QMP 7.

1 D/F

Channabasaveshwara Institute of Technology

(Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum & Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
(NAAC Accredited & ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution)
NH 206 (B.H. Road), Gubbi, Tumkur – 572 216. Karnataka.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

2022 Scheme

Principles of communication systems

BEC402
IV Semester
Academic Year: 2023-24

Name :

USN :

Batch : Section :
 Channabasaveshwara Institute of Technology
(Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum & Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
(NAAC Accredited & ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution)
NH 206 (B.H. Road), Gubbi, Tumkur – 572 216. Karnataka.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

2022 Scheme

Principles of communication systems

BEC402

Academic Year: 2023-24

Prepared by: Approved by:

Dr. Veena kumari H M Dr. Thejaswini R

Professor HOD
Dept. of ECE Dept. of ECE

Mr. Manohara T N
Assistant Professor
Dept. of ECE

Ms. Gagana R
Assistant Professor
Dept. of ECE
 VISION OF THE INSTITUTE

“To create centres of excellence in education and to serve the society by

enhancing the quality of life through value based professional leadership”

MISSION STATEMENT OF THE INSTITUTE

▪ To provide high quality technical and professionally relevant education in a

diverse learning environment.
▪ To provide the values that prepare students to lead their lives with personal
integrity, professional ethics and civic responsibility in a global society.
▪ To prepare the next generation of skilled professionals to successfully compete
in the diverse global market.
▪ To promote a campus environment that welcomes and honors women and men
of all races, creeds and cultures, values and intellectual curiosity, pursuit of
knowledge and academic integrity and freedom.
▪ To offer a wide variety of off-campus education and training programmes to
individuals and groups.
▪ To stimulate collaborative efforts with industry, universities, government and
professional societies.
▪ To facilitate public understanding of technical issues and achieve excellence in
the operations of the institute.

QUALITY POLICY OF THE INSTITUTE

Our organization delights customers (students, parents and society) by providing

value added quality education to meet the national and international requirements.

We also provide necessary steps to train the students for placement and continue

to improve our methods of education to the students through effective quality

management system, quality policy and quality objectives.

 QMP 7.1 D/D
Channabasaveshwara Institute of Technology
(Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum & Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
(NAAC Accredited & ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution)
NH 206 (B.H. Road), Gubbi, Tumkur – 572 216. Karnataka.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

This course will enable students to

❖
Understand and analyze concepts of Analog Modulation schemes viz; AM, FM.
❖
Design and analyze the electronic circuits for AM and FM modulation and demodulation.
❖
Understand the concepts of random variable and random process to model

communication systems..
❖
Understand and analyze the concepts of digitization of signals.
❖
Evolve the concept of SNR in the presence of channel induced noise

COURSE OUTCOMES:

On the completion of this laboratory course, the students will be able to:
❖
Understand the principles of analog communication systems and noise modelling.
❖
Identify the schemes for analog modulation and demodulation and compare their

performance.
❖
Design of PCM systems through the processes sampling, quantization and encoding..
❖
Describe the ideal condition, practical considerations of the signal representation

for baseband transmission of digital signals.

❖
identify and associate the random variables and random process in Communication

system design.
digit
 ‘Instructions to the candidates’

• Student should come with through preparation for the experiment to be conducted.

• Student should take prior permission from the concerned faculty before availing the
leave.

• Student should come with proper dress code and to be present on time in the
laboratory.

• Student will not be permitted to attend the laboratory unless they bring the practical
record fully completed in all respects pertaining to the experiment conducted in the
previous class.

• Student will not be permitted to attend the laboratory unless they bring the
observation book fully completed in all respects pertaining to the experiment to be
conducted in present class.

• Experiment should be started conducting only after the staff-in-charge has checked
the circuit diagram.

• All the calculations should be made in the observation book. Specimen calculations
for one set of readings have to be shown in the practical record.

• Wherever graphs to be drawn, A-4 size graphs only should be used and the same
should be firmly attached in the practical record.

• Practical record and observation book should be neatly maintained.

• Student should obtain the signature of the staff-in-charge in the observation book after
completing each experiment.

• Theory related to each experiment should be written in the practical record before
procedure in your own words with appropriate references.
 QMP 7.1 D/D
Channabasaveshwara Institute of Technology
(Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum & Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
(NAAC Accredited & ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution)
NH 206 (B.H. Road), Gubbi, Tumkur – 572 216. Karnataka.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CONTENTS
Sl.No Title of the Experiment Page No
Basic Signals and Signal Graphing: a) Unit Step, b) Rectangular,
c) Standard triangle d) Sinusoidal and e) Exponential signal.
1. 1
Illustration of signal representation in time and frequency domains for a
2. rectangular pulse. 6
4

Amplitude Modulation and demodulation: Generation and display the

relevant signals and its spectrums.
3. 8
Frequency Modulation and demodulation: Generation and display the
4. relevant signals and its spectrums. 10

Sampling and reconstruction of low pass signals. Display the signals and
5. its spectrum.
12
6. Time Division Multiplexing and demultiplexing. 14

7. PCM Illustration: Sampling, Quantization and Encoding 16

Generate a)NRZ, RZ and Raised cosine pulse, b) Generate and plot eye
8. diagram 18

Generate the Probability density function of Gaussian distribution

9. function.
21
Display the signal and its spectrum of an audio signal.
10. 22
 INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB
MATLAB is a software package for high performance numerical computation and
visualization provides an interactive environment with hundreds of built in functions for
technical computation, graphics and animation. The MATLAB name stands for MATrix
LABoratory.
The diagram shows the main features and capabilities of MATLAB.

MATLAB

Graphics External interface

➢ 2-D graphics. Interface with C and

➢ 3-D graphics. FORTRAN Programs
➢ Animation.

Toolbox

➢ Signal Processing
➢ Image Processing
➢ Statistics
➢ Control system
➢ Neutral networks
➢ Communications
and many more….
At its core, MATLAB is essentially a set (a “toolbox”) of routines (called “m files’ or “mex
files”) that sit on your computer and a window that allows you to create new variables
with names (e.g. voltage and time) and process those variables with any of those routines
(e.g. plot voltage against time, find the largest voltage, etc.)

MATLAB® is a high-level language and interactive environment that enables you to

perform computationally intensive tasks faster than with traditional programming
languages such as C, C++, and Fortran.
Key Features:
• High-level language for technical computing.
• Development environment for managing code, files, and data.
• Interactive tools for iterative exploration, design, and problem solving.
• Mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis,
• Filtering, optimization, and numerical integration.
• 2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data.
• Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces.
• Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and
languages, such as C, C++, Fortran, Java, COM, and Microsoft® Excel®.

MATLAB Windows:
MATLAB works with through three basic windows
Command Window: This is the main window .It is characterized by MATLAB command
prompt(>>) when you launch the application program MATLAB puts you in this
window all commands including those for user-written programs ,are typed in this
window at the MATLAB prompt. Graphics window: The output of all graphics
commands typed in the command window are flushed to the graphics or figure
window, a separate gray window with white background color the user can create as
many windows as the system memory will allow.

Edit window: This is where you write edit, create and save your own programs in files
called M files.
Input-output:
MATLAB supports interactive computation taking the input from the screen and flushing
the output to the screen. In addition it can read input files and write output files.

Data Type: The fundamental data-type in MATLAB is the array. It encompasses several
distinct data objects- integers, real numbers, matrices. Character strings, structures and
cells. There is no need to declare variables as real or complex, MATLAB automatically sets
the variable to be real.
Dimensioning: Dimensioning is automatic in MATLAB. No dimension statements are
required for vectors or arrays. We can find the dimensions of an existing matrix or a vector
with the size and length commands.
IPCC:PCS-BEC402 IV Sem Version 1.0 AY: 2023-24

Experiment 1. Aim: Basic Signals and Signal Graphing: a) Unit Step, b) Rectangular,
c) Standard triangle d) sinusoidal and e) Exponential signal.
1a) GENERATION OF UNIT STEP SIGNAL
clc;
clear all;
close all;
n=input('Enter the n value:');
t=0:1:n-1;
y=ones(1,n)

stem(t,y);
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Discrete time unit step function');

Output:

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1b) Generation of Rectangular pulse.

% Define parameters
frequency = 1; % Frequency of the rectangular wave in Hz
amplitude = 1; % Amplitude of the rectangular wave
duration = 1; % Duration of the wave in seconds
sampling_rate = 1000; % Sampling rate in Hz

% Generate time vector

t = 0:1/sampling_rate:duration;

% Generate rectangular wave

rect_wave = amplitude * square(2*pi*frequency*t);

% Plot the wave

plot(t, rect_wave);
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Rectangular Waveform');

Output:

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1c) Generation of Standard Triangle signal.

A = [0, 0];

B = [1, 0];

C = [0.5, sqrt(3)/2];

% Plot the vertices

plot(A(1), A(2), 'ro'); % Vertex A

hold on;

plot(B(1), B(2), 'ro'); % Vertex B

plot(C(1), C(2), 'ro'); % Vertex C

% Connect the vertices to form the triangle

plot([A(1), B(1)], [A(2), B(2)], 'b'); % Line AB

plot([B(1), C(1)], [B(2), C(2)], 'b'); % Line BC

plot([C(1), A(1)], [C(2), A(2)], 'b'); % Line CA

% Set plot properties

axis equal; % Make the axes scale equally

grid on; % Show grid

xlabel('X');

ylabel('Y');

title('Standard Triangle');

Output:

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1d) Generation of sine wave y (n) =sin (2πfn)

clc;

clear all;

close all;

t=0:0.001:5;

f=1;

y=sin(2*pi*f*t);

plot(t,y,'g');

xlabel('Frequency');

ylabel('amplitude');

title('sine wave');

Output:

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1e) Generation of exponential signal.

clc;

clear all;

close all;

n=input('enter the N value:');

t=0:0.001:n;

a=input('enter the A value:');

y=exp(a*t);

stem(t,y,'y');

hold on;

plot(t,y,'r');

xlabel('Time');

ylabel('Amplitude');

title('Exponential function');

legend('Discrete','continuous');

Output:

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Experiment 2: Aim: Illustration of signal representation in time and frequency domains

for a rectangular pulse.

2a) Signal representation of rectangular pulse in time domain

% Define the parameters
t = -5:0.01:5; % time vector
width = 2; % width of the rectangular pulse
% center of the pulse

% Generate the rectangular pulse using rectpuls

x = rectpuls(t, width);

% Plot the rectangular pulse

plot(t, x);
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Rectangular Pulse in Time Domain');
axis([-5 5 -0.2 1.2]); % Set axis limits
grid on;

% Define the parameters

t = -5:0.01:5; % time vector
width = 2; % width of the rectangular pulse
center = 0; % center of the pulse

% Generate the rectangular pulse

x = (abs(t-center) <= width/2);
% Plot the rectangular pulse
plot(t, x);
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Rectangular Pulse in Time Domain');
axis([-5 5 -0.2 1.2]); % Set axis limits
grid on;

Output:

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2. b) signal representation of rectangular pulse in frequency domain

% Define the parameters
t = -5:0.01:5; % time vector for the rectangular pulse
T = 2; % width of the rectangular pulse
center = 0; % center of the pulse

% Generate the rectangular pulse

x = (abs(t-center) <= T/2);

% Compute the Fourier Transform

X = fft(x);

% Frequency vector
fs = 1/(t(2)-t(1)); % Sampling frequency
f = (-fs/2:fs/length(t):fs/2-fs/length(t)); % Frequency vector

% Plot the magnitude of the Fourier Transform

figure;
plot(f, fftshift(abs(X)));
xlabel('Frequency (Hz)');
ylabel('Magnitude');
title('Magnitude Spectrum of Rectangular Pulse');
grid on;

Output:

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Experiment 3. Aim: Amplitude Modulation and demodulation: Generation and display

the relevant signals and its spectrums.
clc;
close all;
vm=10;
vc=50;
fm=1;
fc=10;
t=-10:0.01:10;
%time domain%
m=vm*cos(2*pi*fm*t);
c=vc*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
subplot(4,1,1);
plot(t,m);
axis([-10 10 -50 50]);
title('message');
subplot(4,1,2);
plot(t,c);
axis([-2 2 -50 50]);
title('carrier');
fs=100;
s=m.*c;
subplot(4,1,3);
plot(t,s);
axis([-2 2 -500 500]);
title('modulated');
[B A]=butter(2,0.1,'low');
d=s.*c;
fi=filter(B,A,d);
subplot(4,1,4);
plot(t,fi);
axis([-10 10 -1000 1000]);
title('demodulated');
%frequency domain%
f= -(fs/2):fs/length(t):(fs/2)-(fs/length(t))/2;
figure;
subplot(4,1,1);
plot(f,fftshift(fft(m)));
title('message fourier');
subplot(4,1,2);
plot(f,fftshift(fft(c)));
title('carrier fourier');
subplot(4,1,3);
plot(f,fftshift(fft(s)));
title('modulated fourier');
subplot(4,1,4);
m=m.*5;
plot(f,fftshift(fft(fi)));
title('demodulated fourier');

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output:

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Experiment 4. Aim: Frequency Modulation and demodulation: Generation and display

the relevant signals and its spectrums.
Clc;close all;
fc=3000;
fs= 2*fc;
t=0:1/fs:1;
fm=5;
kf=500
m=sin(2*pi*fm*t);
y=fmmod(m,fc,fs,kf);
demodulated=fmdemod(y,fc,fs,kf);
subplot (3,1,1)
plot (t,m)
title('original signal')
xlabel('time(s)');
title('original signal');
xlabel('time(s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
subplot (3,1,2)
plot (t,demodulated)
title('demodulated signal')
xlabel('time(s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
subplot (3,1,3)
plot (t,y)
title('modulated signal')
xlabel('time(s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');

Output:

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Experiment 5. Aim: Sampling and reconstruction of low pass signals. Display the signals
and its spectrum.
clc;
clear all;
close all;% Define parameters
% Define parameters
Fs = 1000; % Sampling frequency (Hz)
T = 1/Fs; % Sampling period (s)
t = 0:T:1; % Time vector from 0 to 1 second
f1 = 5; % Frequency of the original signal (Hz)

% Generate a low-pass signal (sine wave)

x = sin(2*pi*f1*t);

% Plot the original signal

subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t,x);
title('Original Signal');
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');

% Sampling the signal

Fs_new = 200; % New sampling frequency (Hz), lower than the Nyquist rate
Ts_new = 1/Fs_new; % New sampling period (s)
n = 0:Ts_new:1; % New time vector
xn = sin(2*pi*f1*n);% Sampled signal

% Plot the sampled signal

subplot(3,1,2);
stem(n,xn);
title('Sampled Signal');
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');

% Reconstruction of the signal using sinc interpolation

x_reconstructed = zeros(size(t)); % Initialize the reconstructed signal
for i = 1:length(n)
x_reconstructed = x_reconstructed + sinc((t-n(i))/Ts_new) * xn(i);
end

% Plot the reconstructed signal

subplot(3,1,3);
plot(t,x_reconstructed);
title('Reconstructed Signal');
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');

Output:

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Experiment 6. Aim: Time Division Multiplexing and demultiplexing.

% Parameters
numChannels = 2; % Number of channels
numSamples = 50; % Number of samples per channel
timeSlot = 5; % Time slot for each channel (arbitrary)

% Generate sample data for each channel

channels = cell(1, numChannels);
for i = 1:numChannels
channels{i} = randn(1, numSamples);
end

% Time Division Multiplexing

TDM_signal = zeros(1, numChannels * numSamples);
for i = 1:numChannels
TDM_signal((i-1)*numSamples + 1:i*numSamples) = channels{i};
end

% Display original channels and TDM signal

figure;
subplot(numChannels + 1, 1, 1);
plot(TDM_signal, 'b');
title('TDM Signal');
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
for i = 1:numChannels
subplot(numChannels + 1, 1, i + 1);
plot(channels{i}, 'r');
title(['Channel ', num2str(i)]);
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
end

% Demultiplexing
demuxed_channels = cell(1, numChannels);
for i = 1:numChannels
demuxed_channels{i} = TDM_signal((i-1)*numSamples + 1:i*numSamples);
end

% Display demultiplexed channels

figure;
for i = 1:numChannels
subplot(numChannels, 1, i);
plot(demuxed_channels{i}, 'g');
title(['Demuxed Channel ', num2str(i)]);
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
end

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output:

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IPCC:PCS-BEC402 IV Sem Version 1.0 AY: 2023-24

Experiment 7. PCM Illustration: Sampling, Quantization and Encoding

clc; close all;
% Parameters
Fs = 1000; % Sampling frequency (Hz)
t = 0:1/Fs:1; % Time vector (1 second duration)
f = 5; % Frequency of the input sinusoid (Hz)
A = 1; % Amplitude of the sinusoid

% Generate a sinusoidal signal

x = A*sin(2*pi*f*t);

% Plot the original signal

subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t, x);
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Original Signal');

% Sampling
Fs_new = 100; % New sampling frequency (Hz)
t_new = 0:1/Fs_new:1; % New time vector
x_sampled = A*sin(2*pi*f*t_new);

% Plot the sampled signal

subplot(3,1,2);
stem(t_new, x_sampled);
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Sampled Signal');

% Quantization (uniform quantization)

bits = 3; % Number of bits for quantization
max_value = max(abs(x_sampled)); % Maximum absolute value of the signal
step_size = (2*max_value) / (2^bits); % Step size for quantization
quantized_signal = round(x_sampled / step_size) * step_size;

% Plot the quantized signal

subplot(3,1,3);
stem(t_new, quantized_signal);
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Quantized Signal');

% PCM encoding (convert quantized samples to binary)

% First, convert quantized samples to integers
quantized_integers = round(quantized_signal / step_size);
% Then, convert integers to binary
binary_signal = de2bi(quantized_integers);

% Display the binary signal

disp('PCM Encoded Signal (Binary):');
disp(binary_signal);

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Output:

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Experiment 8. Generate a) NRZ, RZ and Raised cosine pulse, b) Generate and plot eye diagram
% Generate NRZ signal
bitStream = randi([0, 1], 1, 100); % Generate a random bit stream of length 100

% NRZ Encoding
nrzSignal = 2 * bitStream - 1; % Convert 0s to -1s and 1s to 1s

% Plot the NRZ signal

figure;
plot(nrzSignal, 'LineWidth', 2);
grid on;
axis([0 length(nrzSignal) -1.5 1.5]);
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) Signal');

output:

% Generate RZ signal

rz_signal = zeros(1, length(bits) * sampling_rate * bit_duration);

for i = 1:length(bits)
if bits(i) == 1
rz_signal((i-1)*sampling_rate*bit_duration + 1 : (i-1)*sampling_rate*bit_duration +
sampling_rate*bit_duration/2) = 1;
end
end

% Plot RZ signal
plot(t, rz_signal);
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Return-to-Zero (RZ) Signal');

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Output:

eye diagram % Parameters

bit_duration = 1; % Duration of each bit in seconds
bit_rate =5; % Bit rate in bits per second
sampling_rate = 10 * bit_rate; % Sampling rate in samples per second
num_bits = 20; % Number of bits
noise_power = 0.1; % Noise power

% Generate random bits

bits = randi([0,1], 1, num_bits);

% Generate NRZ signal

nrz_signal = repmat(bits, [sampling_rate * bit_duration, 1]);
nrz_signal = nrz_signal(:)';

% Add noise to the signal

noisy_signal = nrz_signal + sqrt(noise_power) * randn(size(nrz_signal));

% Reshape the noisy signal to create an eye diagram

eye_matrix = reshape(noisy_signal, [sampling_rate * bit_duration, num_bits]);

% Plot the eye diagram

t = linspace(0, bit_duration, sampling_rate * bit_duration);
figure;
plot(t, eye_matrix, 'b');
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Eye Diagram');
grid on;

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Output:

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Experiment 9. Generate the Probability density function of Gaussian distribution

function.
% Parameters of the Gaussian distribution
mu = 0; % Mean
sigma = 1; % Standard deviation

% Define the range for x values

x = linspace(-5, 5, 1000);

% Compute the probability density function (PDF)

pdf = (1 / (sigma * sqrt(2*pi))) * exp(-(x - mu).^2 / (2 * sigma^2));

% Plot the PDF

plot(x, pdf, 'LineWidth', 2);
xlabel('x');
ylabel('Probability Density');
title('Probability Density Function of Gaussian Distribution');
grid on;

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Experiment 10. Display the signal and its spectrum of an audio signal.
filename = 'your_audio_file.wav'; % Change 'your_audio_file.wav' to the name of your audio file
[y, Fs] = audioread(filename);

% Plot the waveform of the audio signal

t = (0:length(y)-1) / Fs; % Time vector
figure;
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t, y);
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Audio Signal Waveform');

% Compute the Fourier Transform of the audio signal

Y = fft(y);

% Compute the frequency vector

f = Fs*(0:(length(y)/2))/length(y);

% Plot the magnitude spectrum

subplot(2,1,2);
plot(f, 2*abs(Y(1:length(y)/2+1)));
xlabel('Frequency (Hz)');
ylabel('Magnitude');
title('Magnitude Spectrum of Audio Signal');
grid on;

Output:

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References:

 "Principles of Digital Audio" by Ken C. Pohlmann: Covers the fundamentals of

digital audio, including PCM.
 "Digital Signal Processing: Principles, Algorithms, and Applications" by John G.
Proakis and Dimitris G. Manolakis: Provides a comprehensive introduction to digital
signal processing, which is essential for understanding PCM.

Dept., ECE, CIT, Gubbi Page 23