Article

A Wide Bandwidth Vivaldi Antenna Suitable for 5G/6G

Communication Utilizing a CMOS 0.18 µm Process
Ming-An Chung * , Chung-Wu Ting and Kuo-Chun Tseng

Department of Electronic Engineering, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei 10608, Taiwan;
[email protected] (C.-W.T.); [email protected] (K.-C.T.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +886-2-2771-2171 (ext. 2212)

Abstract: This text proposes a Vivaldi structure array antenna, using a power divider structure. The
composition includes an antenna array with four antennas, suitable for a wideband array structure
antenna in the 100 GHz frequency band. The goal is to address the challenges faced by monolithic
systems in modern wireless communications, particularly the issue of the inapplicability of antennas
on silicon substrates. The Vivaldi antenna was chosen for its wide bandwidth, high efficiency,
and stable radiation pattern. It combines the characteristics of a wide scanning angle and ultra-
wide bandwidth. Through integration with CMOS technology, the developed antenna achieved a
bandwidth of 85.47–102.40 GHz. The peak gain reached −4 dBi, corresponding to a bandwidth of
17.7%. And the antenna volume was only 1.2 mm × 1.2 mm, demonstrating its immense potential in
high-frequency wireless applications.

Keywords: CMOS process; Vivaldi; antenna on chip

1. Introduction
In the current era, there is considerable demand for high-speed communications [1–6].
With the emergence of microstrip structures and the growing demand for lightweight and
Citation: Chung, M.-A.; Ting, C.-W.;
compact structures [7,8], Vivaldi commonly features a gradually narrowing slot design.
Tseng, K.-C. A Wide Bandwidth
Initially introduced by Gibson in 1979, the Vivaldi was further refined by Gazit. The
Vivaldi Antenna Suitable for 5G/6G
Vivaldi operates over a wide bandwidth, offering high efficiency and a consistent radiation
Communication Utilizing a CMOS
pattern as a travelling-wave [2,9]. Vivaldi has attracted attention due to its array featuring
0.18 µm Process. Telecom 2024, 5,
a wide scanning angle and ultra-wide bandwidth [10]. Recently, the frequency band from
400–415. https://doi.org/10.3390/
telecom5020020
30 to 300 GHz has been considered the key to addressing the data explosion in 5G/6G
systems [11,12].
Academic Editor: Dimitris The advantage of the Vivaldi antenna lies in its extremely wide bandwidth. Success-
E. Anagnostou fully designed Vivaldi antennas are widely used in wireless communication systems, radar,
Received: 21 February 2024 telescopes, remote sensing systems, satellite communications, and more. This is due to
Revised: 7 May 2024 its stable performance characteristics, wide bandwidth, and high directivity. This allows
Accepted: 9 May 2024 for it to deliver optimal performance over a wide range of frequencies. It can be adjusted
Published: 14 May 2024 according to specific application requirements [2,7,8,13]. For instance, in wireless communi-
cation systems, to examine the composition of soil beneath the surface, ground-penetrating
radar must send high-power pulses into the earth. To achieve deeper signal penetration
and higher resolution, ground-penetrating radar antennas are required to operate in lower
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. frequency bands, featuring high gain and ultra-wide bandwidth [9]. Vivaldi is a type of
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. continuously scaled antenna, utilised in wideband wireless communication due to its large
This article is an open access article bandwidth and small lateral aperture among other prominent features [8]. The Vivaldi
distributed under the terms and
antenna has a compact footprint and features lower power consumption and complex-
conditions of the Creative Commons
ity [2,12]. While there are other types of wideband antennas, the Vivaldi antenna has
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
advantages over others in terms of weight, cost, end-fire radiation, and scanning angle
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
capabilities, particularly in the simplicity of integrating the system [8,12,14]. However, in
4.0/).

Telecom 2024, 5, 400–415. https://doi.org/10.3390/telecom5020020 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/telecom

Telecom 2024, 5 401

systems such as radar, communication, and various electronic devices, space is often at a
premium. It is necessary to keep the spacing between antenna units to a minimum.
The operational principle of the Vivaldi antenna often leads to significant mutual
coupling among neighbouring elements, primarily due to space-wave coupling. It can
lead to adverse consequences, such as reduced antenna efficiency and inaccurate radiation
patterns [12]. However, to enhance the gain of the antenna, researchers have proposed
various methods. Among them, antenna arrays, etched grooves, and techniques such as
dielectric lenses have gained widespread use. Typically, antenna arrays can significantly
improve gain but require consideration of coupling and power distribution, making the
design complex. Additionally, creating slots in the antenna can decrease its operating
frequency and enhance its gain, yet this measure reduces the antenna’s directivity. Adding
a high dielectric constant to the antenna enables it to reliably boost its gain, although the
extent of improvement is confined [9]. To achieve high performance, one often overlooks
the miniaturisation in systems for communication. Therefore, researching small-sized,
wideband, high-gain antennas is extremely important [15–17].
As mentioned, the Vivaldi antenna has a very wide bandwidth and can be adjusted
according to specific application requirements, thereby offering optimal performance across
a broad frequency range. Reference [7] employs a Vivaldi antenna array, phase switching,
and an IC receiver for wireless broadband reception in 5G, achieving a gain of 8–13 dB,
with a power consumption of 22.8 mV at 2 GHz. Reference [7] aims to increase the gain
by using a decoupled director in a tapered slot. Around the slot, two symmetric sets of
rectangular slits have been introduced to enhance the impedance matching. Consequently,
the reflection coefficient (S11) is maintained below −12 dB across 1–4 GHz, achieving a
gain between 4.9 and 11.6 dBi, and even hitting 11.6 dBi within the 8–28 GHz range.
In this study, we introduce a design for an array, using Vivaldi antennas to provide
the wide bandwidth and gain for 5G mobile phones [18]. Inherently, Vivaldi antennas have
resistance tolerances in circuit manufacturing thanks to their wideband and high-gain traits.
Hence, during the production process, its realisation is not more complex than that of Yagi
antennas or dipole antennas [11]. In other words, the Vivaldi antenna exhibits a significant
tolerance for smartphones.
Based on the results from simulations and measurements, the antenna in question is
deemed appropriate for use on 5G mobile devices. The compact Vivaldi antenna, utilising
W-band chips with standard 0.18 µm CMOS fabrication technology, has dimensions of
1200 µm × 1200 µm. The frequency range covered is from 85 to 102 GHz [19]. Utilising the
Vivaldi antenna as a power divider, the antenna is then manufactured on a CMOS 0.18 µm
process for the second part, where structural modifications are made to enhance the lower
operating frequencies. A parameter analysis is performed to examine the interplay between
the cavity and the antenna, with the aim of identifying the optimal performance for the
antenna [20–23]. Additionally, parameter studies are conducted to evaluate the influence of
critical parameters on the performance of the Vivaldi [16,18]. The third part describes the
evolution process of the Vivaldi antenna, while the fourth part discusses the final results
obtained as well as the measurement results [14]. The results of the simulations show that
this symmetric Vivaldi antenna fulfils the standard needs of mobile applications [11].

2. Design of Antenna
2.1. Geometry of the Antenna
The initial geometric structure of the Vivaldi, shown in Figure 1a,b, adopts the 0.18 µm
CMOS process, with dimensions of 1200 µm × 1200 µm × 533.4 µm, detailed dimensions
are shown in Table 1. It is made up of approximately 1/4 elliptical structures. For achieving
excellent impedance matching over a very broad bandwidth, a 50-ohm microstrip line
accompanied by a grounded plane serves as the feed for the antenna. To further improve
the impedance matching at lower frequencies, small elliptical cuts are used beneath each
individual Vivaldi antenna. Slots are incorporated within the antenna design to ensure
compliance with the process area, in line with the manufacturing process. Due to the
 (M1–M6) as the top metal layers, Figure 1c, along with Metal1 to Metal6, integrated with
a silicon substrate. The silicon substrate has a thickness of 500 μm. The top metal layer
Metal6 is designated as the layer, having a thickness of 2.34 μm.
Equation (1) below defines the curve of the slot index.
Telecom 2024, 5 402
𝐲 = 𝐂𝟏 𝐞𝐝𝐱 + 𝐂𝟐 (1)
C1 = 0.185, d = 0.150, and C2 = 0.230. (The slot factor curve of an antenna is a graph
lowertogain
used of chip
describe howantennas, this article
the performance designs
of the a power
antenna changesdivider to achieveinhigh
with variations gain
its shape
with a 1 × 4 array antenna configuration. In response to the losses associated
and size.) The antenna elliptical curve E3 is defined by the following Equation (2). with the
implementation of the antenna on a chip, the proposed Vivaldi antenna is manufactured
using a 0.18 µm CMOS process. The Vivaldi 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐
𝑬𝟑 : has
+ six =
layers
𝟏 of silicon dioxide (M1–M6) as the (2)
top metal layers, Figure 1c, along with Metal1𝒂𝟐 to𝒃Metal6,
𝟐 integrated with a silicon substrate.
The silicon substrate has a thickness of 500 µm. The top metal layer Metal6 is designated as
the layer, having a thickness of 2.34 µm.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure
Figure 1.
1. Side
Sideand
andtop
topview
viewofofthe
theVivaldi.
Vivaldi.(a)
(a)Vivaldi
Vivaldiside
sideview;
view;(b)
(b)Vivaldi
Vivalditop
topview;
view;and
and(c)
(c)CMOS
CMOS
0.18 μm process stack used.
0.18 µm process stack used.

Table 1. Detail parameter. (Unit: µm).

Length Value Width Value

L1 600 W1 210
L2 225 W2 125
L3 274 W3 10
L4 125 W4 14
L5 260 W5 14
L6 1200 W6 10
L7 200 W7 5

Equation (1) below defines the curve of the slot index.

y = C1 edx + C2 (1)
 Table 1. Detail parameter. (Unit: μm).

Telecom 2024, 5 Length Value Width Value 403

L1 600 W1 210
L2 225 W2 125
C1 = L 0.185,
3 d = 0.150, and C274
2 = 0.230. (The slot factor
W3 curve of an antenna 10 is a graph
used to describe
L4 how the performance
125 of the antenna changes
W4 with variations14in its shape
and size.) LThe
5 antenna elliptical260
curve E3 is defined byW the
5 following Equation 14(2).
L6 1200 W6 10
x2 y2
L7 200 E3 : + = 1 W7 5 (2)
a2 b2
From
From Figure
Figure 2, it is observed
observed that when the frequency
frequency is 85.47 GHz, the reflection
coefficient
coefficient isisbelow
below−10
−10dB. The
dB. applicable
The applicablefrequency
frequencyrange
rangeis 85.47–102.36 GHz.
is 85.47–102.36 At aAt
GHz. fre-a
quency of 95.5 GHz, the deepest point of the return loss is −23.60 dB. The
frequency of 95.5 GHz, the deepest point of the return loss is −23.60 dB. The overall overall band-
width wherewhere
bandwidth the return loss isloss
the return below −10 dB
is below −10is 16.89
dB is GHz.
16.89 GHz.

-5
Return Loss (dB)

-10

-15

-20

-25
S11
Spec.(-10)
-30
60 80 100 120

Frequency (GHz)
Figure
Figure 2. S-parameters
S-parameters of
of the
the Vivaldi
Vivaldi antenna.
antenna.

2.2. Antenna
2.2. Antenna Design
Design
The progression
The progressionofofthe theantenna
antenna design
design process
process is clearly
is clearly illustrated,
illustrated, as shown
as shown in
in Fig-
ure 3a. The antenna (Type 1) is the original symmetric Vivaldi antenna, utilising a rectan-a
Figure 3a. The antenna (Type 1) is the original symmetric Vivaldi antenna, utilising
rectangular and 50 Ω feedline. For the antenna (Type 2), a small elliptical cut is employed
gular and 50 Ω feedline. For the antenna (Type 2), a small elliptical cut is employed in the
in the feed-in position of the antenna. The antenna (Type 3) incorporates elliptical arc-
feed-in position of the antenna. The antenna (Type 3) incorporates elliptical arc-shaped
shaped structures to cut the antenna (Type 2), while the antenna (Type 4) is composed
structures to cut the antenna (Type 2), while the antenna (Type 4) is composed of approx-
of approximately 1/4 elliptical structures for cutting. Both antennas are proposed in this
imately 1/4 elliptical structures for cutting. Both antennas are proposed in this paper. Fig-
paper. Figure 3b shows a stacked plot comparison of the reflection coefficient during the
ure 3b shows a stacked plot comparison of the reflection coefficient during the Vivaldi
Vivaldi evolution. The antenna (Type 1) is analysed using a rectangular shape. When the
evolution. The antenna (Type 1) is analysed using a rectangular shape. When the rectan-
rectangular dimensions are 275 × 210 µm, from the analysis graph, it can be observed
gular dimensions are 275 × 210 μm, from the analysis graph, it can be observed that at a
that at a frequency of 80.42 GHz, the return loss is below −10 dB. The usable frequency
frequency of 80.42 GHz, the return loss is below −10 dB. The usable frequency range is
range is 80.42–95.63 GHz. At a frequency of 88 GHz, the deepest point of the return loss is
80.42–95.63 GHz. At a frequency of 88 GHz, the deepest point of the return loss is −26.144
−26.144 dB. The overall bandwidth where the return loss is below −10 dB is 15.21 GHz. A
dB. The overall bandwidth where the return loss is below −10 dB is 15.21 GHz. A small
small elliptical cut, with a radius of 125 µm, is utilised from the feed-in point to enhance the
elliptical cut, with a (Type
antenna bandwidth radius2).ofFollowing
125 μm, is utilised
this from thethe
modification, feed-in point to
simulations areenhance the
carried out.
antenna bandwidth (Type 2). Following this modification, the simulations are
From the analysis graph of the simulation results, it can be observed that at a frequency carried out.
From
of 81.61 GHz,the analysis
the return graph of below
loss is the simulation results,
−10 dB. This it can beanobserved
represents increasethat at aGHz
of 2.21 fre-
quency of 81.61 GHz, the return loss is below −10 dB. This represents
compared to the rectangular shape. Furthermore, the maximum frequency value has an increase of 2.21
GHz compared
increased to thetorectangular
from 95.63 98.69 GHz.shape. Furthermore,
The usable frequency therange
maximumis fromfrequency valueGHz,
82.63 to 98.69 has
which is an increase of 0.85 GHz in bandwidth compared to before the cut. At a frequency
of 91 GHz, the deepest point of the return loss is −20.98 dB. The overall bandwidth where
the return loss is below −10 dB is 16.06 GHz. The antenna (Type 3) involves cutting antenna
(Type 2) with arc-shaped elliptical structures, followed by simulations. From the analysis
 increased from 95.63 to 98.69 GHz. The usable frequency range is from 82.63 to 98.69 GHz,
which is an increase of 0.85 GHz in bandwidth compared to before the cut. At a frequency
of 91 GHz, the deepest point of the return loss is −20.98 dB. The overall bandwidth where
Telecom 2024, 5 404
the return loss is below −10 dB is 16.06 GHz. The antenna (Type 3) involves cutting an-
tenna (Type 2) with arc-shaped elliptical structures, followed by simulations. From the
analysis graph of the simulation results, it can be observed that at a frequency of 82.67
graph of the simulation results, it can be observed that at a frequency of 82.67 GHz, the
GHz, the return loss is below −10 dB. This represents an increase of 1.03 GHz compared
return loss is below −10 dB. This represents an increase of 1.03 GHz compared to the
to the rectangular shape. Additionally, the maximum frequency value has increased from
rectangular shape. Additionally, the maximum frequency value has increased from 98.69 to
98.69 to 100.36 GHz. The usable frequency range is from 83.67 to 100.36 GHz, which is an
100.36 GHz. The usable frequency range is from 83.67 to 100.36 GHz, which is an increase of
increase of 0.63 GHz in bandwidth compared to before the cut. At a frequency of 93 GHz,
0.63 GHz in bandwidth compared to before the cut. At a frequency of 93 GHz, the deepest
the deepest point of the return loss is −26.12 dB. The overall bandwidth where the return
point of the return loss is −26.12 dB. The overall bandwidth where the return loss is below
loss is below −10 dB is 16.69 GHz. The antenna (Type 4), which is the antenna structure
−10 dB is 16.69 GHz. The antenna (Type 4), which is the antenna structure proposed in
proposed in this paper, is composed of approximately 1/4 elliptical structures with a ra-
this paper, is composed of approximately 1/4 elliptical structures with a radius of 325 µm.
dius of 325 μm. After the cut, the simulations are conducted. From the analysis graph of
After the cut, the simulations are conducted. From the analysis graph of the simulation
the simulation results, it can be observed that at a frequency of 85.47 GHz, the return loss
results, it can be observed that at a frequency of 85.47 GHz, the return loss is below −10 dB.
is
Thebelow −10 dB.frequency
maximum The maximum
valuefrequency value
has increased has 100.36
from increased from 100.36
to 102.36 to 102.36 GHz,
GHz, resulting in an
resulting in an additional bandwidth of 2 GHz compared to before
additional bandwidth of 2 GHz compared to before the cut. The usable frequency the cut. Therange
usable
is
frequency
from 85.47range is from
to 102.36 85.47
GHz. Thetoarea
102.36 GHz. The
is smaller thanarea is smaller
before than
the cut, andbefore the cut, and
the bandwidth is
the bandwidth
wider. is wider.
At a frequency ofAt a frequency
95.5 GHz, the of 95.5 GHz,
deepest pointthe
of deepest point
the return lossofisthe return
−23.60 loss
dB. is
The
−23.60 dB. The overall bandwidth where the return loss is below
overall bandwidth where the return loss is below −10 dB is 16.89 GHz. −10 dB is 16.89 GHz.

-5

-10
Return Loss (dB)

-15

-20

-25 Type1
Type2
-30 Type3
Type4
spec.(-10)
-35
60 80 100 120

Frequency (GHz)

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 3.
3. (a)
(a) Antenna
Antenna analysis;
analysis; (b)antenna
(b)antenna analysis
analysis S-parameter
S-parameter stacked
stacked plot.
plot.

2.3. Antenna
Antenna Parameterisation
Parameterisation Process
Process
Figure 3 confirms the approximate
approximate coefficients
coefficients of of the
the Vivaldi
Vivaldi antenna
antenna inin this
this paper.
paper.
Using electromagnetic simulation software to integrate the Vivaldi,
Using electromagnetic simulation software to integrate the Vivaldi, the gain of the arraythe gain of the array is
enhanced
is enhanced inina confined
a confined space.
space.Antennas
Antennasshould shouldbebeplaced
placedasasclosely
closelytogether
togetherasasfeasible.
feasible.
However, if
However, the spacing
if the spacing between
between antennas
antennas is is excessively
excessively narrow,
narrow, the
the overall
overall isolation
isolation
of the
of the antennas deteriorates, resulting
antennas deteriorates, resulting in in aa reduction
reduction in in the
the performance
performance of of the
the antenna
antenna
array. A parameter analysis is carried out on the W and L dimensions
array. A parameter analysis is carried out on the W1 and L1 dimensions of the antenna
1 1 of the antenna toto
determine the impact of the radiating element’s size on its performance,
determine the impact of the radiating element’s size on its performance, aiming to identify aiming to identify
the optimal
the optimal antenna
antennalength.
length.ThisThis approach
approach alsoalso allows
allows forforthethe study
study of the
of the interplay
interplay be-
between the cavity and the antenna, as well as the search for the optimal
tween the cavity and the antenna, as well as the search for the optimal performance of the performance of
the antenna
antenna [12,16,18].
[12,16,18].
Firstly, aparameter
Firstly, a parameteranalysis
analysisis is
conducted
conducted ononthethe
radiating
radiatingelement of a of
element single antenna,
a single an-
as shown in Figure 4a. In Figure 4b, when L 2 = 217 µm, S11 is below −
tenna, as shown in Figure 4a. In Figure 4b, when L2 = 217 μm, S11 is below −10 dB at 114.6310 dB at 114.63 GHz,
the deepest point being −11.63 dB, and the bandwidth is from 114.63 to 124.03 GHz. When
L2 = 221 µm, S11 is below −10 dB at 115.27 GHz, the deepest point being −11.22 dB,
and the bandwidth is 115.27–123.52 GHz. When L2 = 225 µm, S11 is below −10 dB at
113.43 GHz, with the deepest point being −12.28 dB, and the bandwidth is from 113.43
to 124.67 GHz. Therefore, after the parameter analysis, when the length of the radiating
element L2 is 225 µm, the bandwidth is the widest and the reflection coefficient has the
 GHz,the
GHz, thedeepest
deepestpoint
pointbeing
being−11.63
−11.63dB,
dB,and
andthe
thebandwidth
bandwidthisisfrom from114.63
114.63to to124.03
124.03GHz.
GHz.
WhenLL2 2==221
When 221μm,μm,S11
S11isisbelow
below−10 −10dBdBatat115.27
115.27GHz,
GHz,thethedeepest
deepestpoint
pointbeing
being−11.22
−11.22dB,
dB,
andthe
and thebandwidth
bandwidthisis115.27–123.52
115.27–123.52GHz. GHz.When
WhenLL2 2==225
225μm,μm,S11
S11isisbelow
below−10 −10dB dBatat113.43
113.43
Telecom 2024, 5 405
GHz,with
GHz, withthethedeepest
deepestpoint
pointbeing
being−12.28
−12.28dB,dB,and
andthe
thebandwidth
bandwidthisisfrom from113.43
113.43toto124.67
124.67
GHz.Therefore,
GHz. Therefore,after
afterthe
theparameter
parameteranalysis,
analysis,when
whenthe thelength
lengthof ofthe
theradiating
radiatingelement
elementLL2 2
isis225
225μm,
μm,thethebandwidth
bandwidthisisthe thewidest
widestand
andthethereflection
reflectioncoefficient
coefficienthas hasthe
thelowest
lowestvalue.
value.
lowest value. Furthermore, the parameter analysis is performed on W1 as shown in
Furthermore,the
Furthermore, theparameter
parameteranalysis
analysisisisperformed
performedon onWW1 1as
asshown
shownin inFigure
Figure4a.4a.In
InFigure
Figure
Figure 4a. In Figure 5b, when W1 = 192 µm, S11 is below −10 dB at 116.11 GHz, the
5b,when
5b, whenW W1 1==192
192μm,
μm,S11S11isisbelow
below−10−10dB dBatat116.11
116.11GHz,
GHz,the thedeepest
deepestpointpointbeing
being−12.5
−12.5
deepest point being −12.5 dB, and the bandwidth is from 116.11 to 125.82 GHz. When
dB,and
dB, andthethebandwidth
bandwidthisisfromfrom116.11
116.11toto125.82
125.82GHz.
GHz.When
WhenW W1 1==206
206μm,μm,S11S11isisbelow
below−10−10
W1 = 206 µm, S11 is below −10 dB at 115.76 GHz, with the deepest point being −12.02 dB,
dBdBatat115.76
115.76GHz,
GHz,with
withthethedeepest
deepestpoint
pointbeing
being−12.02
−12.02dB,dB,and
andthe thebandwidth
bandwidthisisfromfrom
and the bandwidth is from 115.76 to 125.79 GHz. When W1 = 220 µm, S11 is below
115.76 to 125.79GHz.
115.76 GHz.When
WhenW W1 1==220
220μm,
μm,S11S11isisbelow
below−10 −10dBdBatat112.72
112.72GHz,GHz,withwiththe
the
−10 dBtoat125.79
112.72 GHz, with the deepest point being −13.04 dB, and the bandwidth is
deepestpoint
deepest pointbeing
being−13.04
−13.04dB,dB,and
andthethebandwidth
bandwidthisis112.72–124.66
112.72–124.66GHz. GHz.Therefore,
Therefore,after
after
112.72–124.66 GHz. Therefore, after the parameter analysis, when the width of the radiating
theparameter
the parameteranalysis,
analysis,when
whenthe thewidth
widthof ofthe
theradiating
radiating elementW W1 1isis220
220μm,
μm,the
theband-
band-
element W1 is 220 µm, the bandwidth is the widest and element
the reflection coefficient has the
width isthe
width
lowestisvalue
thewidest
widest and the reflection coefficient has the lowest value [21].
[21]. and the reflection coefficient has the lowest value [21].

00

-4-4

(dB)
Loss (dB)
Return Loss
-8-8
Return

-12
-12 LL2=225um
2=225um
LL2=221um
2=221um
LL2=217um
2=217um
spec.(-10)
spec.(-10)
-16
-16
60
60 80
80 100
100 120
120
Frequency(GHz)
Frequency (GHz)

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure4.4.(a)
Figure (a)Diagram
Diagramof
(a) Diagram
ofLL2’s
of L
2’slocation;
location;(b)
(b)simulation
simulationofofLL2’s
2’sS-parameter.
S-parameter.
Figure 4. 2 ’s location; (b) simulation of L2 ’s S-parameter.

00

-2-2

-4-4
(dB)
Loss (dB)

-6-6
Return Loss

-8-8
Return

-10
-10

-12
-12 WW1=192um
1=192um
WW1=206um
1=206um
-14
-14 WW1=220um
1=220um
Spec(-10)
Spec(-10)
-16
-16
60
60 80
80 100
100 120
120
Frequency(GHz)
Frequency (GHz)

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure5.
Figure 5.5.(a)
(a)Diagram
(a) Diagramof
Diagram ofW
of W1’s
W 1’slocation;
location;(b)
(b)simulation
simulationofofW
W1’s
1’sS-parameter.
S-parameter.
Figure 1 ’s location; (b) simulation of W1 ’s S-parameter.

Toensure
To ensurethat
thatthe
that theantenna
the antennaimpedance
antenna impedancematching
impedance matchingperformance
performance meets
meets the
therequired
required
standards, a parametric analysis
standards, a parametric analysis was
analysis was performed
was performed
performed onon the
on the W part
the W77 part
7 of
part of the
of the power
the power divider,
power divider,
divider,
Figure 6a. Figure 6b shows the results of the S11 parameter analysis, while Figure 7a shows
the results of the S21 one, and Figure 7b shows the S31 parameter analyses. The results
indicate that S21 and S31 exhibit no significant differences, as both are −3.5 dB. However,
when W7 = 5 µm, S11 has the deepest resonance point at 78 GHz, with a value of −30.8 dB.
Therefore, W7 = 5 µm is chosen as the design parameter for the power divider.
 Figure
Figure 6a.
6a. Figure
Figure 6b
6b shows
shows the the results
results of
of the
the S11
S11 parameter
parameter analysis,
analysis, while
while Figure
Figure 7a
7a
shows
showsthetheresults
resultsofofthe
theS21
S21one,
one,and
andFigure
Figure7b 7bshows
showsthe
theS31
S31parameter
parameteranalyses.
analyses.The
The
results
resultsindicate
indicatethat
thatS21S21andandS31S31exhibit
exhibitnonosignificant
significantdifferences,
differences,asasboth
bothare
are−3.5
−3.5dB.
dB.
Telecom 2024, 5 However,
However,whenwhenW W7 7==55μm,
μm,S11 S11has
hasthe
thedeepest
deepestresonance
resonancepoint
pointatat78
78GHz,
GHz,with
withaavalue
value
406
of
of−30.8
−30.8dB.
dB.Therefore,
Therefore,W W7 7==55μm
μmisischosen
chosenas asthe
thedesign
designparameter
parameterforforthe
thepower
powerdivider.
divider.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure6.
Figure 6.6.(a)
(a)Diagram
(a) Diagramof
Diagram ofW
of W7’s
W 7’slocation;
location;(b)
’s location; (b)S-parameter
(b) S-parametersimulation
S-parameter simulationof
simulation ofW
of W7 7with
W7 withS-parameters.
with S-parameters.
S-parameters.
7

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure7.
Figure 7.7.(a)
(a)S-parameter
(a) S-parametersimulation
S-parameter simulation(S21)
simulation (S21)of
(S21) ofW
of W77;(b)
W (b)S-parameter
7;;(b) S-parametersimulation
S-parameter simulation(S31)
simulation (S31)of
(S31) ofW
of W7.77..
W

Next,
Next,the theVivaldi
Vivaldiantenna
antennaarray array configured
arrayisisconfigured
configuredin inaaa111×
in ××222format
formatand
format andthen
and thenthe
then theparameter
the parameter
parameter
analysis
analysisis
analysis isperformed
is performedon onthetheradiating
the radiatingelements
radiating elementsof
elements the
ofofthe
theantenna,
antenna,
antenna, as shown
asasshown
shown in
inFigure
Figure
in Figure 8a. In
8a.8a.
In
Figure
Figure
In 8b,
Figure when
8b,8b,when
when W ==22
W4 4W =μm,
422 μm,
22 µm, S11
S11is isbelow
S11 below
is below−10
−10dB −dB10atatdB
93.21
93.21 GHz, with
GHz,GHz,
at 93.21 withthethedeepest
with deepest point
the deepestpoint
point
being −33.24−dB,
beingbeing
−33.24 33.24
dB, and
anddB,theand
the the bandwidth
bandwidth
bandwidth is 93.21–113.67
isis93.21–113.67
93.21–113.67 GHz.
GHz.When GHz.
WhenWhenWW4 4==18Wμm,
18 = 18
4μm, S11 µm,
S11 S11
isisbelow
belowis
below
−10
−10dBdB− 10
atat dB at
84.73
84.73GHz,84.73with
GHz, GHz,
with the with
the the deepest
deepest
deepest point
pointbeing
being −25.07−
point−25.07
being 25.07
dB,
dB, and
and dB,
theand
the the bandwidth
bandwidth
bandwidth isis84.73–is
84.73–
84.73–102.15
102.15
102.15GHz.
GHz.When GHz.
WhenWhen W
W4 4==14Wμm,
14 4 =
μm, 14
S11µm,
S11 isis S11
below
belowis below
−10
−10 dB
dB− at10
at dB
89.92
89.92at 89.92
GHz,
GHz, GHz,
with
with with
the
the the
deepest
deepest deepest
point
point
point
beingbeing
being −37.1
−37.1dB, − 37.1
dB, and
anddB,
the and
the the bandwidth
bandwidth
bandwidth fromis89.92
isisfrom fromto
89.92 89.92
to109.72
109.72to GHz.
109.72
GHz.From GHz.the
From From
the the in
results
results results
inFigure in
Figure
Figure
7,7,when7,
whenthe when the
thewidth
widthof width
ofthe of the
theradiating radiating
radiatingelementelementW element W
W4 4isis14 is
144μm, 14
μm,the µm, the
thebandwidthbandwidth
bandwidthisisthe is the
thewidest widest
widestand and
and
the the reflection
thereflection
reflection coefficient
coefficient
coefficient hashas
has thethe
the lowest
lowest
lowest value.
value.
value. Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore, thetheresults
the resultsof
results the S-parameter
ofthe S-parameter
S-parameter
analysis
analysis
analysisforfor
forWW
W444===14
14
14μmµm
μmareare adopted
areadopted
adoptedas as the
asthe width
thewidth
widthof of
ofW W for
W444for the
forthe antenna
theantenna
antennain in this
inthis paper.
thispaper.
paper.
Similarly, a parameter analysis is performed on the radiating elements of a 1 × 2 Vi-
valdi, as shown in Figure 9a. In Figure 9b, when W7 = 15 µm, S11 is below −10 dB at
89.81 GHz, the deepest point being −17.16 dB, and the bandwidth is 89.81–103.49 GHz.
When W7 = 10 µm, S11 is below −10 dB at 87.21 GHz, with the deepest point being
−20.13 dB, and the bandwidth is from 87.21 to 102.84 GHz. When W7 = 5 µm, S11 is
below −10 dB at 86.12 GHz, with the deepest point being −21.34 dB, and the bandwidth is
85.47–102.40 GHz. From the results in Figure 8, when the width of the radiating element
Telecom 2024, 5 407

W7 is 5 µm, the bandwidth is the widest and the return loss has the lowest value. Therefore,
Telecom 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 8
the results of the S-parameter analysis for W7 = 5 µm are adopted as the width of W7 for
the antenna in this paper.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. (a) Diagram of W4’s location; (b) S-parameter simulation of W4.

Similarly, a parameter analysis is performed on the radiating elements of a 1 × 2 Vi-

valdi, as shown in Figure 9a. In Figure 9b, when W7 = 15 μm, S11 is below −10 dB at 89.81
GHz, the deepest point being −17.16 dB, and the bandwidth is 89.81–103.49 GHz. When
W7 = 10 μm, S11 is below −10 dB at 87.21 GHz, with the deepest point being −20.13 dB, and
the bandwidth is from 87.21 to 102.84 GHz. When W7 = 5 μm, S11 is below −10 dB at 86.12
GHz, with the deepest point being −21.34 dB, and the bandwidth is 85.47–102.40 GHz.
From the results in Figure 8, when the width of the radiating element W7 is 5 μm, the
bandwidth is the widest and the return loss has the lowest value. Therefore, the results of
(a) (b)
the S-parameter analysis for W7 = 5 μm are adopted as the width of W7 for the antenna in
Figure
this 8.
8. (a)
(a) Diagram
paper. Diagram of
ofWW44’s’slocation;
location;(b)
(b)S-parameter
S-parametersimulation
simulationofofWW
4.
Figure 4.

Similarly, a parameter analysis is performed on the radiating elements of a 1 × 2 Vi-

valdi, as shown in Figure 9a. In Figure 9b, when W7 = 15 μm, S11 is below −10 dB at 89.81
GHz, the deepest point being −17.16 dB, and the bandwidth is 89.81–103.49 GHz. When
W7 = 10 μm, S11 is below −10 dB at 87.21 GHz, with the deepest point being −20.13 dB, and
the bandwidth is from 87.21 to 102.84 GHz. When W7 = 5 μm, S11 is below −10 dB at 86.12
GHz, with the deepest point being −21.34 dB, and the bandwidth is 85.47–102.40 GHz.
From the results in Figure 8, when the width of the radiating element W7 is 5 μm, the
bandwidth is the widest and the return loss has the lowest value. Therefore, the results of
the S-parameter analysis for W7 = 5 μm are adopted as the width of W7 for the antenna in
this paper.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 9.
9. (a)
(a) The
The diagram of W
diagram of W77’s location; (b)
’s location; (b) S-parameter
S-parametersimulation
simulationofofW
W7 .7.

Next, a parameter
parameter analysis
analysisisisconducted
conductedon onthe
theradiating
radiatingelements ofof
elements the 1×
the 1 ×44Vivaldi
Vivaldi
antenna, as shown in Figure 10a. In Figure 10b, when W = 22 µm,
antenna, as shown in Figure 10a. In Figure 10b, when W5 =5 22 μm, S11 remains aboveS11 remains above
−10
−10for
dB dBall
forfrequency
all frequency bands.
bands. WhenWhen WW = 18
5 =5 18 μm, S11isisbelow
µm,S11 −10dB
below −10 dB at 109.85
109.85GHz,
GHz,with
with
the deepest point −11.56 dB, and the bandwidth is 109.85–128.92 GHz. When W5 = 14 µm,
S11 is below −10 dB at 108.47 GHz, with the deepest point being −12.51 dB, and the
bandwidth is from 108.47 to 128.88 GHz. From the results in Figure 9, when the width of
the radiating element W5 is 14 µm, the bandwidth is the widest and the return loss has the
(a)
lowest value. Therefore, the results of the S-parameter (b) analysis for W5 = 14 µm are adopted
as the width of W for
Figure 9. (a) The diagram
5 the antenna in this article.
of W7’s location; (b) S-parameter simulation of W7.

Next, a parameter analysis is conducted on the radiating elements of the 1 × 4 Vivaldi

antenna, as shown in Figure 10a. In Figure 10b, when W5 = 22 μm, S11 remains above −10
dB for all frequency bands. When W5 = 18 μm, S11 is below −10 dB at 109.85 GHz, with
 the
S11deepest
is belowpoint
−10 dB−11.56 dB, and
at 108.47 thewith
GHz, bandwidth is 109.85–128.92
the deepest point being GHz.
−12.51When W5the
dB, and = 14band-
μm,
S11 is below −10 dB at 108.47 GHz, with the deepest point being −12.51 dB, and
width is from 108.47 to 128.88 GHz. From the results in Figure 9, when the width of the the band-
width is from
radiating 108.47
element W5tois128.88
14 μm,GHz. From the results
the bandwidth is the in Figure
widest 9, the
and when the width
return of the
loss has the
radiating element W 5 is 14 μm, the bandwidth is the widest and the return loss has the
lowest value. Therefore, the results of the S-parameter analysis for W5 = 14 μm are adopted
Telecom 2024, 5 lowest value. of
as the width Therefore, theantenna
W5 for the results of
in the
thisS-parameter
article. analysis for W5 = 14 μm are adopted408
as the width of W5 for the antenna in this article.
0
0
-5
-5
-10

(dB)
-10

(dB)
-15

Loss
-15

Loss
-20

Return
-20

Return
-25
-25 W5=22um
-30 W
W55=22um
=18um
-30 W
W55=18um
=14um
-35 W 5=14um
Spec.(-10dB)
-35
Spec.(-10dB)
60 80 100 120
60 80 100 120
Frequency (GHz)
Frequency (GHz)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 10. (a) The diagram of W5’s location; (b) S-parameter simulation of W5.
Figure
Figure10.
10. (a)
(a)The
Thediagram
diagramof
ofWW55’s’slocation;
location;(b)
(b)S-parameter
S-parametersimulation
simulationof
ofW
W5.5 .
Similarly, a parameter analysis is conducted on the radiating elements of the 1 × 4
Similarly,
Vivaldi,Similarly,
as shown aaparameter
parameter
in Figure analysis
analysis is conducted
11a. InisFigure
conducted11b,on onradiating
the
when the
W radiating elements
elements of the 1of×the
3 = 15 μm, S11 remains above −10
1×4
4 Vivaldi,
Vivaldi,
as shown as shown
in Figure in Figure
11a. In 11a.
Figure In Figure
11b, when11b,W when
3 = 15 W 3 = 15
µm, S11
dB for all frequency bands. When W3 = 10 μm, S11 remains above −10 dB for all frequency μm, S11
remains remains
above above
− 10 dB −10
for
dB
all for all frequency
frequency bands. bands.
When When
W 3 W
= 3 = µm,
10 10 μm,
S11 S11 remains
remains above
above
bands. When W3 = 5 μm, S11 is below −10 dB at 80.12 GHz, with the deepest point being − −10
10 dB
dB for all frequency
frequency
bands.
bands.dB,
−10.36 When
When and W 33==55μm,
Wthe µm,S11S11isisisbelow
bandwidth below −10dB
−10
80.12–127.56 dBatGHz.
at80.12
80.12 GHz,
GHz,
From with
thewith the
thedeepest
results deepest
in Figure point
10, being
point being
when
− 10.36
−10.36 dB,
dB, and
and the
the bandwidth is
is 80.12–127.56
80.12–127.56 GHz.
GHz. From
From the
theresults
results
the width of the radiating element W3 is 5 μm, the bandwidth is the widest and the reflec- in Figure
in Figure10, when
10, whenthe
width
the of the radiating element W is 5 µm, the bandwidth is the widest and the reflection
tionwidth of thehas
coefficient radiating element
the lowest value. 3 WAlthough,
3 is 5 μm, the bandwidth is the widest and the reflec-
when W3 is 18 μm, the bandwidth is wider
coefficient
tion has the
coefficient has lowest
the value.
lowest Although,
value. Although,when W3 isW18
when µm,
3 is 18 the bandwidth is wider than
than at 14 μm, it is not within the designed frequency band forμm,
thisthe bandwidth
application. is wider
Therefore,
at 14atµm,
than 14 it is not
μm, it is within
not the designed
within the designed frequency
frequencyband for this
band for application.
this application. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the S-parameter of the analysis results for W3 = 5 μm are adopted as the width of W7 for
S-parameter
the S-parameter of the
of analysis
the results
analysis resultsfor for
W3 W= 35 =µm
5 are are
μm adopted
adopted as the
as width
the of W
width of
7W for7 for
the
the antenna in this paper.
antenna
the antennain this paper.
in this paper.

0
0 W3=10um
W
W33=10um
=15um
W
W33=15um
=20um
W 3=20um
Spec.(-10)
(dB)

-5 Spec.(-10)
(dB)

-5
Loss
ReturnLoss
Return

-10
-10

-15
-15 60 80 100 120
60 80 100 120
Frequency (GHz)
Frequency (GHz)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 11.
11. (a)
(a) The
The diagram
diagram of
of W
W3’s’slocation;
location;(b)
(b)S-parameter
S-parametersimulation
simulationof
ofW
W3. .
Figure 11. (a) The diagram of W33’s location; (b) S-parameter simulation of W3.3
Finally, the Vivaldi antenna array is configured in a 1 × 4 format, and a parameter
analysis is conducted on the radiating elements, Figure 12a, of the antenna. In Figure 12b,
when W5 = 22 µm, S11 is below −10 dB at 88.64 GHz, the deepest point being −16.91 dB,
and the bandwidth is 88.64–102.71 GHz. When W5 = 18 µm, S11 is below −10 dB at
87.02 GHz, the deepest point being −30.50 dB, and the bandwidth is 87.02–103.28 GHz.
When W5 = 14 µm, S11 is below −10 dB at 86.65 GHz, with the deepest point being
−48.61 dB, and the bandwidth is from 86.65 to 103.13 GHz. From the results in Figure 11,
 Finally, the Vivaldi antenna array is configured in a 1 × 4 format, and a parameter
analysis is conducted on the radiating elements, Figure 12a, of the antenna. In Figure 12b,
when W5 = 22 μm, S11 is below −10 dB at 88.64 GHz, the deepest point being −16.91 dB,
and the bandwidth is 88.64–102.71 GHz. When W5 = 18 μm, S11 is below −10 dB at 87.02
Telecom 2024, 5 GHz, the deepest point being −30.50 dB, and the bandwidth is 87.02–103.28 GHz. When 409
W5 = 14 μm, S11 is below −10 dB at 86.65 GHz, with the deepest point being −48.61 dB, and
the bandwidth is from 86.65 to 103.13 GHz. From the results in Figure 11, it can be ob-
served that
it can be when the
observed width
that when of the
the width
feedingoftransmission line is 14 μm,line
the feeding transmission the is
bandwidth is
14 µm, the
the widest, the deepest point is reached, and the frequency range matches
bandwidth is the widest, the deepest point is reached, and the frequency range matches the desired
range for thisrange
the desired design.
forTherefore,
this design. theTherefore,
results of the
theS-parameter
results of theanalysis for W5 analysis
S-parameter = 14 μm are
for
adopted
W 5 = 14 as
µm the
arewidth of
adopted Was5.the width of W .
5

-5

Return Loss (dB)

-10

-15

-20

-25
W5=22um
-30 W5=18um
W5=14um
-35
Spec.(-10)
60 80 100 120

Frequency (GHz)

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 12.
12. (a)
(a) The
The diagram
diagram of
of W
W55’s
’s location;
location; (b)
(b) S-parameter
S-parameter simulation
simulation of
of W
W55..

Similarly, a parameter analysis is conducted on the radiating elements of the power

divider, Figure 13a. In Figure 13b, when W W77 = µm, S11 is below −
= 15 μm, −10
10 dB
dB at
at 89.92
89.92 GHz,
GHz,
with the deepest
deepestpoint
pointbeing −33.24
being−33.24 dB,dB,
andandthethe bandwidth
bandwidth is 89.92–109.72
is 89.92–109.72 GHz.
GHz. When When
W7
W
= 10= 10 S11 is below − 10 dB at 84.73 GHz, with the deepest point
7 μm, S11 is below −10 dB at 84.73 GHz, with the deepest point being −30.50 dB, and
µm, being − 30.50 dB,
andbandwidth
the the bandwidth is fromis from
84.7384.73 to 102.15
to 102.15 GHz. GHz.
WhenWhenW7 = 5W μm,7 = S11
5 µm, S11 is −10
is below dB −
below at10 dB
93.21
at 93.21
GHz, theGHz, the deepest
deepest point−36.93
point being −36.93
being dB, anddB, theand the bandwidth
bandwidth is 93.21–113.67
is 93.21–113.67 GHz.
GHz. From
From
the the simulation
simulation resultsresults in Figure
in Figure 12, be
12, it can it can be observed
observed that whenthat the
when the power
power dividerdivider
width
width of the feeding
of the feeding transmission
transmission line is 5 line
μm, isthe5 bandwidth
µm, the bandwidth is the
is the widest, thewidest,
deepest the deep-
point is
est point is reached, and the frequency range matches the desired range
Telecom 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW reached, and the frequency range matches the desired range for this design. Therefore, for this design.
11
Therefore,
the results the results
of the of the S-parameter
S-parameter analysis foranalysis
W7 = 5 μmfor W
are7 = 5 µm are
adopted as adopted
the width asof
theWwidth
7.
of W7 .

-5
Return Loss (dB)

-10

-15

-20

-25
W7=5um
-30 W7=10um
W7=15um
-35
Spec.(-10)
60 80 100 120

Frequency (GHz)

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 13.
13. (a)
(a) The
The diagram
diagram of
of W
W77’s’s location;
location; (b)
(b) S-parameter
S-parameter simulation
simulation of
of W
W77..

Finally, because this design uses the CMOS 0.18 μm process, it is necessary to create
slots in the antenna section to comply with the process specifications, Figure 14a. It can be
observed from the results that there is no significant difference with or without slots, Fig-
ure 14b.
 60 80 100 120

Frequency (GHz)

(a) (b)
Telecom 2024, 5 Figure 13. (a) The diagram of W7’s location; (b) S-parameter simulation of W7. 410

Finally, because this design uses the CMOS 0.18 μm process, it is necessary to create
slotsFinally,
in the antenna
because section to comply
this design with
uses the CMOSthe process
0.18 µmspecifications, Figure 14a.
process, it is necessary to It can be
create slots
observed from the results that there is no significant difference with or without slots, Fig-
in the antenna section to comply with the process specifications, Figure 14a. It can be observed
ure 14b.
from the results that there is no significant difference with or without slots, Figure 14b.

-5

Return Loss (dB)

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30
Without slot
With slot
-35
Spec.(-10)
60 80 100 120

Frequency (GHz)

(a) (b)
Figure14.
Figure 14.(a)
(a) Vivaldi
Vivaldi antenna
antenna with
with slots;
slots;(b)
(b)S-parameter
S-parametersimulation
simulationwith
withand without
and slots.
without slots.

3.3.Antenna
Antenna Simulation and Measurement
Simulation and Measurement
3.1. Simulation and Measurement Results
3.1. Simulation and Measurement Results
ItItisiswell
well known
known thatthat the
the return
returnlosslossisisaacritical
criticalindicator
indicatorforfor evaluating
evaluating thethe impedance
impedance
matching
matching between between an antenna or transmission line and its load.
antenna or transmission line and its load. Ideally, one wants Ideally, one wantsthethe
impedance of the antenna or transmission line to be perfectly
impedance of the antenna or transmission line to be perfectly matched with the imped- matched with the impedance
ofance
its ofload. ThisThis
its load. maximises
maximises thethetransmission
transmissionefficiency
efficiency of the power
of the powerand andreduces
reducesthethe
energy
energy losses.
losses. IfIfthere
thereis is
anan impedance
impedance mismatch,
mismatch, moremore
energyenergy
will bewill be reflected
reflected back,
back, lead-
leading to decreased
ing to decreased efficiency
efficiency as it returns
as it returns in the in theofform
form of reflected
reflected waves.
waves. The Thedistri-
current current
Telecom 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEWdistribution diagram for the Vivaldi antenna at different frequencies is shown in Figure 12 15,
bution diagram for the Vivaldi antenna at different frequencies is shown in Figure 15,
while
whileFigure
Figure16 16shows
shows the overlay
overlay of ofthe
thesimulated
simulatedand andmeasured
measuredresponses
responses of of
thethe Vivaldi
Vivaldi
antenna.
antenna. Throughout
Throughout the the entire
entire X-band,
X-band,the theobservations
observationsindicate
indicate that
that thethe return
return loss
loss
measured
measured falls below −10
falls below −10dB. dB. It worth
It is is worth noting
noting thatthat
minorminor manufacturing
manufacturing tolerances
tolerances are
inevitable.
are inevitable. In practical measurements,
In practical measurements, passive antennas
passive need toneed
antennas be terminated with a 50-
to be terminated with
aohm
50-ohmload,load,whilewhile
activeactive
antennas are fedare
antennas power. The observations
fed power. reveal thatreveal
The observations the simula-
that the
tion and measured
simulation and measuredgain ofgainthe Vivaldi antennaantenna
of the Vivaldi exhibit good consistency.
exhibit However,However,
good consistency. minor
fluctuations
minor at certain
fluctuations frequency
at certain points may
frequency points be may
attributed to impedance
be attributed matchingmatching
to impedance or the
effects
or of the of
the effects GSG theconnectors
GSG connectors used inusedthe measurements. Overall, the
in the measurements. measurement
Overall, results
the measurement
are nearly
results identical
are nearly to the simulated
identical ones. ones.
to the simulated

(a) (b) (c)

Figure15.
Figure 15.Current
Current distribution
distribution of
of the
theantenna
antennaatatdifferent
differentfrequencies: (a)(a)
frequencies: at at
a frequency of 85
a frequency of GHz;
85 GHz;
(b)atataafrequency
(b) frequencyof
of 95
95 GHz;
GHz; and
and (c)
(c) at
at aa frequency
frequencyofof102
102GHz.
GHz.
 (a) (b) (c)
Telecom 2024, 5 Figure 15. Current distribution of the antenna at different frequencies: (a) at a frequency of 85
411GHz;
(b) at a frequency of 95 GHz; and (c) at a frequency of 102 GHz.

16. S-parameter
Figure 16.
Figure S-parameterplot
plotofofthe
thesimulated and
simulated measured
and responses.
measured responses.
3.2. Gain and Measurement
3.2. Gain and Measurement
The gain of a chip antenna is an important indicator of its performance. A high-gain
Thecan
antenna gainconcentrate
of a chip antenna
more energyis an in
important
a specificindicator
direction,of its performance.
thereby achieving aA high-gain
greater
antenna can concentrate
communication more energy
distance. However, in a specific
increasing direction,
directionality may thereby achieving
reduce coverage a greater
in other
communication
directions. Figure 17 shows the gain plot, with a peak gain of −4 dBi at 98 GHz. Figure 18 in
distance. However, increasing directionality may reduce coverage
other directions.
illustrates the gainFigure
pattern17ofshows the gain
the antenna plot, with
on different a peakwhile
surfaces, gainFigure
of −4 19dBi at 98 GHz.
provides
Figure 18 illustratesof
a 3D representation the gain
the gainpattern
pattern, ofindicating
the antennaa gain of −4.5 dBi.
on different surfaces,
Figurewhile Figure
20 shows a 19
microscopic
provides a 3Dimage of the antenna
representation of during
the gain the measurement,
pattern, indicatingwitha visible
gain of GSG
−4.5 markings.
dBi. Figure 20
Telecom 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 13
Figure 21 shows the measurement setup, covering the range 70–140 GHz
shows a microscopic image of the antenna during the measurement, with visible GSG and utilising the
GSG probe.Figure 21 shows the measurement setup, covering the range 70–140 GHz and
markings.
utilising the GSG probe.

Figure 17. Antenna gain graph.

(a) (b) (c)

Telecom 2024, 5 412
Figure 17. Antenna gain graph.
Figure 17. Antenna gain graph.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure
Figure 18.
Figure 18. (a)
18. (a) The 2D
(a) The
The 2D radiation
2D radiationpattern
radiation patternof
pattern ofthe
of theVivaldi
the Vivaldi
Vivaldi antenna
antenna
antenna (XY
(XY
(XY plane);
plane);
plane); (b)(b)
(b) 2D2D
2D radiation
radiation
radiation pattern
pattern
pattern of
of
thethe Vivaldi
Vivaldi
of the antenna
antenna
Vivaldi (YZ
antenna (YZ
(YZ plane);
plane); and
plane);and
and(c) (c)
(c)2D 2D radiation
2Dradiation pattern
radiation pattern of the Vivaldi
the Vivaldi
pattern of the antenna
Vivaldiantenna
antenna(XZ (XZ plane).
(XZplane).
plane).

Telecom 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 14

Figure 19. Three-dimensional

Figure Three-dimensionalradiation
radiationpattern
patternofof
thethe
antenna.
antenna.
Figure 19. Three-dimensional radiation pattern of the antenna.

Figure 20.
Figure 20. Microscopic
Microscopicimage
imageofofthe
theantenna.
antenna.
Telecom 2024, 5 413
Figure 20. Microscopic image of the antenna.

Figure 21. Measurement setup.

Table
Table 22 presents
presentsaacomparison
comparisonbetween
betweenthe
theantenna
antenna proposed in in
proposed this study
this andand
study various
vari-
other types
ous other of antennas
types on on
of antennas thethe
chip. Due
chip. totothe
Due thewide
widebandwidth
bandwidthcharacteristics
characteristics of
of the
the
Vivaldi antenna, it outperforms [5,6,17,19,24] in terms of bandwidth. Additionally,
Vivaldi antenna, it outperforms [5,6,17,19,24] in terms of bandwidth. Additionally, in in terms
of the Vivaldi
terms antenna
of the Vivaldi size, the
antenna one
size, theproposed in thisindocument
one proposed measures
this document 1.2 × 1.2
measures 1.2 ×mm,
1.2
showing no significant difference from other types of antennas.
mm, showing no significant difference from other types of antennas.

Table 2. Comparison with Other Antennas.

References Antenna Type * FBW (GHz) Size (mm2 ) Process

0.13 µm
Monolithically
[5] 77–87 1.296 × 1.508 SiGe
Integrated antennas
BiCMOS
Switching the
[6] (SNIR) antenna 57.24–65.88 N/A directive beams
of the arrays
[24] System on chip 93–95 N/A CMOS
Trough-polymer
[17] 120–124.3 0.94 × 1.45 SiGe BiCMOS
Via technology
[19] Yagi antenna 57.6–67 0.74 × 1.14 Glass substrate
This work Vivaldi antenna 85.47–102.4 1.2 × 1.2 0.18 µm CMOS
* FBW = fractional bandwidth.

4. Discussion
Due to silicon’s higher conductivity, this may adversely affect the radiation perfor-
mance of the antenna, especially in typical six-metal-layer CMOS processes. Such process
structures can lead to a decrease in antenna efficiency due to the coupling effects between
the antenna and the silicon substrate, as well as the conductivity of the substrate, causing
energy losses. In this work, a wideband Vivaldi antenna suitable for the 100 GHz frequency
band is proposed. Vivaldi antennas are renowned for their superior wideband characteris-
tics, high efficiency, and travelling wave properties with stable radiation patterns, making
them highly suitable for high-frequency applications. The Vivaldi antenna in this paper em-
ploys an array structure that not only enhances the antenna’s directivity of the antenna but
Telecom 2024, 5 414

also extends the scanning angles and bandwidth through the array design. The proposed
CMOS Vivaldi antenna achieves a wide bandwidth of 16.93 GHz within the frequency
range of 85.47–102.40 GHz, accounting for 17.7% of the entire band. The overall volume
of the antenna is tightly controlled within a compact space of 1.2 × 1.2 mm. With a peak
gain of −4 dBi, this represents a significant achievement considering the antenna’s size,
especially given its operation in the high-frequency millimetre-wave band. This antenna
finds wide-ranging applications in wireless communications, particularly in future 5G/6G
high-frequency communications, satellite communication, long-range radar sensing, and
other millimetre-wave applications.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.-A.C.; methodology, M.-A.C.; software, M.-A.C.; val-

idation, M.-A.C., C.-W.T. and K.-C.T.; formal analysis, M.-A.C.; investigation, M.-A.C.; resources,
M.-A.C.; data curation, M.-A.C.; writing—original draft preparation, M.-A.C.; writing—review and
editing, M.-A.C. and C.-W.T.; visualization, M.-A.C.; supervision, M.-A.C.; project administration,
M.-A.C.; funding acquisition, M.-A.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article. The original contributions presented
in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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