and therefore a net
electric current is setup in the direction of electric field (flow of positive charge). This electric current will remain as
long as the field is applied.

Ohm’s Law
"
Ohm’s law states that at constant physical conditions (temp etc), the current through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends.

Where R is a constant of proportionality and is called the Resistance of the conductor | SI Unit- ohm (Ω)
R is dependent on both the material and dimensions of the conductor.
Also,

I
Where ρ is called the resistivity of the material
.

Current density (j)

Current density is defined as the current per unit area (taken normal to the current) | SI Unit = A/m2

Consider an electric field E in a conductor of length l, then potential difference across it, V = E.l. Then from ohm’s law-

Where σ is called the conductivity of the material and σ = 1/ ρ|σ depends on nature of the material and not dimensions.

Vector form of current density-

According to definition,

Where is the angle between direction of current and normal to the area.
Note: j is directed along I(current) and is also parallel to E
.

Drift velocity (vd) (PYQ 2016, 2012)

It is defined as the average velocity with which the free electrons move towards the +ve end of a conductor under the
influence of applied electric field.
Let electric field be E, the force F on each electron and hence its acceleration a will be-

(Where m is mass of each electron)

→

Let initial velocity of electron be u and velocity after time τ be v. From Newton’s first equation of motion-

to

,
(The average initial velocity is zero as before
electric field is applied, there is no specified
direction in which electrons move.)

(The -ve sign indicates that Velocity is opp to field)

 Note: Average relaxation time (τavg)- It is the average time interval between b/w two successive collisions of a free e-

'
Relation between drift velocity and current
D
In a conductor of cross-sectional area, A, let number of free
Electrons per unit volume be n. Consider a potion of length x #

t¥÷÷¥¥÷÷÷
The total number of electrons (N) in it can be written as- -

←
V

Now, we can also relate current density with drift velocity-

(it is negative because direction of flow

Of electrons is opposite to that of current)

' Vector form of ohm’s law (PYQ 2016)

D
We know,

Where is a constant is called conductivity σ. Similarly, we know ρ=1/σ therefore ρ =

Note: - In Electrodynamic condition (charges are moving) Electric field inside conductor is not zero.

- Thermal speed of electron = (root mean squared speed) (NCERT eg 3.1)

(Kb is Boltzmann’s constant)
 Mobility (μ) (PYQ 2019, 2014)
" Mobility of free electrons in a conductor is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field| SI unit- m2/Vs

"
'
Limitations of ohm’s law
There are certain materials used in electric circuits where the proportionality
between V and I does not hold-

1. V ceases to be proportional to I

2. The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V i.e. If I is the current
For a certain V, then reversing the direction of V keeping its magnitude same,
does not produce a current of the same magnitude as I in the opposite direction.
For e.g. diode
(i)
3. The relation between V and I is not unique i.e. there is more than one value of V for the same current I, e.g. GaAs
(Gallium Arsenide)

(ii) (iii)
"
'
Commercial resistors
1. Alloys (PYQ 2017, 2015)- Alloys like constantan, manganin, nichrome etc are used to make wire bound resistors.
This is because their resistivities remain almost constant even with change in temperature.

2. Carbon resistors- They are compact and inexpensive. Their values are given by a color code which is explained as
follows- (Removed for 2023-24)

Fun mnemonic to remember the colors:

BB ROY of Great Britain has Very Good Wife

 The resistors have a set of co-axial colored rings. The first two bands from the end indicate the first two significant
figures of the resistance in ohms. The third band represents the decimal multiplier. Sometimes we even have a fourth
band which represents the tolerance/ percentage error in the calculation of resistance.
For e.g. (Removed for 2023-24)

a.
¥1 !¥ .

..

"
Temperature dependence of resistivity
1. Metals- For metals, the resistivity increases with increase in temperature. This is because the resistivity ρ ∝ 1/τ
And with the increase in temperature the average relaxation time decreases (as collisions become more frequent)

(graph PYQ 2014)

Over a narrow range of temperatures, the resistivity of metallic conductors is approximately given by-

ΡT = ρ˳ [ 1 + α (T - T˳)]

Where ΡT is the resistivity at temperature T and ρ˳ is same at a reference temperature T˳. α is called as the temperature
coefficient of resistivity. For some metals, α is positive.
2. Semiconductors (PYQ 2015)- For semiconductors, resistivity decreases with increase in temperature this is because
ρ is directly proportional to number of free electrons per unit volume (n) and with the increase in temperature, for a
semiconductor, n increases greatly with increase in temperature and more than compensate for the decrease in τ.
But for metals, n remains almost constant with the change in temperature therefore the resistivity increases with
the decrease in τ, when temperature increases.

Important PYQs

Ques: How does mobility of an electron change when the potential difference across the conductor is doubled keeping
the length and the temperature constant (PYQ 2019)

Ans: We know, E= V/r

E’ = 2V/r; E’ = 2E
µ = vd/ E
µ’ = µ/2 i.e. the mobility of electrons will be halved.

Ques:

(PYQ 2015)

Ans: i) DE
ii) AB

Ques: Why are alloys like constantan and manganin used to make standard resistors? (PYQ 2016)

Ans: Alloys like constantan and manganin are used to make standard resistors because their resistivities remain almost
constant with increase in temperature.

Similar PYQ

Ques: When electrons drift in a metal from lower potential to higher potential does it mean that “all” free electrons of
the metal are moving in the same direction? (PYQ 2012)

Ans: No, all e-s don’t move in the same direcn, but the net movement of charge is towards the +ve end of the conductor.

Electrical energy, Power (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2017, 2011)

We have seen that when an external field is applied, electrons in the conductor experience a force and move. But
according to this, electrons should accelerate but that is not the case as electrons move with a steady drift velocity. This
 is because as electrons move, they collide with each other and with the fixed ions and atoms. The energy gained is
shared with the fixed atoms and the atoms start vibrating more vigorously i.e. the conductor heats up. So, a part of the
energy is dissipated as heat.
Consider a conductor with a potential difference of V across its ends and current I. The heat dissipated in time t can be
written as-

The energy dissipated per unit time is the power dissipated (P)

Using Ohm’s law-

Important PYQs ¥:÷÷E 7

Ques:
(PYQ 2020)

Ans: P = V2/R; since they are connected in parallel, V is same therefore, P1/P2 = R2/R1
P1:P2 = 3:2 (B)

¥ Ques: The potential difference applied across a given resistor is altered such that the heat produced increases by a
.

factor of 9. By what factor did the potential difference change? (PYQ 2017)

Ans: ATQ, P’ = 9P and we know, P= V2/R

V = √RP
V’ = √RP’
V’ = √9RP = 3 √RP
V’ = 3V

Ques: Two bulbs are rated (P1, V) and (P2, V) are connected in i) series and then in ii) parallel. Calculate the power
dissipated in both cases in terms of P1 and P2 (PYQ 2019, 2011)

Ans: we know P= V2/R, therefore resistance of each bulb can be written as –

I) In series

"
 II) In parallel

Combination of resistors
1. Series combination
Consider two resistors R1 and R2, connected in series. The current through both will be the same. The sum of
potential difference across R1 and that across R2 will give the total potential drop across the combination.

If the two resistors are replaced by a single resistor of resistance equal to that of the combination (Req) then,

2. Parallel combination
Consider two resistors R1 and R2 connected in parallel. The sum of the current through both resistors will be equal to
the total current through the circuit.

The 2 resistors can be replaced by a single resistor of resistance equal to that of the combination (Req)-
 Ques: A wire of resistance 8R is bent in the form of a circle as shown. What is the resistance between the ends of
diameter AB? (PYQ 2010)

Ans: The part of the wire above and below AB can be imagined
As two resistors of resistance 4R each connected in parallel.
Therefore, the equivalent resistance between AB is –

Req = 4R × 4R/ 4R + 4R = 2R

'
Cells, EMF, and internal resistance (PYQ 2020, 2018, 2016, 2015, 2013, 2012)
D An electrolytic cell is a device which maintains a steady current in an electric circuit.

t.li#.-mE
EMF (ε)
The potential difference across the electrodes of a cell when no current is drawn from it is called the EMF (ε) of the cell
OR
The work done in complete circulation of a unit positive charge| SI Unit- Volt (V) or JC-1
Note: EMF ε is potential difference and not a force.

Internal resistance (r)

The electrolyte through which current flows has a finite resistance which is called the internal resistance of the cell (r)

Terminal voltage (V)

The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when current is drawn from it is called the terminal voltage.

*Now let us calculate the terminal voltage in the following cases

1. No load condition (load is any device to which energy is supplied like bulb etc)
i.e. current (I) in circuit is zero

There will be no potential drop across r since .

; tn¥•v
the current in the circuit is 0

.
Terminal voltage = EMF

2. Discharging (providing energy to load)

R
.
-
un

I ;
I
 Also,
(Since r and R are in series)
Also,

=>

Note: For ideal cell, terminal voltage = ε, always. (r=0)

Cells in Series and Parallel

"
1. In Series
Consider two cells of EMF ε1 and ε2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 connected in series as shown in the fig.

I
Potential diff across AB- We want- →

From 1,2
Potential diff across BC-

Potential diff across AC-

-
①

Thus, we can say that

1) The equivalent emf of a series combination of n cells is just the sum of their individual emfs
2) The equivalent internal resistance of a series combination of n cells is just the sum of their individual internal
resistances

2. In Parallel (PYQ 2020, 2018, 2016)

Consider two cells of EMF ε1 and ε2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 connected in parallel as shown in the fig.
 I
For the first cell The net current= sum of current through the cells

For the second cell

On rearranging, we get value of potential V

Replacing the two cells by a single cell of emf εeq and internal resistance req, we get-

I
OR

For n cells,

Important PYQs ¥?÷sE3

. Ques: a cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected across variable load resistor R. Draw plots of i) terminal
voltage V ii) current I as a function of R
It is found that when R= 4Ω, I= 1 A and when R is increased to 9Ω current reduces to 0.5 A. Find E and r. (PYQ 2015)
Geoff

Ans: i) We know, ii) We know,

(Compare with y=mx+c)

V^

→ Slope= -r
From1,2

>
I

iii) ATQ,
✓ n

A.
②
Ma

①
B.
>R

There will be two portions of the graph

1. When R<<<r ,V will be very small -

2. When R>>>r ,V will be almost constant

On solving 1,2 we get-
 Ques: The emf of a cell is always greater than its terminal voltage explain why? (PYQ 2013)
Ans: The emf of a cell is always greater than the terminal voltage because the cell has an internal resistance due to
which there is a potential drop so the terminal voltage is always less than the emf of the cell. This can be illustrated from
the following diagram-

i .

hi
.

2-

¥ Ques: A cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected to two external resistances R1 and R2 and a perfect ammeter.
.

The current in the circuit is measured in four different situations:

(i) Without any external resistance in the circuit
(ii) With resistance R1 only
(iii) With R1 and R2 in series combination
(iv) With R1 and R2 in parallel combination

The currents measured in the four cases are 0.42 A, 1.05A, 1.4A, and 4.2A, but not necessarily in that order. Identify
the currents corresponding to the four cases mentioned above. (PYQ 2012)

Ans: First let us calculate the net resistances in each condition-

1) Req = r since there is no other resistance in the circuit
2) r and R1 are connected in series so, Req = r + R1
3) r, R1, and R2 are all in series so Req = r + R1 + R2
4) R1 and R2 are connected in parallel so their net resistance will be R1R2/R1+R2 and this net is in series with r so,
Req = r + R1R2/R1+R2

Now let us calculate the current in each case-

1) I = E/r We know that in a series combination, the net resistance is greater
2) I = E/r+R1 than the net resistance for the same resistors in a parallel combination
3) I = E/r+R1+R2 and that the net resistance in parallel is less than each individual R.
4) I = E/ (r + R1R2/R1+R2) So, the order of current will be- 1 > 4 > 2 > 3

So in case 1) I = 4.2 A
2) I = 1.4 A
3) I = 1.05 A
4) I = 0.42 A

Kirchhoff’s laws (PYQ 2019, 2018, 2015, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011)
A) Junction law (PYQ 2014)
At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is
equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction. This is based
on the law of conservation of charge because when currents are steady,
there is no accumulation of charges at any junction or at any point in the wire
Thus, total current flowing in must be equal to the total current flowing out.
 B) Loop law (PYQ 2014)
The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and the cells in the lop is zero.
This is based on the law of conservation of energy.

Some conventions:
1. Potential across a resistor is -ve in the direction | Potential across a resistor is +ve in the direction opposite
of current to current
R R
B A B

-74:# -3
I
:#
I t
-

2. Potential is gained on crossing a battery from -ve | Potential drops on crossing a battery from +ve to – ve
to +ve terminal terminal
E E

le est
I
I
-

A -

B A -

t t

Important PYQs ¥÷÷.E3

o
.
Ques: A 10V battery of negligible internal resistance is connected across a 200V battery and resistance of 38Ω as shown
in the figure. Find the value of current in the circuit. (PYQ 2013)
lov

382 200W

Ans: Let current in circuit be I, using Kirchhoff’s loop law in loop ABCD,

'
Ques: Using Kirchhoff’s rules calculate the potential difference between B and D
In the circuit diagram as shown in the figure. (PYQ 2018)

Ans: In loop DCBD In loop BADB

y
On solving, we get
 Potential difference Between B and D

Ques: Using Kirchhoff’s rules calculate the current through the 40Ω and 20Ω
Resistors in the following circuit. (PYQ 2019)

Ans: In loop ABCD

In loop CFED

On solving

Ques: Using Kirchhoff’s rules determine the value of the unknown resistance R
In the circuit such that no current flows through the 4Ω resistance. Also find the
Potential difference between A and D. (PYQ 2011)

Ans: Let current in the branch EB be zero and apply Kirchhoff’s law in loop CBEDC

-
①

Now, apply Kirchhoff’s law in loop BAFEB

-
②

From 1,2

2. Potential difference between A and D-

Shorting wire (short)

Note: 1. Potential across a short circuit is zero

-

n-
I
 R
LIF of
2.Potential across an open circuit is infinite.
LHP
'
Wheatstone Bridge (PYQ 2015, 2013)
H
It is an application of Kirchhoff’s rules

Balanced bridge (PYQ 2013, 2015)

When the resistors are such that the current through the galvanometer is zero (Ig = 0), it is called a balanced Wheatstone
Let us derive the relation for this condition using Kirchhoff’s rules.
Since Ig = 0, using junction law, I2 = I4 and I1 = I3

Using Kirchhoff’s law in loop ABDA From 1,2 we obtain

Using Kirchhoff’s law in loop BCDB Hence,

Application of Wheatstone bridge

It can be used to find the value of an unknown resistance R4 keeping R1 and R2 constant while varying R3 till
galvanometer shows null deflection (also known as Meter Bridge)

Meter Bridge (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2017, 2013, 2011, 2010) (Removed for 2023-24)
"
 Construction
It consists of a wire of 1m and uniform cross section stretched taught and clamped between two thick metallic strips
bent at right angles. The metallic strip has two gaps across which resistors can be connected. The end points where the
wire is clamped are connected to the cell through a key. One end of a galvanometer is connected to the metallic strip
midway b/w the two gaps. The other end of the galvanometer is connected to a jockey. The jockey is essentially a
metallic rod whose one end has a knife edge which can slide over the wire to make electrical connection.

Working (PYQ 2020, 2017)

In the fig, the arms AB, BC, DA, CD, with resistances R, S, λ.l and λ(100-l) where λ is the resistance per unit cm of the
wire, form a Wheatstone bridge. If the jockey is moved along the wire, then there will be one position where the
galvanometer will show no current. Let the distance of the jockey from the end A at the balance point be l = l1. The four
resistances forming the bridge will be R, S, λl1, λ(100-l1). The balance condition gives-

Note: The percentage error in R can be minimized by adjusting balance point near the middle of the bridge i.e. when l1 is
close to 50cm

Important PYQs
¥E:÷7
c
Ques:

geB8BgBoq
gigolos
(PYQ 2019) (Removed for 2023-24)

Ans: As we use thick metallic strips in between the gaps, the resistance of which is unknown some errors arise in the
observations. This error is known as end error. It can be overcome by taking multiple observations and then taking the
mean.

I
We know,

"

Since S is shunted (parallel) with

another resistance of the same value
Substituting in 1

So new eqn will be

-
②
.

o
Ques: In the meter bridge experimental setup shown in the figure, the null point D is obtained at distance of 40cm from
end A of the meter bridge. If a resistance of 10Ω is connected in series with R1, the null point is obtained at AD= 60cm.
calculate the value R1 and R2. (PYQ 2013) (Removed for 2023-24)

Ans: We know, Substituting 1in 2

ATQ,
-

z
①

-
O
I
Ques:

(PYQ 2011)

/
Comparing numerator and denominator of 1,2
Ans: i) We know,

- ①

ATQ, ii) If the galvanometer and the battery is

exchanged, the balance point will not
be affected.

- ②

¥ Ques:
.

(PYQ 2010) (Removed for 2023-24)

 I
Ans: We know, Now,

ATQ,

Potentiometer (PYQ 2020, 2016, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2010) (Removed for 2023-24)
"
It is a device which used to measure the potential difference/ EMF without drawing any current from the voltage
source.

Principle
it works on the principle that when steady current flows through a uniform wire, the potential drop across a segment is
directly proportional to the length of the segment i.e.

where ɸ is the potential drop per unit length of the wire

Applications
1. Comparing EMFs of two cells
Consider two cells of emf ε1 and ε2. First, we close the key of ε1 and then move the jockey along the potentiometer wire.
There will be a point(N1) on the wire where if the jockey is kept, the current in the galvanometer becomes zero (balance
condition). Let the distance of the balance point from A be l1. Using Kirchhoff’s law in the loop AN1G31A,

Now closing the key for ε2 we get a balance point N2 at a distance l2 from A. using Kirchhoff’s rule in loop AN2

Dividing both the equations we get,

-This way we can compare emf of two cells and even calculate the emf of one cell if emf of the other is known
2. Calculating internal resistance of a cell (PYQ 2010) (Removed for 2023-24)
Consider a cell with emf E and internal resistance r, connected across a resistance box through a key K2.
Keeping K2 open we obtain the balance point at a length l1; so, we can write

Now K2 is closed then balance point is obtained at a length l2,

We also know that if I is current, Dividing 1,2

Advantage
Advantage of potentiometer is that it gives the actual value of potential as it draws no current from the voltage source
that is being measured

Important PYQs
¥E÷÷7
.

Ques:

(PYQ 2020) (Ans- C)

Ques:

(PYQ 2016) (Removed for 2023-24)

r e

R
Ans: To calculate the pot. Drop- To calculate the balancing length-

Ques: A potentiometer wire of length 1m has a resistance of 10Ω. It is connected to a 6V battery in series with a
resistance of 5Ω. Determine the emf of the primary cell which gives a balance point at 40cm. (PYQ 2014)
(Removed for 2023-24)
Ans: To calculate emf we have to first calculate the potential gradient

Ques: Write two possible causes for one sided deflection in a potentiometer (PYQ 2013) (Removed for 2023-24)

Ans: 1. The emf of the cell whose emf is to be calculated is greater than the total potential drop across the
potentiometer wire

2. The +ve and -ve terminals of the cell (whose emf is to be calculated) and the source battery may not be connected to
the same terminal of the potentiometer wire

Ques: In the figure, a long uniform potentiometer wire AB having a constant potential gradient along its length. The null
points of two primary cells of emfs ε1 and ε2 connected in manner shown are obtained at a distance of 120cm and 300
cm from the end A. Find (i) ε1/ ε2 and (ii) position of null point for cell ε1
How is the sensitivity of a potentiometer increased? (PYQ 2010) (Removed for 2023-24)
Ans: We can increase the sensitivity of a potentiometer by increasing the length of the potentiometer wire.
I) we know that,
•
(ii)
• •
I

If, (Componendo and dividendo)

Let,

Not included in CBSE 2020-21

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

Electrostatic Potential Energy (U)(PYQ 2020,2018,2014,2010)

Electrostatic potential energy of a body at a point in an electric field can be defined as the work done by external force
in moving a charge (slowly, without acceleration) from infinity to the given point, against the field. SI Unit is Joule.

Derivation (PYQ 2020)

Consider a source charge Q at origin and another charge q at infinity. An external force Fext acts on q such that it is equal
in magnitude but opposite in direction the Coulomb force between Q and q. So the work done by Fext on q on ing it by a
distance dx is-

dx =-dy

Note: 1) We cannot calculate absolute potential energy of a body; we can only calculate the difference in potential
energy of the body between two points.

2) Electrostatic force is a conservative force so work done and hence potential energy difference only depends on the
initial and final positions of the object

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL (V) (PYQ 2018, 2016, 2012, 2011)

Electrostatic potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done by external force to bring a unit positive
charge (slowly, without acceleration) from infinity to the given point.(SI Unit- joule/coulomb or Volt)

By definition,
Note: We cannot calculate absolute potential at a point; we can only calculate the potential difference between two
points.

*To derive expression for potential, just substitute Q2 for 1 in the derivation for U.

Ques: Draw a graph showing variation of potential (V) and distance (r) (PYQ
( PYQ2012)
2019 )

Ans:

Similar PYQs

Hint : electrostatic force is

conservative

(PYQ 2018)

POTENTIAL DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE (PYQ 2019) (Removed for 2023-24)

Consider a dipole of dipole moment p and length 2a. Let us calculate the potential at a point O at a distance r from the
center of the dipole.
 At axial position At equatorial position

Important PYQs

Ques: Derive an expression for the electrostatic potential at any point along the axial line of a dipole (PYQ 2019)

POTENTIAL DUE TO A SYSTEM OF CHARGES

Total potential at a point due to a system of charges
is equal to the algebraic sum of potentials due to all
the individual charges at that point.

Note: In the previous chapter we saw that electric field inside a charged hollow sphere is 0. So potential inside the shell
is constant and is equal to its value at the surface as no work is done on moving a charge inside the shell.

Important PYQs

Ques: The potential at the surface of a spherical hollow metal shell with radius 6cm is 12V. What will be the potential at
its center? (PYQ 2011)

Ans: Since the electric field inside a shell is 0, no work is done to move a charge inside the shell therefore potential at
the center will be the same as the potential at its surface i.e. 12V

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2014, 2013, 2010)

Equipotential surfaces are surfaces which have a
Constant value of potential at all points.
*Equipotential surfaces are always perpendicular to the electric field. (PYQ 2014)

Proof: To prove this, let us assume that electric field is not perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces. This implies that
the electric field can be resolved into two components, one of which will be perpendicular to the equipotential surface
and one will be parallel or along the surface.

Now, consider a charge at a point A on the surface. Since there is a component of field along the surface, when we
move the charge to a point B on the surface some work will be done. This means that potential at points A and B will not
be the same which is not possible as it is an equipotential surface so potential at all points on it must be the same.
Therefore, by contradiction we can conclude that electric field is always perpendicular to the equipotential surface.

Important PYQ

Ques: Draw the equipotential surfaces due to a uniform electric field along z direction (PYQ
( PYQ2019)
2021,19,18)

Ans:

Relation between potential (V) and field (E) (Removed for 2023-24)

Work done in moving q from B to A-

1) Electric field is in the direction where potential decreases the steepest.

2) Magnitude of electric field is given by the change in magnitude of potential per unit displacement normal to the
equipotential surface at the point.
Ques: The following diagram depicts some equipotential surfaces.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of electric field. (Removed for 2023-24)

Ans: We know electric field is perpendicular to the equipotential

Surfaces so let us a draw a perpendicular to these surfaces.

Potential energy due to a system of charges (PYQ 2020, 2010)

Consider a charge q1 which is brought from infinity to a point A. Since there is no electric field no work is done in this
process. Now, another charge q2 is brought from infinity to a point B at a distance r from q1. Since, the potential at B is
V= kq1/r, work is done in bringing the charge q2 to B which will be equal to Vq2. Therefore, the potential energy of the
system will be

Ques: Three point charges 1µC, -1µC, 2µC were initially infinite distance apart. Calculate the work done in assembling
these charges at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side 10cm (PYQ 2020)

Ans: To calculate the work done, we calculate the difference in the final and
Initial potential energy of the system.

The initial P.E of the system is zero as all charges were infinitely separated
The final P.E of system can be calculated as-

Note: Work done by system (Wsys) = -Work done by ext. force (Wext)

Potential energy in an external field

1. Potential energy of a single charge
If a charge q is brought from infinity to a given point in an external electric field E(r) , its potential energy will be equal to
q.V(r) where V(r) is the potential due to the external field at that point.
For e.g. if an electron is accelerated through a potential difference of V it will gain energy equal to eV. This unit of energy
is defined as electron volt (eV) and 1eV= 1.6 × 10-19 J.

2. Potential energy of a system of two charges in an external field (PYQ 2018)

To calculate the potential energy of a system of two charges (q1, q2) in
An external field, first we calculate the work done in bringing charge q1
From infinity which will be q1.V(r1). Then we calculate the work done in
Bringing q2 from infinity, but this time the work done is not just against the external electric field but also against the
field due to q1.
Work done on q2 due to external field = q2.V(r2)
Work done on q2 due to q1 = kq1q2/r12

Therefore, total potential energy of the system = q1.V(r1) + q2.V(r2) + kq1q2/r12

Ques: Two charges 7µC and -2µC are placed at (-9cm,0,0) and (9cm,0,0) resp. in an external electric field E= A/r2 where
A= 9 × 105 Cm-2. What is the potential energy of the system?

Ans: U = q1.V(r1) + q2.V(r2) + kq1q2/r12

First we need to calculate the expression for potential due to the field

Potential energy of dipole in external field

We know that when a dipole is kept in an external electric field, it
Experiences a torque ( ) = p X E which causes it to rotate.
Let the dipole be at an angle with the field initially. An external
Torque ( ext) is applied to it which is equal and opposite to the torque
Due to E. ext rotates the dipole (very slowly and without acceleration)
Such that it now makes an angle 1 with the field.
Let us calculate the work done in the process-
Let the dipole rotate in the plane of the paper by an infinitesimal amount d . Let the work done in this process be dw
This work done by the ext torque is stored in the form of potential energy of the dipole. Let U = 0 when = /2

Note: We take P.E of dipole 0 at = /2 because the work done in bringing the two charges from infinity will be equal
and opposite and will cancel out in this configuration.

Important PQYs

Ques: calculate P.E of a dipole with charges q, -q Ques: A dipole of length 4cm makes an angle of 60°
And length L and in stable equilibrium with field E with the electric field and experiences a torque of
(PYQ 2020) Nm. Calculate P.E of dipole if it has a charge
Of ±8nC (PYQ 2014)
Ans: stable equilibrium means = 0°
U = - p.E = -qL E cos0° = -qLE Ans:

Electrostatics of conductors
Metallic conductors have mobile charge carriers in the form of free electrons.

1. Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero (PYQ 2012)

In electrostatic situation, when there is no current inside or on the surface of the conductor, the electric field is zero
inside the conductor. This is because, in static situation the free charges inside the conductor are distributed in such a
way that the net electrostatic field inside a conductor is zero everywhere.

2. At the surface of a charged conductor electrostatic field must be normal to the surface at every point
If E was not normal to the surface, there would be a component of E parallel to the surface which would cause the
charges on the surface to move. But since it is a static situation, that should not be the case. Therefore, electrostatic
field should be normal to the surface of a conductor at all points.

3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static situation
When a conductor is charged, all the excess charge must reside at the surface in static situation. This follows from
Gauss’s law. Consider any arbitrary Gaussian surface inside a conductor, since electric field is 0 inside the conductor, net
flux through the surface is also 0. This implies that the net charge enclosed inside the surface is also zero.

4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor and has the same value (as inside) on
the surface
This follows from results 1 and 2. Since E=0 everywhere inside the conductor and has no tangential component, no work
is done in moving a charged particle inside or on the surface of the conductor hence there is no potential difference
between any two points inside or on the surface of a conductor.

5. Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor

Where is the surface charge density and is a unit vector normal to the surface of the conductor in the Outward
direction.

Proof: consider a short cylindrical Gaussian surface that is half inside and half outside the conductor.

(Field inside conductor is 0)

6. Electrostatic shielding
Whatever be the charge and field configuration outside, any cavity in a conductor remains shielded from outside
electric influence i.e. the field inside the cavity is always zero.
Use- to protect sensitive instruments from outside electrical influence.

Note: when a conductor is kept in an external electric field, the charge carriers (free e-s) move and are redistributed
in such a way that the electric field produced due to the induced charges opposes the external field such that the
two fields cancel each other out completely and net electrostatic field inside the conductor is zero.

Dielectrics and polarization

Dielectrics are non-conducting substances.

Dielectric in an external field

When a dielectric is kept in an external electric field, the field causes re orientation of the molecules of the dielectric
such that each molecule becomes a dipole and the net result of this is the appearance of charges on the surface of
the dielectric which produces a field which opposes the external field. This is called polarization of a dielectric.
Unlike a conductor, this induced field doesn’t cancel out the external field completely but can only reduce it.

The extent of polarization depends on two factors-

i) The potential energy of the dipole in the external field trying to align the dipole along the field
ii) The thermal energy tending to disrupt the alignment

Let E˳ be the external field and Ep be the field due to polarization of the dielectric and let E be the net field inside the
dielectric
Note:
linear isotropic dielectrics- dielectrics for which the induced dipole moment is the direction of the field and is
proportional to the field strength
polar molecules- the +ve and ve centers coincide | non-polar molecules- the +ve and ve centers don’t coincide
e.g. O2, H2 e.g. HCl, H2O

Polarization (P)
It is a vector | Polarization is defined as the induced dipole moment per unit volume. Its direction is given by the
direction of the induced dipole moment.

i.e. Polarization vector is numerically equal to the induced surface charge density

Electrical displacement (D)

It is a vector | Electrical displacement is directly related to free charge density in a dielectric medium (i.e. it replaces E
which is directly related to the free charge density in free space)

Since P is in the same direction as E, all three quantities D, P, E are parallel.

The ratio of magnitudes of D and E

Which is called electric susceptibility

Capacitors and Capacitance (PYQ 2020,2019, 2018, 2017, 2016, 2015, 2014, 2013, 2011,2010)

Capacitor: A system of two conductors separated by an insulator which is used to store electrical energy/ charge.

The two conductors have charges Q and Q. Q is called the charge of the capacitor.
The total charge on capacitor = 0
The electric field in the region between the conductors is proportional to the charge.
The pot. Difference (V) b/w the conductors is the work done in taking a unit +ve charge from one conductor to
another

Capacitance: The ratio Q/V for a capacitor is constant and is called the capacitance (c) of the capacitor.| SI unit: Farad (F)

Note: C is independent of both Q and V and only depends on the geometrical configuration (shape, size, separation) of
the system of the conductors

Principle of capacitors: When a charged conductor is kept near an uncharged conductor, its capacitance increases.

Induced negative charge

lowers potential
Types of capacitors
1. Spherical capacitor (NCERT back exercise Q 2.29) (Removed for 2023-24)

Isolated spherical capacitor- it consists of a single isolated hollow metal sphere. It stores energy in the region from its
surface to infinity.
Consider a hollow metal sphere with charge Q and radius R. The potential at its surface can be written as-
Ques:

(Removed for 2023-24)

Ans: Concentric spherical capacitor- it consists of two charged concentric spheres. Energy is stored inside the cavity b/w
the spheres. (Removed for 2023-24)
Consider two concentric spheres with radius a and b (b>a). Let charge on a be +Q and on b be Q. The potential
difference between sphere a and b-

2. Cylindrical capacitor (NCERT back exercise Q 2.32) (Removed for 2023-24)

Ques:

It consists of two concentric cylinders of radius a and b (b>a). Let charge density of the cylinder be . To calculate the
potential difference b/w cylinder a and b, let us consider the field at a point P at a distance r from the axis of a. We
know that,
3. Parallel plate capacitor (PYQ 2014)
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting plates separated by a small distance.

Consider the following setup; two conducting plates of area A with charge Q and Q respectively and surface charge
density σ= Q/A are separated by a distance d.

Let us calculate the Electric field in the three regions- We know,

Note: Fringing effect/ End effect of field- for plates of finite area, the field lines bend outwards at the edges.
Important PYQ

Ques:

(PYQ 2013)

Ans:1) C = Q/V 2) Q = CV
C= 360µC/V; C= 120 µC/ V-120 = 2µF × 400 V
Equating both we get, = 800µC
V= 180V, C= 2µF

Effect of dielectric on capacitance (PYQ 2020, 2016, 2010)

A dielectric medium of dielectric constant K is inserted between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor
Earlier the field b w the plates was E σ . But now since there is a dielectric between the plates, the electric field will
be modified (as described in polarisation of dielectrics)

Case 1: when space b/w the plates are completely filled with dielectric

Let the new field be E-

Case 2: When space b/w the plates is partially filled with dielectric .

Consider a case where a dielectric medium of dielectric constant K and thickness t is placed b/w the plates of a capacitor
of plate separation d (d>t)

Let us calculate the electric field at the 3 points-

Combination of Capacitors
1. Series combination
Consider the two capacitors C1& C2, connected with each other and a battery of emf V (as shown in the figure), have
charge Q each. Let the potential drop across C1& C2 be V1 and V2 resp. Then we can say that the total potential drop
across the combination is equal to the sum of the potential drops across C1& C2 i.e.
We can see the combination as a capacitor with an effective capacitance C, charge Q and potential drop V-

2. Parallel combination
Consider the two capacitors C1& C2, connected with each other and a battery of emf V (as shown in the figure). In
this case, both capacitors will have the same potential difference. Let the charge on C1& C2 be Q1 & Q2 resp. We can
imagine the combination as a capacitor (C) with charge Q, which is the sum of the charges Q1 & Q2-

Note: Both of these results are true for any arbitrary number (n) of capacitors.

Important PYQ

(PYQ 2020)

Case 1

Equating both

Case 2

In the second case, we can imagine the

capacitor as a combination of two capacitors
connected in series.
 Energy stored in capacitor (U) (PYQ 2019, 2018, 2017, 2016, 2015, 2014, 2011, 2010)
Consider an uncharged isolated hollow metal sphere. To calculate the energy stored when it will be fully charged to
a charge Q, we need to find the work done in charging this sphere to a total charge Q. To calculate the total work
done, we will first calculate the work done in transferring an infinitesimal charge dq (from infinity) when the sphere
has acquired a total charge q. (No Derivation, only formula)
Work done (dw) = change in potential energy of charge dq = V. dq (where V is potential of sphere with total charge q)

This work done is stored as P.E

in the capacitor

Also,

Energy stored per unit volume/ energy density (u) ((PYQ 2021,2020,18) (No Derivation, only formula)
PYQ2014)
consider a parallel plate capacitor with plate area A, distance b/w plates d and surface charge density σ. The energy
stored in it will be-

Important PYQs

(PYQ 2019)
 Final energy
Ans: Initial energy
Total charge will remain conserved,

Similar PYQ

(PYQ 2018)

Ques:

(PYQ 2017)

Ans: Initial energy

For B, Q will remain constant (conservation of charge)

After dielectric is added

For A,V will remain const. As it

remained connected to the battery
Ques:

(PYQ 2016)

Ans:

(Series comb.)

Similar PYQ

Ques:

(PYQ 2014)
(Hint=- electric field is conservative)

Ques:

(PYQ 2011)
Ques:

(PYQ 2010)

Ans:

Charge will remain conserved ,

SOlUtIoNs fOr sImIlAr PyQS

1) PYQ 2018 soln

2) PYQ 2018 soln
a. Potential at (0,0,z)
a. let P.E. Of capacitors be U and U

( mod because z can be

less than or greater than a)

Potential at (x,y,0)
b. Let charge on capacitors be Q and Q
Since this point lies in the XY plane, it will be
equidistant from both the charges lying on the
z axis. Therefore,

(Total charge remains conserved)

(Q=CV)

b. Similarly, both these points lie on the x

axis and hence will be equidistant from the
two charges and potential at both points will
be zero. So,

c. When the two capacitors are connected in

parallel, redistribution of charge takes place
c. Since electrostatic force is a conservative between them and some energy is lost as
force, work done by it depends only on the heat during this process.
initial and final position of the charge and not
the path followed
3. PYQ 2014 soln 4. PYQ 2011 soln
Electrostatic field is conservative in nature i.e. a. Let capacitance of each be C
the work done by it depends only on the We know that net capacitance in series is-
initial and final position of the charge and not
the path followed. Since the charge is moved
in a closed loop abcd i.e. initial and final
position are same, the net work done in the
process is zero.
Therefore, net capacitance in parallel-

b. Let energy in series and parallel be U and U resp

 a. ELECTROSTATICS: ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD
Electrostatics is the study of charges at rest.
¥ Charge (q)
- Charge is an intrinsic property of matter due to which it experiences Electrostatic forces of attraction and repulsion.
- There are two types of charges; positive (e.g. proton) and negative (e.g. electron)
- Charge on a single electron is T
e = 1.6 × 10-19C | SI Unit- Coulomb(C) ① ← →
①
Properties of charge
① → ←
f
1. Attraction and repulsion: Like charges repel each other | Unlike charges attract each other

2. Additive nature of charge: Charge is additive in nature i.e. total charge on a body is the algebraic sum of all charges
present on the body.
mas
Ques: '
Total charge on body = +10C +5C -3C-2C
= 10C Ans.

3. Quantisation of charge
- Charge on a body is the integral multiple of charge on a single Electron.
i.e. IQ = ne
Where e is the charge on a single electron and n
Ques: Calculate the no. of electrons in 1C charge

Ans: q= ne; 1= n × 1.6×10-19;;n= 6.25 × 1018 electrons.

4. Invariability of charge
- Charge is invariable in nature i.e. the charge on a body does not depend on its state of rest or motion.

Principle of conservation of charge

In an isolated s stem charge can neither be created nor destro ed
-

Note: If a body has excess electrons, it has a negative charge.

If a body has excess protons, it has a positive charge.

Methods of charging bodies

1. Charging bodies by rubbing/friction
When two bodies are rubbed together, the friction between the bodies causes transfer of electrons from one body
to another and as a result both bodies become charged. The body which loses electrons becomes positively charged
and the body which gains electrons becomes negatively charged.
Eg - rubbing glass rod with silk, rubbing plastic rod with fur

- By convention, charge on glass rod and fur is positive and charge on silk cloth and plastic rod is negative.
 a. ELECTROSTATICS: ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD
Electrostatics is the study of charges at rest.
¥ Charge (q)
- Charge is an intrinsic property of matter due to which it experiences Electrostatic forces of attraction and repulsion.
- There are two types of charges; positive (e.g. proton) and negative (e.g. electron)
- Charge on a single electron is T
e = 1.6 × 10-19C | SI Unit- Coulomb(C) ① ← →
①
Properties of charge ( PYQ 2021,20,18,17 )
① → ←
f
1. Attraction and repulsion: Like charges repel each other | Unlike charges attract each other

2. Additive nature of charge: Charge is additive in nature i.e. total charge on a body is the algebraic sum of all charges
present on the body.
mas
Ques: '
Total charge on body = +10C +5C -3C-2C
= 10C Ans.

3. Quantisation of charge
- Charge on a body is the integral multiple of charge on a single Electron.
i.e. IQ = ne
Where e is the charge on a single electron and n
Ques: Calculate the no. of electrons in 1C charge

Ans: q= ne; 1= n × 1.6×10-19;;n= 6.25 × 1018 electrons.

4. Invariability of charge
- Charge is invariable in nature i.e. the charge on a body does not depend on its state of rest or motion.

Principle of conservation of charge

In an isolated s stem charge can neither be created nor destro ed
-

Note: If a body has excess electrons, it has a negative charge.

If a body has excess protons, it has a positive charge.

Methods of charging bodies (Removed for 2023-24)

1. Charging bodies by rubbing/friction
When two bodies are rubbed together, the friction between the bodies causes transfer of electrons from one body
to another and as a result both bodies become charged. The body which loses electrons becomes positively charged
and the body which gains electrons becomes negatively charged.
Eg - rubbing glass rod with silk, rubbing plastic rod with fur

- By convention, charge on glass rod and fur is positive and charge on silk cloth and plastic rod is negative.
 2. Charging by touch
When a charged body is made to touch an uncharged body, some of the charge from the charged body is
transferred to the other body. This is called charging by touch.

3. Charging by induction
Let us understand charging by induction through an example.
- Take two metallic spheres A and B (mounted on insulating stands) and bring them together.
- Now, bring a positively charged rod near the left end of sphere A (not touching).
- The positive charge of the rod attracts the electrons of A as a result there is an excessive negative charge on left side
of A. At the same time, there is an accumulation of excessive positive charge on right side of sphere B due to
repulsive forces.
- So, we see that at the end of this process, both spheres become charged. This process of charging is called charging
by induction.

Note: 1. Charges on both spheres will be equal and opposite.

2. Not all the electrons in the sphere accumulate on one side because as electrons keep getting accumulated, the
incoming electrons feel a strong force of repulsion from the already accumulated electrons. Over time equilibrium is
set up under the force of attraction of the rod and force of repulsion of the electrons.

¥ Gold leaf Electroscope (Removed for 2023-24)

- Used to detect charge on a body.

Working: when a charged body is brought near or touched with

the metal knob, charge travels to the leaves through the rod.
Since both the leaves have the same charge they diverge(repel)
The degree of divergence is an indicator of amount of charge.
t Co lomb La
II (PYQ 2019, 2014, 2011)
-

The magnitude of electrostatic force between two point objects is directly proportional to the product of the two
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them and acts along the line joining their
centres.
Fg oh
,

←••q •q→ Fang ,

O
.
PERMITTIVITY OF FREE SPACE ( )

=
=8.85×10-12 C2N-1m-2

PERMITTIVITY IN MEDIUM ( )
There exists a relation between permittivity in free space/vacuum and that in a medium.
r=K= / , where r is the relative permittivity of medium AKA K ( dielectric constant of medium)

"'÷÷÷
Ques: Plot a graph showing variation of coulomb force (F) versus 1/r2, where r is the distance between the two charges
of each pair of charges A(1µC,2µC) and B (1µC, -3µC) (PYQ 2011)

soln: We know F 1/r2, therefore, Similar PYQs

:3
tie
ques: A thin metallic spherical shell of radius R
carries a charge Q on its surface. A point charge
Q/2 is placed at its center C and another charge
+2Q is placed at a distance x from the center.
Find force on the charge Q/2 and 2Q. (PYQ 2015)

Hint: field
inside shell is
Since F q1q2 , graph for pair B will have greater slope zero
Than slope of pair A.

Force between multiple charges

Principle of superposition
Principle of superposition talks about two things
1. Net force on any charge is the vector sum of all the forces acting on that charge
2. The individual forces between two charges are unaffected due to the presence of other charges
 Ques:

É
"

±E_
•
÷.
'

Cos 30 =

a-
÷ :* .
Soln In ABC e can calculate
AO=BO=CO= l/2 ÷ cos30 ☐ l % =

Now, let us calculate the forces between the three charges at the vertices and charge Q at the centroid individually
: y
(principle of superposition)
①
F1 =3kq 2
①
1Q/l (-ĵ Kai?
T
÷ µ
88
2
F2= 3kq1Q/l sin î cos ĵ
F3= 3kq1Q/l2 (-sin î cos ĵ
i' :

*
% → ✗

hi i
→

a. e. a

Now to calculate net force on Q we find the vector sum of the forces F1 + F2 + F3 which amounts to zero.
We can also see by symmetry that net force on Q is zero.

* Electric Field
- -

Electric field can be defined as the space around a charge in which another charge experiences an electrostatic force of
attraction and repulsion An electric charge Q produces an electric field ever here in its surrounding.

÷
Electric field strength/ field intensity (E)
- Electric field strength at a point is defined as the force that a unit charge experiences when kept at that point.
- Mathematically , lim q 0 E=F/q
- It is a vector quantity | SI Unit- N/C or V/m

General expression for field strength:

'

.at#q- Fora

Let us take a charge Q. at a distance r from it, there is another unit charge q. the force on q due to Q can be written
as-

F = k Q.q/r2
E = F/q
0
E = k Q/r2

Note: Electric field strength also follows law of superposition i.e. net electric field strength at a point is the vector
sum of all field strengths due to individual charges.
Characteristics of Electric field ( PYQ 2021,19,18,17 )
1. Electric field at a point doesn t depend on charge q as the ratio F/q is independent of q.
2. For a positive point charge electric field is directed radially outwards.
3. For a negative point charge electric field is directed radially inwards.
4. Magnitude of E due to a charge Q depends inversely on R2, so at equal distances from the charge Q, E will have same
magnitude i.e. it shows radial symmetry.

Ques: A charge is uniformly distributed over a ring of radius a. Obtain an expression for the electric field at its center.
Hence show that for large distances it behaves like a point charge. (PYQ 2016) (Removed For 2223-24)
ok

Ans. Consider a differential

Element of length dl
And charge dq

Field along x-axis

I
Field along y-axis

:
:÷÷
(Due to symmetry)

. : So, field at center

¥"""
Similar PYQs ¥¥E÷?

Electric Field lines (PYQ 2020,2019,2018,2017,2016,2015,2014,2013,2012,2011,2010) ±± .

- The concept of electric field lines was given by Faraday to visualise the strength of electric fields.

=
- Electric field lines are imaginary, straight or curved lines around charged bodies such that tangent to it at a point
gives direction of electric field at that point.

*le Electric field lines

Properties of Electric Field lines

Intersect
1. Field lines originate from a positive charge and terminate at a negative charge. each other

T
# E

-
 2. Two field lines can never intersect each other. (This is because at the point of intersection we can draw two tangents
which means electric field at the point of intersection will have two directions, which is not possible.) (PYQ)
3. Greater is the density of field lines, greater is the strength of electric field in the region

I
Strong field

Weak field

4. Electrostatic field lines do not form closed loops because of the conservative nature of electric field (i.e. work done
by electric field depends on final and initial position and not the path followed.)
5. Electric field lines do not have any breaks; they are continuous in nature.

¥ i÷÷
Ques: Draw pattern of electric field lines, when a point charge Q is kept near an uncharged conducting plate. (PYQ
'
2019)
Ans. ✓

Electric Dipole
An electric dipole is an arrangement of 2 equal and opposite charges kept at some finite distance.

Dipole Moment (P)

÷; .

- The dipole moment (vector quantity) of an electric dipole measures the strength of the dipole
- Its magnitude is equal to the product of the charge and the separation between the two charges
O
P = q.(2l)
- Its direction is along the dipole axis, from the negative charge to the positive charge.

Electric field due to dipole (PYQ

( PYQ2019,2018,2017,2016,2015,2011)
2022,21,20,19 ) i

A. Field on axial positon/ End on position (PYQ 2015)

.
; a

\ For r

-o¥÷
 B. Electric field on equatorial position/ Broad on position (PYQ 2017)

rise
cos .

Imo i
l Eor I
y
-

l l
l l

•q←#ofq
D Field along x-axis

I
-

x D Field along y axis

-

For d >> l

T c :*
.

top)
. ..

"t ¥÷7
Ques: what is the expression for the electric field produced by a dipole of moment p at a point at a distance r in the
"

equatorial plane? Draw a E v/s r graph for the same (PYQ

( PYQ2015)
2022,20,19,18 )
Ans:

(Hint: field will be 0 in b/w the

Similar PYQs charges, on the line joining
them)
ques: a) derive an expression for the electric field at the equatorial line for a dipole
b) Two identical point charges, q each are kept 2m apart in air. A third point charge Q of unknown magnitude and sign is
placed on the lone joining the charges such that system remains in equilibrium. Find the position and nature of Q.
(PYQ 2019)

Behaviour of dipole in external electric field

Let us assume that a dipole of dipole moment P is kept in a uniform external field E at an angle with the field.
→#E ¥

-
-
=qr#
F

As we can see from the figure, the net force on the dipole will be zero. But since line of action of the two forces is not
the same, the dipole will experience a torque which can be written as,
c- = GE X
2lsn.ro
c- =
Gq d) E Sind

p Es
.

Te
 - From this we can see that net torque on the dipole is zero when it makes an angle of 0°(parallel) or 180°(anti-
parallel) with the field.
- When the dipole is parallel to the field, it is known as the position of stable equilibrium and when it is anti-parallel, it
is known as the position of unstable equilibrium.
- The torque on the dipole is maximum when it is perpendicular to the field.

Dipole in non-uniform electric field

In a non-uniform field, the two charges +q, -q experience different forces therefore net force is not zero.
The net torque may or may not be zero depending upon the orientation of the dipole.

:
Electric Flux ( )
Electric flux can be defined as the number of field lines crossing per unit area, perpendicular to it.

Mathematically,
O
= E.A
= EAcos (Where E is the field vector and A is the area vector)

Note: the direction of the area vector is along the normal to the area.

tf
Ques: Given a uniform electric field E = 5 ×103 î N/C. Find flux of this field through a square of side 10cm whose plane is
'

parallel to the y-z plane. What would be the flux through the same square if its plane makes an angle of 30° with the x-
axis? (PYQ
( PYQ2014)
2021,19,18,16 )
Ans: 1) = E A cos
= 5 × 103 × 10-2 cos0° = 50 NC-1 m2
2) Since plane makes angle of 30°, normal will make angle of 90-30= 60°
=E A cos = 5 × 103 × 10-2 cos60°= 25 NC-1 m2

Ga La (PYQ
( PYQ 2019,2018,2017,2016,2014)
2022,21,20,19,18 ) ii
Total electric flu through a closed surface is equal to 1/ times the total charge enclosed b the closed surface

Derivation:
o
= ∮E.ds=q/ ˳

Let us assume a sphere of radius r which encloses charge q. Consider differential area ds. The flux through ds can be
written as,
 .

KIN
× E-

I .

Note: if net charge enclosed by a surface is zero, then the net flux through that surface is also zero (since =q/ ).
Impo an poin ega ding Ga la
- Gauss la is true for an closed surface irrespective of its shape
- The term q on the right side of the equation refers to all the charges inside the closed surface.
- The term E on the left side is due to all charges both inside and outside the surface.
- The closed surface is called Gaussian surface and it cannot pass through a point charge (can pass through continuous
charge)
- Gauss la is based on inverse square dependence on distance as seen in coulomb s la . Any violation of gauss law
will result in departure from the inverse square law.

"
Ques: Consider two hollow concentric spheres, S1 and S2 (S2>S1) enclosing charges 2Q and 4Q resp. Find the ratio of
flux through them. How will the flux through S1 change if a medium of dielectric constant k is introduced in S1? (PYQ
2014)

Ans: %
According to gauss law, = q/ Eh {a
1) 1= 2Q/ ; 2= 6Q/
t
-
-

1/ 2 =1/3

Qm÷sed
2) If a medium of dielectric const K is introduced in S1
=k
1 = 2Q/k

Similar PYQs

( PYQ 2020 , Ans A )

(According to gauss law)

Application of Ga La
I) Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire (PYQ
( PYQ2017)
2021,20,17)
Consider an infinite straight wire with uniform charge density ,, draw a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r and
length l around it.

( " Ets .E
,
e , y
"

÷
'

also,

Equating 1,2

i÷•zg¥BBa
Important PYQ

( PYQ 2016)

II) FIELD DUE TO UNIFORMLY CHARGED PLANE SHEET (PYQ 2017)

Consider an infinite plane sheet with uniform charge density , draw a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r and length
2l as shown.

←
 • C : EIS )
0
>

I I ✓ It
( : E HSI ,
Ell STL )

I I

paid
also, -
②

Equating 1,2
-

0
Important PYQ

( PYQ 2017)

.
III) FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED THIN SPHERICAL SHELL (PYQ 2020) (Removed for 2023-24)
Consider a uniformly charged spherical shell of radius r with uniform charge density , draw a spherical Gaussian surface
of radius x

Case 1: x > r
Consider the Gaussian surface at a distance x (from centre) outside the sphere

/
-
According to Gauss’s law Equating 1,2
-

X
C :
-

Elim ) ×

• Ei
x ④ D
also, For x=r

x -

ti )

z
Not included in CBSE 2020-21
Case 2: x < r

Consider the Gaussian surface inside the sphere. As shown in the previous part

Charge enclosed in this Gaussian surface is 0 therefore,

Ques: A hollow cylindrical box of length 1m and area of cross-section 25 cm2 is placed in a three dimensional coordinate
system as shown in the figure. The electric field in the region is given by E = 50x î, where E is in NC-1 and x is in meters.
Find
i) Net flux through the cylinder
ii) Charge enclosed by the cylinder ( PYQ
(PYQ 2013 )
2013)

Ans:

Important PYQ

( PYQ 2018 )
( PYQ 2020)
 ET
SoLuTiOnS fOr sImIlAr PyQS '

÷ ,÷ µ÷÷ µ÷ ÷
:
Ans4. PYQ 2016 soln
Ans 1. PYQ 2015 soln
According to gauss law,
A. Force on Q/2
Since charge enclosed remains same, flux doesn’t
(Field inside conductor is 0)
change.

Ans5. PYQ 2018 soln

B. Force on 2Q

Ans 2. PYQ 2018 soln

Ans6. PYQ 2020 soln

Ans3. PYQ 2019 soln

Nature is positive (see fig)

 1.

Electric Charges and Fields

1. Draw the pattern of electric field lines, when a point charge –Q is kept near an uncharged
conducting plate. [CBSE DELHI 2019]

Ans. –Q

+– + – + – + – 1 1

[Note: (i) Deduct ½ mark, if arrow are not shown.

(ii) Do not deduct any mark, if charges on the plates are not shown.

2. Define electric flux. Is it a scalar or a vector quantity. [CBSE DELHI 2018]

Ans. (a) Electric flux through a given surface is defined as the dot
product of electric field and area vector over that surface.
½

Alternatively E . dS
s
1
Also accept
Electric flux, through a surface equals the surface integral of the
electric field over that surface. ½

It is a scalar quantity.

3. Write two properties by which electric potential is related to the electric field.
[CBSE DELHI COMPARTMENT 2017]

Ans. (i) Electric field is in the direction in which potential decreases at

the maximum rate.
½
(ii) Magnitude of electric field is given by change in the magnitude
of potential per unit displacement normal to a charged conducting
surface. 1

[Alternatively: award half mark of part ‘a’ if student writes only ½

dV
E ]
dr
 2.

4. How does the electric flux due to a point charge enclosed by a spherical Gaussian surface
get affected when its radius is increased? [CBSE DELHI 2016]

Ans. Electric flux remains unaffected.

[Note: (As per the Hindi translation), change in Electric field is 1 1
being asked, hence give credit if student writes answer as decreases]

5. What is the electric flux through a cube of side 1 cm which encloses an electric dipole?
[CBSE DELHI 2015]

Ans. In a cubic surface, the net electric charge will be zero since dipole
carries equal and opposite charges. It is observed that the net electric
1 1
flux through closed surface will be [Charge enclosed / ε₀] and
because the charge enclosed is zero. Electric flux is also zero.

6. Why should electrostatic field be zero inside a conductor? [CBSE DELHI 2012]

Ans. For a charged conductor, the charges will lie on the surface of the
conductor. So, there will not be any charges inside the conductor.
1 1
When there is no charge there will not be electric field.

7. If the net electric flux through a closed surface is zero, then we can infer
(a) no net charge is enclosed by the surface
(b) uniform electric field exists within the surface.
(c) electric potential varies from point to point inside the surface.
(d) charge is present inside the surface. [CBSE DELHI 2020]

Ans. (a) No net charge is enclosed by the surface.

Explanation:
1. Net electric flux is directly proportional to the net electric
charge enclosed by the surface.
1 1
2. In a closed surface, if the net electric flux is zero, then the net
electric charge will also be zero.
3. Since electric flux is defined as the rate of flow of electric field
in a closed area and if the electric flux is zero the overall
electric charge within the closed boundary will also be zero.

8. Draw a plot showing the nature of variation of the Electric field (E) and potential (V), of a
(small) electric dipole with the distance (r) of the field point from the centre of the dipole.
 3.

Ans. Electric potential Electric Field

½
Q 1 Q 1
V ; i.e., V E 2
; i.e., E
4 0r r 4 0r r2

The graph below shows us the variation of E and V with distance

‘r’.
1

9. A charge q is placed at the point of intersection of body diagonals of a cube. Electric flux
passing through any one of its face.

Ans.

Charge is placed at the point of intersection of body diagonal of a

cube which means charge placed a the centre of cube.
1 1
According to Gauss theorem, the electric flux through the whose
q
cube is given by · Since, a cube has total 6 faces, the flux will be
0
1
divided equally among those 6 faces each will receive th of the
6
q
total flux. So the required flux will be ·
6 0

10. A point positive charge is brought near a isolated conducting sphere. Which of the
following figure correctly shows the electric field lines.
 4.

Ans. (i) is the correct answer

The electrical lines move from positive charge to negative

charge.

When positive charge is brought near conducting sphere from

left side then negative charges are formed on the left side and
equal amount of positive charges are formed on right side on 1 1
conducting sphere.

The electrical lines from positive charges flow from positive to

negative and the electrical lines are emanate from positive
charges.
Directions: These questions consist of two statements, each printed as Assertion and Reason.
While answering these questions, you are required to choose any one of the following four
responses.
(A) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and the Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(B) If both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(C) If the Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(D) If both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
(E) Assertion is & Reason correct
If wrong
is

1. Assertion (A): If proton and an electron are placed in the same uniform electric field
experience forces of different magnitudes.
Reason (R): Electrostatic force on a charge is independent of mass.

2. Assertion (A): The Coulomb force is the strongest force in the universe.
Reason (R): Nuclear forces are weaker than Coulomb force.
-

3. Assertion (A): In a non-uniform electric field, a dipole will have translatory as well as
rotatory motion.
Reason (R): In a non-uniform electric field, a dipole experiences a force as well as torque.

4. Assertion (A): The coulomb force is the dominating force in the universe.
Reason (R): Coulomb force is weaker than gravitational force.

5. Assertion (A): Electric lines of force cross each other.

Reason (R): The resultant electric field at a point is the superimposition of the electric
fields at that point.

6 . Assertion (A): Gauss theorem is not applicable in magnetism.

Reason (R): Magnetic mono pole do not exist.

7. Assertion (A): If two spherical conductors of different radii have the same surface
charge densities their electric field intensities will be equal.
Reason (R): Surface charge density (Total charge) / area.
[CBSE Marking Scheme, 2021]
 Electric Charges and Fields

CASE STUDY 1:

FARADAY CAGE:

A Faraday cage or Faraday shield is an enclosure made of a conducting material. The

fields within a conductor cancel out with any external fields, so the electric field within
the enclosure is zero. These Faraday cages act as big hollow conductors you can put
things in to shield them from electrical fields. Any electrical shocks the cage receives,
pass harmlessly around the outside of the cage.

1. Which of the following material can be used to make a Faraday cage?

(a) Plastic
(b) Glass
(c) Copper
(d) Wood

2. Example of a real-world Faraday cage is

(a) Car
(b) Plastic box
(c) Lightning rod
(d) Metal rod

3. What is the electrical force inside Faraday cage when it is struck by lightning?
(a) The same as the lightning
(b) Half that of the lightning
(c) Zero
(d) A quarter of the lightning
4. An isolated point charge q is placed inside the Faraday cage. Its surface must have
charge equal to

(a) Zero
(b) +q
(c) -q
(d) +2q

5. A point charge of 2C is placed at centre of Faraday cage in the shape of cube with
surface of 9 cm edge. The number of electric field lines passing through the cube
normally will be

a) 1.9105 Nm2 /C entering the surface

b) 1.9105 Nm2 /C leaving the surface
c) 2.0105 Nm2 /C leaving the surface
d) 2.0105 Nm2 /C entering the surface

CASE STUDY 2:

Electric field strength is proportional to the density of lines of force i.e, electric field
strength at a point is proportional to the number of lines of force cutting a unit area
element placed normal to the field at that point. As illustrated in given figure, the
electric field at P is stronger than at Q
(i) Electric lines of force about a positive point charge are

(a) radially outwards

(b) circular clockwise
(c) radially inwards
(d) parallel straight lines

(ii) Which of the following is false for electric lines of force?

(a) They always start from positive charge and terminate on negative charges.
(b) They are always perpendicular to the surface of a charged conductor.
(c) They always form closed loops.
(d) They are parallel and equally spaced in a region of uniform electric field.

(iii) Which one of the following patterns of electric line of force is not possible in
field due to stationary charges?

(iv) Electric field lines are curved

(a) in the field of a single positive or negative charge

(b) in the field of two equal and opposite charges.
(c) in the field of two like charges.
(d) both (b) and (c)
(v) The figure below shows the electric field lines due to two positive charges. The
magnitudes EA, EB and Ec of the electric fields at point A, B and C respectively are
related as

(a) EA> E B > EC

(b) EB> EA > EC
(c) EA= E B > E C
(d) EA> EB = EC