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A Practical Guide
to Stage Lighting,
2nd Edition

Steven Louis Shelley

!-34%2$!- s "/34/. s (%)$%,"%2' s ,/.$/.

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3!. &2!.#)3#/ s 3).'!0/2% s 39$.%9 s 4/+9/
&OCAL press is AN IMPRINT OF %LSEVIER
Focal Press is an imprint of Elsevier
30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK

© 2009 Steven L. Shelley. Published by Elsevier Inc.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than
as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any
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should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional
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To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for
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use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

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ISBN: 978-0-240-81141-3

For information on all Focal Press publications

visit our website at www.elsevierdirect.com

09 10 11 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America

 Table of Contents

Foreword ..............................................................xii Computer Control Protocols ..........................22

Preface .................................................................xiii Computer Memory Storage ............................22
Acknowledgments for the Second Edition ............xiv Computer Lighting Console Control
Introduction ..........................................................xx Philosophies ................................................23
The Final Light Plot for Hokey ............................xvi Shelley’s Notes: Know Your Console ..............25
The Lighting Section for Hokey .........................xviii Cue and Memory Nomenclature.....................25
Computer Lighting Console Syntax ................26
Chapter 1 A Review ...............................1 Time Fades .....................................................27
INTRODUCTION ..................................................1 Waits & Delays...............................................27
THE THEATRICAL SPACE ...................................1 LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS ...............................28
Theatrical Stage Nomenclature .........................3 Components of Lighting Instruments ..............28
Theatrical Rigging ............................................3 The Lamps ......................................................28
Theatrical Backdrops ........................................4 The Reflectors ................................................29
Theatrical Masking ...........................................5 The Lenses ......................................................30
Theatrical Performance Surfaces .......................6 The Individual Instruments .............................31
HANGING POSITION AND FOCUS Lighting Console Support Software ................35
NOMENCLATURE ............................................6 Computer Lighting Design Software ...............35
Hanging Position Nomenclature .......................6 Housing & Hanging Hardware ......................35
Theatrical Lighting Numbering Systems ...........6 Accessory Hardware .......................................36
Focus and Function Nomenclature ...................7 Atmospherics ..................................................38
SYSTEM DIRECTION NOMENCLATURE AND COLOR ................................................................38
ANALYSIS...........................................................8 Defining Color ................................................39
Frontlight .........................................................8 Color Temperature .........................................39
Sidelight ............................................................9 Color Perception .............................................40
Overhead Sidelight .........................................10 Color Mixing ..................................................40
Boom Sidelight ...............................................10 Color Media ...................................................40
Downlight ......................................................11 THE STAFF OF A PRODUCTION .......................41
Backlight ........................................................12 The Management and Creative Staff ...............41
Other Lighting Systems ...................................13 The Production Staff .......................................42
Backdrop Wash...............................................13 The House Staff ..............................................42
Overhead Template Wash ...............................14 The Lighting Department ...............................43
ELECTRICITY AND DISTRIBUTION.................15 The Lighting Designer ....................................43
Basic Electricity ..............................................15 The Associate Lighting Designer .....................43
The Control Path ............................................16 The Assistant Lighting Designer......................43
Dimmers .........................................................16 Staff Summary ................................................44
Circuitry .........................................................18 THE PRODUCTION SCHEDULE .......................44
Load Calculations ...........................................19 THE LIGHT PLOT AND LIGHTING
CONTROL ...........................................................20 SECTION ..........................................................45
Manual Control ..............................................21 Creating and Constructing a Lighting
Computer Control ..........................................21 Design ..............................................................45

v
vi L Table of Contents

Properties of Light ..........................................45 HOKEY RE-ANALYSIS........................................71

Objectives of Light .........................................46 Scene Breakdown and Analysis .......................71
SUMMARY ..........................................................46 Hokey Cue Master Version 2 ..........................72
Hokey Systems and Specials, Version 2 ...........72
Chapter 2 Paperwork Overview ...........47 Hokey Preliminary Magic Sheet, Version 1 .....74
Shelley’s Notes: The Production Book.............47 Core Design Document Review ......................75
THE DOCUMENT PRE-APPROVAL AND SUMMARY ..........................................................76
DISTRIBUTION CHARTS ................................48
Document Pre-Approval Chart .......................48 Chapter 4 The Parameters ....................77
Document Distribution Chart .........................49 INTRODUCTION ................................................77
The Three Document Categories.....................51 DEFINE THE CONTRACT .................................78
Document Analysis .........................................51 Section One ....................................................78
Title Block Information ..................................52 Employee versus Independent
Soft Copy Distribution ...................................53 Contractor ............................................78
Hard Copy Distribution .................................53 Section Two ....................................................79
Shelley’s Notes: Keeping Paper in the Section Three ..................................................79
Notebook ....................................................53 Section Four ...................................................80
Summary ........................................................54 Shelley’s Notes: Contract Negotiation.............81
Shelley’s Notes: Contract Hints.......................81
Stage 1 Research and Analysis ..............55 Shelley’s Contract for Hokey ..........................82
DEFINE THE PRODUCTION SCHEDULE .........82
Chapter 3 Background Preparations Production Schedule Analysis .........................87
Hokey’s Production Schedule ..........................89
and Preliminary Design DEFINE BY THE BUDGET ..................................90
Paperworks .........................57 Shelley’s Notes: Movers or Not? .....................92
INTRODUCTION ................................................57 DEFINE THE COMMUNICATION ....................93
BACKGROUND PREPARATIONS ......................57 DEFINE BY TYPE AND SIZE OF
Shelley’s Notes: Background Preparations.......57 PRODUCTION .................................................94
The Piece: Script, Score or Treatment..............58 DEFINE BY ORIGIN............................................95
Hokey: The Treatment ....................................58 DEFINE BY MOVEMENT ...................................95
Notes for Hokey .............................................60 DEFINE BY MODE OF TRANSPORT.................95
Core Design Documents .................................60 DEFINE THE PERFORMANCE FACILITY.........96
Cue Master .....................................................60 Tech Specs and Drawings................................97
Cue Master for Hokey; Version 1 ...................61 Shelley’s Notes: Advancing the
Shelley’s Notes: Cue Master ............................62 Performance Facility .................................100
Research .........................................................62 Shelley’s Notes: Advancing Venues ...............100
Research for Hokey ........................................63 Shelley’s Notes: General Advance
Shelley’s Notes; Doing Research .....................63 Questions ................................................... 101
System and Specials Sheet ...............................63 Hokey advance questions .............................101
System and Specials Sheet for Hokey ..............63 Shelley’s Notes: Can’t Get to the
MEETINGS ..........................................................64 Advance?...................................................... 101
Production Meetings .......................................64 Define the House Lighting System ................102
Shelley’s Notes: Tips for Production Define the House Lighting Console ..............102
Meetings........................................................... 65 Shelley Notes: Measuring the
Concept Meetings ...........................................66 Performance Space ....................................104
One-on-One Meetings ....................................66 Measuring the Performance Space
Meeting: The Director ....................................66 Tactics .......................................................104
Director’s Meeting Notes ................................67 Basic Performance Space Measuring
Talking Through the Show .............................68 Sequence ...................................................105
Director Meeting Notes Summary ..................68 Photographing the Performance Space ..........107
Meetings: The Creative Staff ...........................69 Shelley’s Notes: Advance Photography..........108
Meeting: Production Electrician ......................69 Shelley’s Notes: Not Enough Time ................108
Meeting: Production Stage Manager ...............70 Shelley’s Notes: The Hokey Advance ............109
Stage Management Notes ...............................70 Shelley’s Notes: After the Advance ................110
Meetings Summary .........................................70 SUMMARY ........................................................110
 Table of Contents L vii

Stage 2 Preliminary Documents ..........111 Shelley’s Notes: Hookups..............................138

Hookup for Hokey .......................................138
PLOTTING GUIDELINES AND THE SLINKY
Chapter 5 Create the Preliminaries METHOD .......................................................139
and Send out the Shop Basic Plotting Guidelines ..............................139
Order .................................113 The Slinky Formula and Method ..................140
INTRODUCTION ..............................................113 Overhead Electric Placement.........................142
CAD Drafting ...............................................113 Shelley’s Soapbox: Electrics Placement ..........144
Scales ............................................................114 CONSTRUCT THE LIGHTING SYSTEMS .......144
Printing Percentages ......................................114 Basic Construction Techniques .....................144
Departmental Coordination ..........................115 Reference Worksheets While Plotting............145
Graphic Guidelines .......................................115 Instrument Spreadsheet .................................145
Shelley Notes: Drafting Hints .......................116 Dimmer and Circuitry Spreadsheet ...............145
THE PRELIMINARY DRAWINGS.....................116 Reference Documents While Plotting ............146
Reference Information ..................................116 Illustration Notes ..........................................146
THE PRELIMINARY SECTION ........................117 Construction of the Backlight System ...........147
Decisions: Which Side? .................................117 Backlight: Cut Sheet Analysis .......................147
Decisions: Sectional Perspective in Backlight: Front Elevations and
Non-Proscenium Settings ..........................117 Calculations ..............................................148
Decisions: How Much Architecture?.............118 Backlight: Downstage Zone
Information Included on the Preliminary Construction .............................................151
Section .................................................... 118 Completing the Preliminary Drafting ............152
Shelley’s Soapbox: Sectional Need? ...............118 Peripheral lighting ........................................153
Tales from the Road: Why Bother with Shelley’s Notes: Avoid the Box ......................154
a New Section? .........................................118 Shelley’s Notes: Preliminary Plotting
The Preliminary Section; Basic Drawing .......119 Tactics .......................................................154
Step 1: Draft the Rough Outlines ...........119 Shelley’s Notes: Plotting Observations ..........155
Step 2: Fill in Information Upstage COMPLETING THE PRELIMINARY
of Plaster line ......................................120 LIGHT PLOT ..................................................155
Step 3: The Scenic Masking ....................121 Prior to Completion ......................................155
Leg Analysis .................................................123 After the Completion ....................................156
THE PRELIMINARY GROUNDPLAN ..............124 Shelley’s Notes: Distributing the
Information Included on a Preliminary Preliminaries .............................................156
Groundplan ..............................................124 THE SHOP ORDER ...........................................157
The Preliminary Groundplan; Basic Selecting the Lighting Rental Shop ................158
Drawing ....................................................125 Shelley’s Golden Rule: Selecting
Step 1: Draft the Rough Outlines ...........125 Vendors .....................................................158
Step 2: Fill in Information Upstage Lighting Rental Shop Analysis ......................158
of Plaster line ......................................125 Lighting Rental Account Rep ........................159
Step 3: Define Scenic Masking................127 The Cover Letter ..........................................160
Step 4: Transfer Leg Locations The Shop Order ............................................162
to Section............................................129 The Equipment List ......................................162
THE FRONT ELEVATION ................................130 Shop Order Tips ...........................................165
Reference Information for a Front Shop Order Analysis .....................................165
Elevation ...................................................130 The Perishable List .......................................166
The Front Elevation; Basic Drawing .............130 Perishable Notes ...........................................167
DEFINE THE HOKEY LIGHTING Rental Shop Rudeness ..................................168
SYSTEMS ........................................................130 Shelley’s Notes: Rental Order Thoughts........168
Step 1: Systems and Special Shelley’s Notes: The Hokey Shop
Analysis ..............................................131 Order ........................................................168
Step 2: Preliminary Magic Sheet .............132 The Shop Order Complete ............................169
Step 3: Preliminary Hookup ...................133 THE LABOR ......................................................169
Hookup Arrangements .................................136 THE MASKING AND SCENIC RENTAL
Hookups and Cue Screens ............................136 ORDER ...........................................................171
Hookups and Monitor Rows ........................137 SUMMARY ........................................................171
viii L Table of Contents

Chapter 6 Cuts and Changes ..............173 THE SUPPORT PAPERWORK ...........................211

INTRODUCTION ..............................................173 The Instrument Schedule...............................211
THE BIDDING PROCESS ..................................173 The Channel Hookup ...................................214
The Shop Order Arrives at the Shops ............173 The Circuitry Schedule .................................214
The Quotes Arrive at the Management The Dimmer Schedule ...................................216
Office ........................................................175 Color Cards and Floor Cards .......................218
THE BUDGET GETS SLASHED ........................177 The Color Cards ....................................218
Initial Analysis ..............................................178 The Floor Card ......................................220
A General Plan .............................................179 The Combined Color and
Determine a Timeline .............................179 Floor Card ............................................ 220
Notify All Concerned .............................179 Cut Color Spreadsheet ..................................222
Define the Parameters ............................180 Template Sheets ............................................224
Acquire Information...............................181 Manuals and Cut Sheets ...............................224
Analyze and Compare the Bids...............181 SUMMARY ........................................................225
Decide on the Number of Shops .............181
Talk to the Shops....................................182
Show Analysis ........................................183
Chapter 8 The Load-In and Focus
Systems and Specials Sheet .....................183 Packet ................................227
The Cuts and Changes ...........................184 INTRODUCTION ..............................................227
Negotiations and Decisions ....................187 THE HANG PLOT .............................................227
Reaction .................................................187 THE HEADSET LAYOUT
Making the Changes to the Preliminary GROUNDPLAN .............................................227
Light Plot ..................................................188 COMPUTER LIGHT BOARD
The Cue Master, Version 2.6 and 2.7 ...... 188 INFORMATION ...................................................229
The Instrument Spreadsheet, Version 2......190 Memory Review ...........................................230
The Preliminary Light Plot, Version 2....... 191 Numerical Mnemonics .................................232
Circuitry and Dimmer Spreadsheet.........191 Disk Master Chart ........................................232
The Labor Spreadsheet ...........................194 Focus Cue Block.....................................233
SUMMARY ........................................................194 Act Cue Blocks .......................................234
Library Blocks ........................................234
Cue Information and
Stage 3 Preparation
Identification ......................................235
The Production Packets ..........197 Act Preset Check Cues............................235
Autofollows ...........................................236
Chapter 7 The Light Plot, Section, Ghost Channels ......................................236
and Support Paperwork Time Stamp Channels.............................236
Packet ................................199 Blackout Cues ........................................237
INTRODUCTION ..............................................199 Shelley’s Notes: Key Memory
THE LIGHT PLOT .............................................199 Numbers ...................................................237
An Overview of the Hokey Light Plot ...........200 System Size .............................................237
An Examination of the Hokey Lighting Infrastructure Cues .......................................238
Systems .....................................................201 System Wash Memories ..........................238
The Hokey Straight Frontlight Systems .....201 Hanging Position Memories ...................239
The Hokey Box Boom Systems...............201 Submasters .............................................240
The Hokey Downlight Systems ..............204 The Submaster List.................................242
The Hokey Backlight Systems ................204 Submaster Notes ....................................244
The Hokey Sidelight Pipe End Systems ......204 Groups ...................................................244
The Hokey Template System...................204 FOCUS INFORMATION ...................................245
The Hokey Sidelight Boom Systems ........204 Focus Point Groundplans .............................247
The Hokey Scenic Stack Systems ............204 Focus Charts .................................................253
THE LIGHTING SECTION ...............................205 Focus Charts from Scratch .....................255
The Objectives of a Lighting Section .............205 Focus Chart Examples............................256
An Overview of the Hokey Lighting Section ....205 Shelley’s Notes: Digital Camera
The Layout of the Hokey Lighting Section....208 Focus Shots ...............................................258
The Hokey Lighting Systems in Section ........209 SUMMARY ........................................................259
 Table of Contents L ix

Chapter 9 The Cue Construction Perishables ....................................................295

Packet ................................261 Console Pre-programming ............................295
INTRODUCTION ..............................................261 Truck Pack....................................................295
THE MAGIC SHEET..........................................261 THE PRODUCTION SCHEDULE .....................295
The Magic Sheet Layout ...............................262 Adapting Electrics to the Production
THE CHEAT SHEET ..........................................264 Schedule ....................................................296
THE CUE MASTER ...........................................266 WATCHING THE RUN THROUGH .................297
The Spreadsheet Cue Master.........................266 Prior to Attending the Run-Through ............298
The Movement Cue Master ..........................268 General Run-Through Tactics .......................298
The Script Cue Master ..................................268 Watching the Run-Through
FORMS...............................................................268 One Time............................................299
Light Board Operator Sheets ........................268 Watching the Run-Through
Manual Light Board Operator Sheet ......271 Two Times ..........................................299
Computer Lighting Console Watching the Run-Through
Operator Sheet ...................................271 Three Times ........................................299
Followspot Cue Sheet ...................................271 Alternate Run-Through Tactics.....................299
Three-Spot Cue Sheet .............................272 End of Run-Through Tactics.........................299
Repatch Sheets ..............................................274 Hokey Run-Through Notes....................299
Repatch Work Sheet ...............................274 FINAL PREPARATIONS FOR THE
Light Cue Sheet, Work Note Sheet, LOAD-IN ........................................................300
and Cue Track Sheet .................................275 The Day (Week) Before the Load-in ..............300
Light Cue Sheets.....................................276 The Night Before the Load-in .......................300
Light Cue Sheet Layout ..........................277 Initial Paperwork and Tools..........................300
Cue Sheet Example.................................279 SUMMARY ........................................................301
Work Notes Sheet...................................279
Light Cue Track Sheet ............................281 Stage 3: Application
Light Cue Track Sheet Layout ................281 Using the Packets ..................303
Program with Light Cue Track Sheet ......283
Repatch with Light Cue Track Sheet ......283 Chapter 11 The Load-In and Setup ....305
Distributing the Paperwork ..........................285 INTRODUCTION ..............................................305
SUMMARY ........................................................285 Before the Load-In Begins .............................305
Union Considerations ...................................306
Chapter 10 Prior to the Load-In .........287 Information Distribution Check ...................307
INTRODUCTION ..............................................287 The First Misunderstanding ..........................307
CONFIRM PAPERWORK The Masking Snafu .......................................308
DISTRIBUTION..............................................287 The Masking Snafu Analysis ..................310
Shelley’s Notes: Confirm Paperwork Sneaky Tips: Shelley’s Unwritten
Distribution ..............................................287 Rules of Masking................................311
Shelley’s Notes: Don’t Assume Masking Snafu Comparisons and
Communication ........................................288 Solutions.............................................313
Vendor Double-Check ..................................288 THE LOAD-IN BEGINS .....................................314
Certificate of Insurance .................................289 Shelley’s Soapbox: Keep the Hot
Truck Tactics ................................................289 Zone Clear ................................................316
Acknowledgments and Thank-yous ..............290 Shelley’s Soapbox: Count the Gear ...............316
REACTING TO CHANGES ...............................290 Shelley’s Soapbox: Test the Gear ...................317
React to Costume Change.............................291 Shelley’s Soapbox: Establish Your Base of
React to Direction Change ............................291 Operations ................................................318
React to Producer Change ............................291 Shelley’s Notes: Paperwork Changes .............318
React to Schedule Change .............................291 Shelley’s Notes: Keeping Paper and
React to Scenic Change .................................292 Keeping Track ...........................................318
PREPPING THE RENTAL LIGHT Shelley’s Notes: Keeping Archives .................319
PACKAGE .......................................................293 Shelley’s Notes: Delays During
Prepping a Show ...........................................293 Load-in .....................................................319
Substitutions .................................................294 SPIKING THE DECK .........................................320
Reacting to Lighting Changes.................294 Define Up Center ..........................................322
x L Table of Contents

Shelley’s Soapbox: Provide Your Own Positioning the Hot Spot ...............................353
Measuring Tape ........................................323 Start the Focus from Center ..........................353
Shelley’s Soapbox: My Spike Marks..............323 Focusing with Ambient Light ........................354
Tales from the Road: Spike Marks Focusing with Other Activity ........................354
Without a Performance Surface .................323 Focusing with Hand Signals ..........................355
Tales from the Road: Spike Marks Shelley’s Notes: General Focus ......................356
Without Walls ...........................................324 Shelley’s Notes: Focusing More
HANGING THE LIGHT PLOT .........................325 Than One Position ....................................356
Before the Light Plot Is Hung .......................325 Designer Do’s and Don’ts .............................358
Preparations to Speed the Hang ....................326 FOCUS TIPS .......................................................359
Hanging Procedures ......................................327 Sneaky Tip: Focusing Ellipsoidals .................359
POSITION THE BOOMS ...................................329 Sneaky Tip: Focusing Orphans .....................359
On and Offstage ...........................................329 Shelley’s Soapbox: Use the Hot Spot .............360
Up and Downstage .......................................330 Shelley’s Golden Rule: Is There a Light Cue
PROGRAMMING INFORMATION Featuring This Instrument by Itself? ............ 360
INTO THE COMPUTER LIGHTING Tales from the Road; The Un–called for
CONSOLE ......................................................333 Channel ................................................... 361
Set up the System ..........................................334 FOCUS CHECKLISTS ........................................361
Program Infrastructure Groups .....................336 The Environment ..........................................361
Program Infrastructure Submasters ...............336 The Lighting Designer ..................................362
Program Infrastructure Light Cues................336 Before the Electrician Departs
Program Light Cues from Prior the Stage ...................................................362
Incarnations ..............................................337 FOCUSING THE HOKEY LIGHT PLOT ..........362
Record the Contents of Memory on Front of House Positions ..............................362
Older Consoles .........................................337 Shelley’s Notes: Where’s the Downstage
Recording the Contents of Memory on Edge? ........................................................364
Newer Consoles ........................................338 Straight Frontlight Focus ..............................364
Shelley’s Golden Rule: Save Early Shelley’s Notes: Straight Frontlight
and Often ..................................................338 Tips and Workarounds ..............................365
Check the Light Console Contents ................338 Box Boom Focus ...........................................367
CHECK THE PRODUCTION TABLE ...............339 Shelley’s Notes: Box Boom Tips and
Shelley’s Soapbox: BYO Production Workarounds ............................................367
Table Equipment .......................................340 Sneaky Tip: Box Booms During Bows...........371
FOLLOWSPOTS.................................................341 Frontlight Drop Wash Analysis .....................371
HOT TEST THE POSITION ..............................342 Frontlight Drop Wash Focus .........................371
Hot Test the Electronics and Leg Wash Analysis ........................................372
Their Data ................................................343 Leg Wash Focus ............................................373
Tales from the Road: Get Some Shelley’s Notes: Leg Wash Workarounds.......373
Cable-Grow in Switzerland .......................343 Overhead Positions .......................................374
SETTING THE TRIMS.......................................344 Overhead Frontlight Focus ...........................377
Shelley’s Notes: Trimming.............................346 Overhead Sidelight Focus .............................378
Tales from the Road: The Shrinking Legs .....347 Shelley’s Golden Rule: Cut Light Off
Tales from the Road: Trim the Overhead Close Combustibles ...................................381
Electrics without Borders ..........................347 Overhead Template Focus.............................382
THE FIRST CHANNEL CHECK .......................347 Overhead Downlight Focus ..........................383
SUMMARY ........................................................348 Overhead Backlight Focus ............................385
Boom Sidelight Positions ..............................387
Chapter 12 The Focus Session ............349 Boom Sidelight Focus ...................................388
INTRODUCTION ..............................................349 Shelley’s Notes: Boom Sidelight
OVERVIEW ........................................................349 Tips and Workarounds ..............................392
FOCUS ANALYSIS .............................................350 Scenic Stack Focus Analysis ..........................393
The Audience Angle of Observation .............350 Overhead Scenic Stack Focus ........................393
FOCUS TECHNIQUES AND NOTES ................352 Groundrow Scenic Stack Focus .....................394
Paperwork Techniques ..................................352 Shelley’s Notes: Scenic Stack
A Focus Example ..........................................353 Tips and Workarounds ..............................394
 Table of Contents L xi

Shelley’s Notes: The Black Band ...................395 Shelley’s Soapbox: Headset Etiquette ............424
The Slinky Method Applied to the The Technical Rehearsal Begins ....................424
Focus Session ............................................395 Working with the Stage Manager..................425
The Slinky Method of Calculating Focus ......396 The Assistant ................................................425
The Slinky Method of Focusing ....................396 Talking: Not on Headset...............................425
After a Hanging Position Has Been The Laptop During the Tech .........................426
Focused .....................................................400 Tech Rehearsal Lighting Tactics ....................426
Shelley’s Notes: Turn off the Works Before the End of the Technical Rehearsal ....426
Before Leaving the Position .......................400 End of the Technical Rehearsal .....................427
After The Focus Has Concluded ...................401 BEFORE THE FINAL REHEARSAL ..................427
SUMMARY ........................................................401 End of the Final Rehearsal ............................427
The Viewing Location...................................428
Chapter 13 The Light Cue Level Setting SUMMARY ........................................................429
Session and Technical
Rehearsals ........................403 Chapter 14 The Performance..............431
INTRODUCTION ..............................................431
INTRODUCTION ..............................................403
BEFORE THE PERFORMANCE .......................431
LIGHT CUE LEVEL SETTING SESSION
The Preshow Call .........................................432
ANALYSIS.......................................................403
Electrics Preshow Check ...............................432
General Cueing Concepts .............................405
Shelley’s Golden Rule: Complete the Check
General Cueing Tactics .................................405
Before Fixing the Problems......................... 434
BEFORE THE CUEING SESSION......................406
Shelley’s Notes: Electrics Preshow
Meeting with the Light Board Operator........406
Checks ......................................................434
Checklists Before Cueing ..............................408
THE SHOW CALL .............................................434
Shelley’s Golden Rule: Save Early and
Overhead Work Notes ..................................435
Often—Again ............................................409
Sidelight Check .............................................435
Shelley’s Golden Rule: Avoid Blackouts
Lighting Console Notes ................................435
Onstage .....................................................409
Final Light Board Check ...............................436
THE CUEING SESSION .....................................410
The Viewing Location...................................436
The Opening: Act 1, Scene 1 .........................410
THE PERFORMANCE.......................................437
The Storm: Act 1, Scene 2 .............................412
Notes Taken During the Performance ...........437
The Beginning of Act 2, Scene 1....................415
Shelley’s Notes: Identifying the Mystery
The End of Act 2, Scene 1 .............................417
Hot Spot ...................................................437
After the Cueing Session ...............................417
Intermission ..................................................437
FOLLOWSPOTS.................................................417
The Bows ......................................................438
Followspot Concepts ....................................417
AFTER THE SHOW ...........................................438
Followspot Analysis ......................................418
The Departure ..............................................439
Followspot Tactics ........................................419
Out of the Theatre ........................................439
Shelley’s Notes: Followspot Language...........420
SUMMARY ........................................................439
Followspots Before the First Technical
Tales from the Road: A Lifetime in Italy
Rehearsal................................................. 421
One Night .................................................439
Shelley’s Notes: Followspots as Guide
Lights ........................................................422 Glossary ..............................................................443
THE TECHNICAL REHEARSAL ......................422 Bibliography .......................................................451
Prior to the Technical Rehearsal ...................423 Index ...................................................................453
 Foreword

At last. The second edition of the book that we in the In my experience as a teacher, I have learned that
theatrical lighting world have been waiting for has it is important for a student to learn one way well.
arrived. This new, greatly expanded edition includes Once that is done it becomes clear that any way—
a wealth of additional information, stepping through the student’s way—is possible. Steve Shelley in A
the design process from the beginning (contracts, Practical Guide for Stage Lighting, Second Edition,
budgets, bids, production schedules), through devel- has dissected his own carefully devised process and
opment of the plot and tech rehearsal, and on to the generously presented it to the reader. He shows us
end (archiving). It includes helpful discussions of such every aspect of lighting and how it becomes a part of
disparate topics as what to do about transport, how a total production. The emphasis is on craft but his
to approach meetings, or how to cope with changes experience in design allows us to see how the two go
during load-in or tech. Whether you are a lighting hand in hand. The how may well determine a large
designer on Broadway, off Broadway, in LORT the- part of the what.
aters, for small or large dance companies who tour or It is through the light onstage that theater com-
give one time performances, or for any kind of theat- municates with an audience. Only when one has a
rical venture, you will find a way to get a handle on richly developed and organized language, a clear way
your lighting process, both the craft and the design, of speaking, can one begin to express the light with a
in this book. nuance and subtlety that will reveal the depth of fine
It is totally comprehensive and written in such a performance. Once one has read and comprehended
way that accomplished designers, as well as beginners, this second edition of A Practical Guide for Stage
can find information, know-how, and stimulating ideas Lighting, one’s ideas in light cannot help but become
written in an organized and easily understandable man- more organized and systematic, enabling one to com-
ner. It is staggeringly complete and therefore hardly a municate those ideas with greater depth and clarity.
volume for one’s back pocket, but I am sure it will find This organization, coupled with a developed eye for
its way into many a workbox, as well as the shelves of composition, is all that one needs to be a fine designer.
studios and classrooms alike. If you own the first edi- I have no doubt that this book will stimulate the
tion there is more than enough additional material to designing of better light onstage, and make better
warrant adding this second edition to your library. lighting designers of us all. Bravo!

Jennifer Tipton
Lighting Designer

xii
 Preface

There are three defining moments in the course of ethereal mindset and chose not to understand them
any lighting design. The first is when the lighting until they could no longer be avoided. And then, all
designer is hired. The second is when the load-in too often, it would be too late.
starts and lighting instruments begin to get hung. The Eventually I realized I had it backwards. I needed
third and final moment is when the curtain opens to to first scrutinize the situation, acknowledge the con-
an audience. straints, and then construct a strategic design that
In between, the realization of every lighting design not only addressed the ethereal needs of the show,
requires a progressive sequence of tasks. In addition to but simultaneously addressed all of the parameters.
completing the tasks, every design has to be adapted – Rather than walk in the door and slowly make deci-
no design is ever realized without some amount of sions taking constraints into account, I began to
change. Not only is every production different, the construct tactical methods that pre-addressed the
end result may even be completely different from the parameters before walking in the door.
initial plan. In order for a design to be considered Studying how constraints potentially impact the
“complete,” both the initial tasks and the adaptations original design concept for a show allows many of
must be executed. the potential choices to be examined ahead of time.
The challenge is that both of these steps take place When adaptations are required, the choices are sim-
within a scheduled framework that’s often referred to plified, quickly made, and the design has a better
as “the production period,” but is even more accu- chance to be completed on time.
rately named stage time. And this will come as no After years of watching and analyzing missteps
great surprise: There’s never enough. Once the load- and mistakes (both my own and others’), I’ve devel-
in starts and the show enters stage time, the count- oped these methods, tools, and techniques that I use
down really begins. After that second moment, any to expedite the process. Doing the homework and
time spent on stage trying to make a decision, rather producing lighting designs based on realistic param-
than implementing a decision, is usually wasted time eters, the production process remains more focused
that can never be regained. on adapting a fully-conceived design into a realized
When I was a young student of lighting design, product, instead of spending time on the distraction
I wasted a lot of stage time. I had attended classes and of knee-jerk reactions to information that should
read books, but no one said anything about time or have been analyzed beforehand.
any other constraints in a way that made me listen. A Practical Guide for Stage Lighting illustrates
From my perspective, no class stressed the need to these methods that I use to maximize the precious
streamline the process of lighting design. Without a commodity of stage time and to create theatrical
system or enough experience, I started my career fol- lighting designs. It presents nuts-and-bolts tools and
lowing production schedules that frequently resulted techniques that address the realities of crafting or rec-
in unfinished products. reating a light plot with minimal space, tools, or time.
Eventually I analyzed these disappointments and Or, to put it another way, how to get the best lighting
came to realize that the unfulfilled designs were often bang for your buck.
my own fault. I ran out of time, typically because
I couldn’t quickly adapt to existing parameters or con- Steve Shelley
straints. The constraints had always been there – I New York City
just didn’t understand them, or I was locked in an 2009

xiii
 Acknowledgments
for the Second Edition

Like all books, this effort would not have been possi- all matters Lightwright. Lorraine Hall, Suzie
ble without the assistance and cooperation of a lot of Elliott, and Mitch Tebo lent knowledge and
folks. All of the organizations and individuals listed support for matters regarding Word, Excel, or
below had some hand in the realization of this book: general grammaticism.
The Assisting Eyes: Aaron Copp, Judith
The manufacturers: Tony Sklarew and John Ryan Daitsman, David Fleming, Greg Goldsmith,
at Altman Stage Lighting; Gary Fails at City Kevin Greene, Sabrina Hamilton, Ruth
Theatrical; Ken Romaine and Keith Gullum, Hutson, Ellen Jones, Martha Mountain, Aaron
lately of Color Kinetics; Sue Englund, Traci Sporer, Nancy Schertler, and Jim Streeter.
Kelliher, David North, Tony Romain, and The Assisting Ears: Julie Archer, Jimbo Griffith,
at Electronic Theatre Controls; Joe Tawil at Rhys Williams, and the staff and patrons of
Great American Market; Debi Moen at High Acqua’s. A special shout-out to Naz Aykent,
End Systems; Don Phillips at LeMaitre Special Horace Beasley, and Bill Shapiro.
Effects, Inc.; Steve Lerman at Lycian Stage Filling in the blanks: Jim Bay, Sound Designer;
Lighting; Larry Beck at Martin; Beth Weinstein, Richard Cadena, editor of PLSN and author
Rob Morris, and Tom Morris at Ocean Optics; of “Automated Lighting; The Art and Science
Josh Alemany, Joel Svendsen, and Chad Tiller of Moving Light”; Mike Pitzer, Production
at Rosco Labs; Jeremy Collins, Scott Church, Electrician; and Anne Valentino, Console
and Marie (Deanna Troi) Southwood at Specialist.
StrandUSelecon Performance Lighting; Tom
Folsom, Bobby Harrell, and Phil Foleen at Thanks to the ever-patient Ms. Cara Anderson and
Strand Lighting. Ms. Danielle Monroe, both of whom garner the grat-
The lighting rental shops: Meghan Marrer at itude and bear the responsibility for making this sec-
Scharff Weisberg Lighting; Al Ridella at 4 Wall ond edition come to fruition. Thanks also to Ms.
Entertainment Lighting; Larry Schoeneman at Maureen Moran, whose straightforward analysis and
Designlab Chicago and Interesting Products. guidance kept this project on course. Finally, thanks
The organizations: United Scenic Artists 829 to André A. Cuello, for his guidance and patience at
(Martha Mountain, Mitch Dana, Carl the end of the publishing process.
Baldasso, and David Goodman), ESTA (Karl Many thanks to the two people who helped
Ruling and Lori Rubenstein), Noah Price and inspire me into this strange business: Ms. Sara
the rest of the Stagecraft List (WWFWD?), Boatman and Mr. Michael Orris Watson. Thanks also
and the United States Institute for Theatre to Mr. Todd Randall, who provided a timely dose of
Technology. confidence. As before, this book is dedicated to my
The Usual Suspects: Kevin Linzey, Sam Jones, family and my friends. Without their support, I might
David KH Elliott, Cris Dopher, and Andrew still be delivering laundry.
Dunning, for their assistance with all questions Finally, for her assistance, patience, and incred-
regarding Vectorworks®. John McKernon for ibly high tolerance level, big thanks to my Pookie,

xiv
 Acknowledgments for the Second Edition L xv

Ms. Judith Schoenfeld. I could not have done this ments are courtesy of Electronic Theatre Controls;
without you. images of a gobo rotator and Rosco Designer Pattern
A Practical Guide for Stage Lighting, Second #77733 are courtesy of Rosco Labs. Images of other
Edition, was written on Apple MacBook Pro, using instruments and devices mentioned in the text are
an HP Officejet 5610 All-in-One, and an ancient HP included with the permission of Electronic Theatre
Laserjet 6MP. The following applications were origi- Controls, High End Systems, Interesting Products,
nally used to create the text and graphics used in this LeMaitre Special Effects, Lycian Stage Lighting,
book: Adobe PhotoShop, Colorit!, Filemaker Pro, Ocean Optics, Strand Selecon Performance Lighting,
MacDraw, Microsoft Office 98, and ScanWizard. and Strand Lighting. Remaining lighting instrument
The second edition relied heavily on Microsoft Office images courtesy of Altman Lighting. The digital pho-
2004, Vectorworks®, Adobe Illustrator, Snapz Pro tographs at the end of Chapter 8 were taken by Steven
X, and Graphic Converter. Louis Shelley of instruments focused for Steve Reich’s
Some material in Chapter 1 initially relied The Cave, lighting designed by Matthew Frey. The
on Designing with Light, by J. Michael Gillette; original Front View High Side Beam Pool drafting
Stage Lighting, by Richard Pilbrow; and Lighting provided by Martha Mountain.
Handbook, by the Westinghouse Electric Corporation. All elements, concepts, and descriptions of
Material in the shop order section made supplemen- Hokey: A Musical Myth by Steven Louis Shelley. All
tal use of information from John McKernon’s home illustrations by Steven Louis Shelley.
page: www.mckernon.com. The production schedule All lighting symbols included in this text were cre-
format is based off templates created by Ms. Susie ated using either the Field Template™ or SoftSymbols™,
Prueter for Spoleto Festival USA. both of which are designed exclusively by Steven Louis
The mannequin figure used in the wire frame Shelley. Field Template is registered patent 5,033,333.
focus diagrams courtesy of Mr. Andrew Dunning Visit the Field Template Home Page: www
(www.landrudesign.com). .fieldtemplate.com.
Images in Chapter 1 provided by a variety of very Copyright © 2009 by Steven Louis Shelley. All
kind manufacturers: Images of Source Four instru- rights reserved.
xvi L The Final Light Plot for Hokey: A Musical Myth
The Final Light Plot for Hokey: A Musical Myth L xvii
xviii L The Lighting Section for Hokey: A Musical Myth
The Lighting Section for Hokey: A Musical Myth L xix
 Introduction

A Practical Guide for Stage Lighting is intended for To make it easy to distinguish one from the other,
readers who want to understand the process and the several icons are included to highlight portions of this
tools used in theatrical lighting design. book.
This book is not written for the person only
beginning to study theatrical lighting design. There’s
more introductory information that needs to be Checklist: This icon indicates a list of items.
understood and practiced than can be presented in Though not every item is necessarily applicable
the Chapter 1 Review, and there are many other texts to every situation, the list can be reviewed prior to
that provide that. addressing the task at hand.
Likewise, this book is not written for those who
want to learn about more specialized topics, like Shelley ’s
Notes
designing lights for television, film, or concerts. While
a lot of information is included in this book, those top- Shelley’s Notes: This icon points to notes
ics aren’t mentioned. There are also no examinations based on my own experiences. They’re included so
of touring, intimate discussions about moving lights, others don’t have to make the same mistakes I did.
or inside dope on designing for Broadway. There are
other books that cover those topics as well.
A Practical Guide for Stage Lighting is intended Sneaky Tip: This icon indicates a piece of infor-
for the young designer who has some understand- mation that was a revelation when it was presented
ing of the lighting design process, the more experi- to me.
enced designer who’s interested in viewing different
techniques, or the mature designer who just keeps
forgetting the list of things to remember. While I’ve Shelley’s Soapbox: This icon marks my
been all of those designers, I now firmly place myself own personal opinion regarding a particular topic
in the last category. This book got started long ago that I feel strongly about.
when it dawned on me how helpful lists could be. I’m
not ashamed to admit that I’ve referred to this book
numerous times before embarking on a process that I Shelley’s Golden Rule: This icon high-
haven’t encountered for a while. lights a particular fact, situation, or method that I’ve
While many of the methods and techniques found to be almost irrefutable.
I describe in this text are not the only way to
achieve the desired end, they are the simplest ways
I’ve found to successfully reach it. In some cases, Tales from the Road: This icon is used when
those methods are presented merely as sugges- a story is told. While the tire track implies the story
tions. Sometimes, they’re strongly suggested. And is “from the road”, it also indicates the pattern that’s
in particular cases, they are ironclad – those are the left after being run over. That’s often how one feels
Golden Rules. after learning a painful lesson.

xx
 Chapter 1

A Review

INTRODUCTION Before tracing that path, however, this first chapter

reviews basic theatrical lighting terminology, general
The general purpose of a theatrical presentation is theatrical staffing, and some of the parameters that
to entertain, educate, and communicate ideas. That potentially impact any production. The terminology
presentation is often comprised of a script, dance, includes basic nomenclature for the theatrical envir-
or music, interpreted by performers, and design ele- onment, basic electricity, and physical components of
ments, all unified by the director’s overall concept. theatrical lighting, as it will be referred to in this text.
Lighting is one of those design elements, and for a Experienced readers may find much of this redun-
lighting design to successfully achieve its purpose, it dant to their knowledge and skip ahead to Chapter 2,
can’t conceptually, or physically, take place in a vac- which talks about all of the paperwork potentially
uum. Instead, it has to work in conjunction with the involved in designing and creating a lighting design.
other design elements, the performers, and the direc- Chapter 3, on the other hand, jumps into a review of
torial concept. the basic information that needs to be acquired to form
Similarly, the physical components of a lighting a basis of knowledge about a show, while Chapter 4
design must work in tandem with the other various examines basic contractual components, budget esti-
elements of the physical and non-physical environ- mates, and on-site surveys. While the inclusion of this
ment, including the theatrical space, the scenic com- chapter might seem redundant, including this review
ponents, various personnel, and the schedule. While provides a basic framework for terms and explanations
the aesthetics of the design are the primary concern, that are fundamental to lighting design using terms spe-
the lighting designer must also possess a practical cific to this text. Terminology used later in this text may
knowledge of the physical and conceptual frame- suddenly seem unfamiliar, but any misunderstandings or
work of the theatrical lighting environment, in order questions in later chapters can hopefully be referenced
to effectively communicate, coordinate, and execute back and restored on track from information contained
those aesthetics. within this first chapter.
The purpose of this book is to provide that non- The first step of the review is to define the labels
aesthetic framework, by tracing the path of a single and terms for the various architectural elements of
fictional lighting design from a practical point of view. the theatrical space.
Initially, the book will examine the preparation and
adaptation process, viewing the graphic documents
and written paperwork used to define, communi- THE THEATRICAL SPACE
cate, and facilitate the logistics of the lighting design.
Then the book will follow the installation of the light The theatrical space is described with a combina-
plot and lighting design up through the hypothetical tion of architectural nomenclature and historical
opening night. terminology. In general, theatrical presentations

1
2 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

or performances can’t exist without a public to which the audience views the stage from either side
observe the proceedings. To that end, most theatres of the stage, generally known as an alley configu-
have specific locations for the public called the ration, while Figure 1.1C illustrates the configura-
audience, to watch the performance, and locations tion where the audience views the stage from three
where the performers perform, called the stage or sides, known as a thrust configuration. Figure 1.1D
the deck. shows the audience viewing the stage from all four
Figure 1.1 shows simple overhead drawings sides in an arena configuration, often referred to as
looking down at the basic performance configura- “in the round.” Arrangements that intertwine the
tions. Figure 1.1A is the arrangement that allows stage and audience seating are often referred to as
an audience to view the stage from one side, as an environmental, or organic configuration. Since
through a “picture frame,” known as a proscenium there are many possible combinations and varia-
configuration. Figure 1.1B shows the arrangement in tions of these configurations, one generic phrase
used to describe a space used for theatrical presen-
tations in any of these arrangements is a perfor-
mance facility, or a venue. Although many of the
discussions in this text have applications to other
STAGE arrangements, the proscenium configuration is the
principal environment used as a point of reference
PERFORMER for this book.
Another term for the area containing audience
WALL EDGE OF STAGE WALL seating is the house. The main curtain, which may be
used to prevent the audience from viewing the entire
AUDIENCE AUDIENCE AUDIENCE stage until a designated moment, is often located
! immediately behind the proscenium, the architec-
tural “picture frame” that separates the house from
the stage area. In many cases, the proscenium isn’t a
EDGE OF STAGE

EDGE OF STAGE

STAGE
rectangular shape; instead, the top horizontal frame
edge curves into the two vertical sides, creating the
AUDIENCE

AUDIENCE

proscenium arch.
PERFORMER Figure 1.2A is another drawing looking down
onto the stage. The backside of the proscenium
EDGE OF STAGE arch, concealed from the audience’s view, is known
" as the plaster line. The plaster line is often used as
a theatrical plane of reference. If the width of the
proscenium opening is divided in half, that bisected
distance produces a point on the stage. This point
STAGE
can be extended into a single line, perpendicular to
the plaster line. This is the centerline, which is used
WALL PERFORMER WALL
as a second architectural plane of reference. The
STAGE point where the centerline and the plaster line inter-
EDGE OF STAGE sect on the stage is a point of reference called the
groundplan zero point, or the zero-zero point. (In
AUDIENCE AUDIENCE AUDIENCE # CAD drafting programs, this point is known as the
datum.)
AUDIENCE
Two types of drawings are most commonly
used to present the information about each space.
One view looks down onto the performance space,
AUDIENCE

AUDIENCE

STAGE
EDGE

EDGE

compressing every object into a single plane. This

drafting is called a groundplan view. The cross-
PERFORMER
section, commonly referred to as the sectional
AUDIENCE view, is the perspective produced after the entire
$ space has been visually “cut in half” like a layer
cake, often on centerline. After half of the “cake”
Figure 1.1 Basic Stage Configurations: A) Proscenium, has been removed, the inside of the remainder is
B) Alley, C) Thrust, and D) Arena viewed.
 A Review L 3

THEATRICAL STAGE NOMENCLATURE Stage left and stage right are in this orientation as well.
Moving toward centerline from either side is referred
Figure 1.2A also shows the area between the plas- to as movement onstage, while moving away from cen-
ter line and the edge of the stage, often referred to terline is movement offstage. Across the upstage and
as the apron. In some theatres, a gap exists between downstage edges of the performance space are the light
the edge of the stage and the audience. This archi- lines, imaginary boundaries where light on performers
tectural “trench,” acoustically designed to accommo- is terminated. The upstage light line is usually estab-
date musicians and enhance sound, is often referred lished to prevent light from spilling onto backing scen-
to as the orchestra pit. The area of the stage not con- ery, while the downstage light line’s placement may be
cealed by masking, and available for performers, is established by a combination of factors. It often cor-
known as the playing area, or the performance area. responds to the edge of the performance space, or it’s
The rest of the stage, which is often concealed from established to prevent light from spilling onto architec-
the audience’s view, is referred to as backstage. ture and creating distracting shadows. A point on cen-
Stage directions are a basic system of orientation. terline midway between the light lines is often referred
Their nomenclature stems from the time when stages to as center-center. While standing on this point, mov-
were raked, or sloped, toward the audience. Modern ing directly toward the audience is movement down
stage directions can be illustrated from the perspec- center. Moving to either side is thought of as movement
tive of a person standing at groundplan zero facing offstage left or right. Moving directly away from the
the audience. audience is movement toward upstage center. Diagonal
Figure 1.2B illustrates this perspective; moving movement combines the terms, two examples being
closer to the audience is movement downstage, while upstage left or downstage right.
moving away from the audience is movement upstage. Other terms are used to provide a relational
placement system relative to centerline. Figure 1.2C is
a groundplan showing a person standing on stage left,
for example. All objects stage left of centerline can be
BACKSTAGE
BACKSTAGE

referred to as near objects, or being on the near side

of the stage. All objects on the opposite side of cen-
PERFORMANCE AREA
terline, in this case stage right, are far objects, or exist
PLASTER LINE on the far side of the stage. Objects on the far side can
ZERO-ZERO also be referred to as being on the opposite side of
APRON

ORCHESTRA PIT
the stage. This orientation remains constant until the
CL CENTERLINE person moves to the stage right side of centerline, in
A which case all of the terms reverse. The same objects
LIGHT LINE that were near are now far, and vice versa. Opposite is
UPSTAGE always on the opposite side of centerline.
ONSTAGE
OFFSTAGE CENTER-CENTER
STAGE RIGHT STAGE LEFT
DOWNSTAGE Theatrical Rigging
LIGHT LINE
Non-electrical objects hung in the air over the stage
are typically referred to as goods, and are then
divided into one of two categories. Backdrops, cur-
CL B tains, and velour masking all fall under the heading
of soft goods, while built “flattage,” walls, and other
FAR NEAR framed or solid objects fall under the heading of hard
(OPPOSITE)

FAR CANDLE NEAR CANDLE

goods.
FAR CLIPLIGHT NEAR CLIPLIGHT
In most proscenium theatres, the area above
PERSON the stage contains elements of the fly system, which
allows goods and electrical equipment to be safely
suspended in the air. Most modern fly systems are
CL counterweighted; the weight of the load suspended
in the air is balanced by equal weight in a remote
C
location. Since many lighting instruments are often
Figure 1.2 Stage Spatial & Relational Nomenclature: hung in the air over the stage, it’s advisable to under-
A) Basic Locations, B) Basic Directions, and C) Relational stand the basic components and mechanical relation-
Placement ships in a fly system.
4 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

systems, and many other methods used to achieve safe

theatrical rigging. They are discussed in much more
detail in other books devoted to that topic, some of
which can be found in the bibliography at the end of
this book.
Now that counterweight fly systems have been
examined, another term can be used which expands
the playing area to include any portion of the stage
underneath any lineset battens that may be lowered
to the deck. This larger area is called the hot zone,
and it becomes especially relevant when the show
is initially being loaded into the performance space.
Keeping the hot zone clear of equipment so that bat-
tens can be flown in and out as needed is no small
task, making offstage space even more of a premium
during that time.

Theatrical Backdrops
Large pieces of fabric that prevent the audience from
viewing the back wall of the theatre are known as back-
drops. Although they are usually located at the upstage
edge of the playing area, any large piece of fabric “back-
Figure 1.3 One Lineset in a Counterweight Fly System
ing” a scene in the performance area is referred to as a
backdrop or, simply, a drop. Several drops hung adja-
Figure 1.3 illustrates a single lineset in a counter- cent to each other, upstage of the performance area, are
weight fly system. Goods are typically attached to bat- often referred to as the scenic stack.
tens, which often consist of lengths of steel pipe. The Often the visual objective of a backdrop is to
battens are held in the air by system cables. The sys- provide a surface that appears solid or unbroken by
tem cables each trace a unique path up to the grid, wrinkles. To achieve this, most drops constructed of
which is typically a steel structure supporting the fabric have a sleeve sewn across the bottom, known
entire fly system and anything else that hangs in the as a pipe pocket. The weight of pipe inserted in the
air. Once in the grid, each system cable passes through pocket provides vertical tension to reduce the sever-
a single unique pulley called a loft block, or a sheave. ity or number of wrinkles seen by the audience.
After passing through the sheaves, all of the system Additional weights may be placed on top of the pipe
cables for one batten passes through a multi-sheaved pocket to increase this tension. Clamps, often dubbed
pulley called a head block, and then terminate at “stretchers,” may be attached to either of the side
the top of the arbor. The arbor, when loaded with edges of the drop, in order to provide equal horizon-
sufficient counterweight, balances the weight of the tal tension. The goal of these combined tensions is to
goods attached to the batten. Rope tied to the arbor achieve a smooth unbroken surface.
describes a loop, running from the bottom of the arbor Backdrops can be constructed from a variety of
down through a tension pulley near the stage, then up materials, including canvas, muslin, plastic, bobbi-
through the locking rail to the head block in the grid, net, or scrim. Backdrops that possess no visual design
and then back down again to the top of the arbor. element are often lighted with washes of color. These
Pulling the rope, or operating line, adjusts the drops are often referred to as cycloramas, or cycs. The
height of the arbor and, conversely, alters the height techniques used in their construction often determine
of the goods on the batten. Since the weight is coun- the method in which they are lit. Drops constructed of
terbalanced between the batten and the arbor, the horizontal strips of fabric are often lit only from the
rope lock on the locking rail merely immobilizes the downstage side (or the front of the drop), since the
batten’s location. Though not entirely accurate, this silhouettes of the horizontal seams will be seen if lit
entire assembly, which controls a single batten, is from the upstage side (or the back). Other drops are
often called a lineset. constructed from a single piece of material. This more
This is the system that will be referred to through expensive drop is known as a seamless, and, since there
the course of this book, but it’s only one kind of are no shadow lines created by horizontal seams, they
counterweight system. There are other counterweight may be lit from either the front or the back.
 A Review L 5

Viewing different types of backdrops is one way

to compare the three different levels of theatrical vis-
ible transmission. When paint is so thick that it fills
the tiny holes between the warp and woof of a fabric
backdrop, light can no longer clearly pass through
the fabric. Light projected onto the back of the drop
is blocked, and will not be seen by the audience. In
this first condition, the drop is considered opaque. An
unpainted fabric backdrop, on the other hand, allows
light to pass through the tiny holes. Light projected
onto the back of the drop will be seen by the audience.
In this second condition, the drop is considered trans-
lucent. (This term is often used as another name for
a seamless drop. It can also be referred to as a trans-
lucency, or a trans.) An open-weave net drop called
scrim can be used to illustrate the third level of trans- Figure 1.4 Masking Components
mission. If light falls solely on an object that is posi-
tioned upstage of a scrim, the audience can clearly see
the object through the fabric. In this condition, the backstage area from being viewed by the audience.
scrim is considered transparent. The method used to When fly systems are involved, a pair of masking legs
weave a scrim, however, allows light to change its vis- of equal height is typically hung on a single batten.
ible transmission. If the upstage light is removed and To hide the leg batten from the view of the audience,
replaced by a high angle wash of light projected onto the accompanying masking border is typically hung
the front of the scrim, the object disappears, and the on a separate batten downstage of the legs. Utilizing
scrim is now visually opaque. two independent battens allows the height of the bor-
Translucent drops are typically lit like shadow- der to be adjusted without altering the vertical place-
boxes, with rows of lights behind them. To make the ment of the masking legs. The two masking linesets
drop as bright as possible, the rows of lights are sand- are often hung adjacent to each other to allow room
wiched between the translucency and a second light- between masking portals for electrics or other flying
colored backdrop hung further upstage. In many cases pieces. If the masking legs aren’t wide enough to con-
the lights are pointed more at the second drop, which ceal the backstage area, additional masking is often
then reflects the scattered light back onto the trans. hung parallel to centerline, just offstage of the legs.
Usually the audience never sees this upstage drop, but These pieces are called tabs, and their name refers to
it makes the trans visually “pop” to the audience’s their position and function; indeed, they’re often a
eye. Since its purpose is to contain and bounce all spare set of legs.
available light into the back of the translucency, its Additional scenery is often hung adjacent or in
generic name is the bounce drop. the middle of the masking portals. If scenic legs are a
part of the design, they are often hung on a separate
batten between the two masking linesets, so that the
Theatrical Masking
border hides the batten supporting the scenic legs. By
The common convention in theatre is to hide the tech- hanging scenic legs adjacent to the masking legs, light
nical elements from the audience with large pieces of can be cut off both sets of legs while providing opti-
fabric or built flats generally called masking. Although mum beam coverage. Midstage drops, or scrims, are
many different types of fabrics are used for masking, often assigned to linesets immediately upstage of the
it’s generally accepted that black velour reflects the masking leg battens. The masking border hides the
least amount of light. If the masking is unframed and batten, while the masking legs conceal the side edges
can be folded for storage, it’s generally categorized of the drop.
as “soft.” If masking or scenery is framed or stiff, it’s The word “opening” can have two meanings
known as “hard.” Figure 1.4 shows vertical masking when used in relation to masking. The distance from
placed on either side of the stage, which are called centerline to the onstage edge of two legs hung on
legs or tormentors, while units of horizontal masking the same batten is often referred to as the width of
hung above the stage are called borders, or teasers. the opening, or the leg opening. The up- and down-
Legs and borders hung adjacent to each other cre- stage distance between two legs on the same side of
ate masking portals that mirror the proscenium arch. the stage, on the other hand, is referred to either as
Typically, a series of masking portals prevent the the depth of the opening, or an “in.” The “in” label
6 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

is used to distinguish each opening that can be used cove, the catwalk, the beam, or the slot, to name a
as access between backstage and the performance few. Hanging positions on the sides of the audience
space, each of which is assigned a sequential number providing diagonal frontlight are often named for
starting at plaster line. “Stage Left In 1” is the first their adjacency to the audience box seats. These posi-
leg opening upstage of plaster line on stage left, and tions are usually called box booms. The position pro-
so on. If the entire performance space is masked in viding the flattest angle to the stage is often found in
black velour legs, borders, and a black backdrop, the front of the balcony closest to the stage. This hanging
combined masking creates a black surround. position is usually called the balcony rail.
Hanging positions upstage of plaster line above
Theatrical Performance Surfaces the stage may be known as electrics, overhead pipes,
catwalks, or, in large theatres with moving catwalks,
Performance surfaces are often used to cover the deck
overhead bridges. The electric closest to plaster line is
and create a surface that’s easily installed, transport-
the first electric. The farther away from plaster line,
able, and often uniform in appearance. Large pieces
the higher the position number. Likewise, if there is
of canvas, often painted, are called ground cloths.
more than one FOH hanging position from approxi-
Rolls of flexible vinyl flooring, generically referred to
mately the same angle, the hanging position of each
as dance floors, may also be used to cover the stage.
type closest to the plaster line is listed first.
Platforms may be used instead to cover the entire
The hanging positions on either side of the stage
playing area, and are collectively referred to as show
are identified by their degree of permanence, their
decks. (Show decks often contain mechanical devices
appearance, or their function. Hanging positions
or tracks, which power turntables or transport other
permanently accessible by architectural catwalks
moving scenery.) On the other hand, rather than any
on either side of the stage are often called galleries.
of these, the stage may merely be painted.
Structural frameworks temporarily suspended from
the grid in that same approximate location may be
HANGING POSITION AND FOCUS referred to as ladders, since their typical appearance
NOMENCLATURE resembles that device. Permanent vertical hanging
positions built into or adjacent to the proscenium
Contained in each theatrical venue are locations spe- are often called torms. Temporary structures that sit
cifically designed to house the lighting instruments on the stage providing vertical hanging positions are
that illuminate the performers and other elements often referred to as booms. Individual lighting instru-
of the production, generically referred to as hanging ments mounted on movable structures that sit on the
positions. The lighting designer must understand the stage are known as stands, rovers, or floor mounts.
nomenclature and the order used to identify hanging Lighting instruments attached to pieces of scenery are
positions, as well as the numbering systems employed often referred to as set mounts. Positions contained in
to uniquely identify each lighting instrument. When the deck, creating a gap in the stage, are often known
lighting instruments are being targeted at specific points as troughs. A trough in the stage running parallel to
for use in a live presentation, the act of maneuvering the downstage edge of the apron is often referred
and shaping each beam of light is referred to as focus- to as a footlight trough, while the same gap upstage
ing the instrument, which has its own vocabulary. containing instruments used to illuminate backdrops
is often called a cyc trough.
Hanging Position Nomenclature
Theatrical Lighting Numbering Systems
To prevent confusion, each hanging position or loca-
tion has a unique name. The nomenclature is defined All hanging locations not intersecting centerline are
by architectural location, the type of mounting posi- often sub-named by their location relative to center-
tion, and the location relative to groundplan zero. line. Ladders, booms, and such are divided between
The initial division defining hanging position stage left and stage right. The hanging locations are
name is relative to plaster line. Hanging positions then numbered by their relative proximity to plas-
downstage of plaster line are generically known as ter line. The stage left boom closest to plaster line,
front of house (or FOH) positions. Although they for example, is known as 1 Boom Left. Each boom
may have many names, they’re usually found in three on that side of the stage, farther from plaster line,
locations. The position parallel to plaster line over receives the next higher whole number.
the audience that provides the highest angle of light A numbering system is employed to identify the
to the stage is often known by one of the terms for instruments at each hanging position. Each instrument
the architectural features in which its located; the is given a unique whole number to speed identification.
 A Review L 7

The first instrument at each position is usually labeled regardless of how many devices may be associated
as unit number 1, and continues in whole numbers with unit 22, they are all identified as unit 22 as well.
to the end of the position. Over time, the terms have The information listed in the “type” field of the data-
become interchangeable; instruments are often referred base identifies the host unit as a lighting instrument,
to as units. The act of “counting the instruments” has and thus eliminates any potential confusion.
historically been performed while standing on stage, Since counting instruments and keeping numbers
facing the audience. Because of that, the numbering and letters organized in a large light plot can quickly
of the instruments starts from the left orientation, and become confusing, updating unit numbering at each
runs from stage left to stage right. When instruments hanging position is one of the final tasks performed
are stacked vertically, unit numbering is related to before the light plot is distributed, or “published.”
height and proximity to plaster line. The typical con- Leaving numbering until late in the game gives the
vention is to number the units from top to bottom. best hope that the number of additions (and addi-
When pairs of instruments are on the same level, the tional letters) will be minimal, and each unit will have
numbering starts with the downstage instrument and a whole number.
proceeds upstage. Paired units stacked in box booms When moving lights are a part of the light plot,
are often numbered starting from centerline and pro- they receive whole numbers too. In this case, though,
ceed offstage. Units hung on FOH positions parallel to the single moving light contains many devices, or
centerline start numbering from upstage and proceed functions, that affect that instrument’s beam, such as
downstage, away from the plaster line. pan, tilt, color, and so on. For these types of instru-
Hanging locations in non-proscenium venues ments, the numbering methodology is to assign each
require a different set of nomenclature tactics. Pipe function the host number with a numeric point num-
grid positions suspended as a gridwork are typically ber, in the order they are addressed within the unit.
labeled as hanging locations on one axis with num- In the past, separate sequential control channels con-
bers, and alphabetical letters on the other. When the trolled each function. Nowadays, console software
hanging positions are asymmetric, designating them assigns those functions as “attributes” to the single
by compass point, or numbering from a clockwise host channel number.
manner, is sometimes employed. Hanging locations
that repeat, such as bays, usually number from a
Focus and Function Nomenclature
consistent starting point. When the hanging location
defies a simple name assignment, leave it to the elec- When lighting instruments are focused for a produc-
tricians. Numbering methods, though, should con- tion, a set of terms is used to describe the charac-
form to other compatible hanging locations on the teristics of the light beams. A different set of terms
plot, or everyone will be confused. describes the function that each instrument is assigned
Additional electrical devices are often represented to perform in a lighting design.
in a light plot, which may or may not be controlled Almost every lighting instrument produces a
by the lighting console. To avoid confusion, each sep- beam (or pool, or cone) of light containing several
arate device requiring line voltage or a control signal characteristics that are referred to when a lighting
receives a unique unit number. A strobe light hung design is being constructed, and when an instrument
in the middle of an overhead electric, for example, is being focused. Figure 1.5 shows a side view of an
would be assigned its own whole unit number in instrument’s beam targeted at a designer. The over-
sequence with the rest of the lighting instruments. all size of the light beam is called the beam spread
The numbering methodology for electrical devices and is usually measured in degrees. The beam spread
that are accessories affecting the beam of an instru- created by some units is broken down into three dis-
ment, on the other hand, has recently changed. In tinct areas. The outside portion of the beam spread is
the past, the host instrument’s number coupled with called the field angle, which is technically defined as
an alphabetical letter would identify the device. For the outer cone where the light diminishes to 10% of
example, a color scroller mounted to unit 22 would the center intensity. Approximately the middle half of
be named “22A.” While this provided unique identi- the beam spread is the beam angle, which is defined
fication, it could just as easily become the source of as the internal cone where the light is 50% of the cen-
confusion, since alphabetical letters are also used to ter intensity. The center intensity, which is the bright-
identify instruments added after the initial position est portion of the beam spread, is commonly referred
numbering. The additional instrument hung between to as the hot spot.
unit 22 and unit 23 would also be labeled as unit The hot spot is the portion of the light beam usu-
22A. These days the technique is to replicate the host’s ally targeted at a specific location. The location on
whole number to any additional electrical accessories; the stage where the lighting designer stands to act as
8 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

zone. Overlapping zones are then combined to create

CE a wash. A frontlight wash, for example, may be com-
TAN
prised of several zones allowing a performer’s face to
DIS

remain a consistent intensity beyond the depth of a

OW

BEAM ANGLE single light beam while moving up- or downstage.

THR

FIELD ANGLE
UAL

(BEAM SPREAD)
System Direction Nomenclature
and Analysis
ACT

HOTSPOT
OF BEAM In a theatrical setting, the primary systems of light are
FOCUS POINT typically constructed to illuminate the performers.
DESIGNER These systems are generally called area light, or per-
former light. They’re often identified by their direc-
STAGE tion of origin relative to a person standing on the
stage, facing the audience. In many cases, that means
Figure 1.5 The Different Portions of a Light Beam
by the degree of angle from centerline, but it can also
include their relative height to a person’s head.
a target is often referred to as a focus point. When the
designer stands on that point, this term is also used to
refer to the targeted space occupied by the designer’s
Frontlight
head. In general, however, a focus point is defined as Light striking the front of a person’s body is often
the location on the stage, scenery, or in space where referred to as frontlight. Frontlight is a system, instru-
the instrument’s hot spot is pointed. The amount of ment, or light beam originating above and “in front”
light that’s produced by any instrument increases in of a person standing on a stage. The primary goals of
size and decreases in intensity the farther the light has frontlight are to provide visibility, allow performers,
to travel. The actual throw distance is the measured faces to be seen by the audience, and to help direct
distance between the instrument’s bulb and the focus the audience’s stage focus. Frontlight is often plot-
point, which is used to calculate the size and intensity ted to every anticipated performer location. Coverage
of light beams. may be broken into areas of control, depending on
When a single instrument is focused to either a the type of performance, the size of the performance
specific location or purpose, that instrument is typ- space, the parameters of the lighting package, and the
ically labeled as a special. Multiple instruments, amount of scenery involved.
equipped with the same color filter, may be focused A typical frontlight wash starts with an even blend
to cover more than one area of a stage. When they are of several instruments into a single zone. Often several
activated and used together, they can be collectively zones are plotted, to provide overlapping coverage for
referred to as either specials, or a system. A system is the entire depth of stage. If frontlight visibility isn’t
often comprised of at least two instruments that are required upstage, on the other hand, the wash may
used together, focused to different or adjacent areas be limited to a single zone downstage. In almost every
of the stage. When multiple instruments of matching case, if frontlight is used, the first zone will begin at
color are focused so that their overlapping beams cre- the portion of the stage closest to the audience.
ate a consistent hue and intensity over a portion or all In a proscenium open-stage setting, the overall
of a performance area, they’re collectively referred to depth of a frontlight wash may be directly linked to
as a wash. The two terms are often used interchange- the presence or absence of a scenic stack upstage of it.
ably, but while a system may be composed of several Sidelight can provide focus point coverage for someone
instruments focused to different areas of the stage, standing next to a masking leg; the light can hit the edge
a wash implies a smooth blend of instruments in a of masking goods and harmlessly spill into the wings.
matching color. Frontlight is a completely different matter. If there are
Systems and washes of light are often the fun- goods upstage, one unwritten commandment that’s
damental tools used in a light plot to create light- almost always applied in this scenario is to construct
ing on the stage. They’re often hung and focused and focus the system to keep frontlight (and perform-
in such a way that multiple bands of light are cre- er’s shadows) off the scenic stack. Since upstage front-
ated across the width of a stage. A single band of light is usually placed in the overhead electrics, keeping
light aimed at focus points equidistant from plaster light off those goods usually results in the system’s cov-
line, so that the overlapping beams create a consis- erage stopping prematurely—usually the upstage open-
tent intensity across the width of a stage, is called a ing has a reduced amount of frontlight, or none at all.
 A Review L 9

When the scenic design includes upstage walls angle from centerline is often called diagonal front-
for plays, on the other hand, maintaining consistent light. A pair of instruments hung at this matching
visibility on the performers’ faces often overrides the angle from either side of centerline, and then focused
commandment to eliminate shadows. In that situa- back towards each focus point, is often referred to as
tion shadows are embraced; the more systems that can area frontlight. Area frontlight instruments are often
splash light onto the walls, the better. While the top evenly distributed at matching angles across a cover
shutters control the height, and the beam edges are or batten, for example. If a diagonal frontlight wash
softened, additional light hitting the walls from other originates from the box boom position, on the other
directional systems helps fill in the shadows caused by hand, the system can be called a box boom wash.
frontlight. While scenic “interiors” may seem simpler Frontlight originating from below eye level is called
to light, that’s often deceiving. The number of specific low frontlight. Sources sitting on the stage producing
sectional views and the amount of careful planning this type of light are often referred to as “foots.”
on the part of the lighting designer often multiply When straight frontlight is the sole source of
for each interior setting in a show. facial illumination, it is sometimes perceived as creat-
In the same vein, productions with walls often ing a relatively “flat” appearance from the audience.
call for the the addition of ceilings to the scenic design The performer’s face is solely shaped by the shad-
as well. When the overhead electrics are all covered ows that are created, relative to the vertical height
by ceilings, the remaining options left to provide between the instrument and the performer’s head.
basic illumination in the upstage nooks and crannies, The successful use of straight frontlight may depend
may be reduced to low flat frontlight. Collaboration upon supplemental box boom, or area frontlight, to
and communication are the best tools to overcome help provide more dimensional shapes and shadows
this challenge and come to a mutually beneficial deci- to the performer’s face and figure. On the other hand,
sion; often this results in the ceiling somehow being since straight frontlight is directly downstage of the
divided to allow some light in from the overhead. In focus point, it creates a “narrower” pool of light.
most cases, scenic designers realize that lovely ren- The single unit is often more successful isolating a
derings may never be realized if the scenery can’t performer, than a pair of area frontlights.
be adequately lit. Likewise, lighting designers know If a light plot contains no area light systems,
that they can’t have instruments in every location instruments in the box booms can help provide
since this may then potentially destroy a lovely scenic downstage facial visibility and dimensionality from
design. Successfully negotiating the relative placement the Front of House. A successful box boom focus
between ceilings and hanging positions in an interior is typically perceived as a wash of light which pro-
setting can often be a painstaking process involving vides even coverage across some portion of the stage.
both designers, the director, and numerous mem- The coverage usually begins at the downstage edge
bers of the production staff. In almost every case, the of the playing area. Sometimes this system is contin-
sooner that these discussions begin, the better. ued upstage using instruments in the overhead elec-
The construction and focus of a frontlight wash can trics, hung at matching diagonal frontlight angles.
also be linked to the amount of control assigned to it. If The colors used in the system can also be reinforced,
a single channel is assigned to control a frontlight wash, with varying degrees of success, using instruments
the overall number of instruments required to provide mounted on sidelight booms.
the wash may be reduced. If portions of the wash need The box boom location can also be useful for
to be turned off or brightened, though, that can quickly washes other than facial light. Depending on the loca-
translate into the need for more instruments. Likewise, tion, low-hung instruments can be useful illuminating
the amount of control can affect the frontlight focus; if scenic legs or downstage drops. The position is also
one channel controls an entire zone, the need to care- useful for any specials required to focus on architec-
fully blend shutter cuts between beams is reduced, since tural elements in the house, specials on musicians, or
the individual beam edges won’t be isolated and seen. the conductor in the orchestra pit.
If the zone is divided into several control channels, on
the other hand, the individual beam edges will probably
Sidelight
need to be softened, so that the audience’s attention isn’t
drawn to the edges of sharply focused frontlight beams. Light striking a person’s body from approximately a
In a proscenium configuration, a straight front- 90° angle on either side of centerline is called side-
light system consists of instruments positioned light. In a proscenium configuration, these are instru-
directly downstage of each focus point, so that their ments positioned on either side of a focus point, so
focused beams travel parallel with centerline. Light that their focused beams travel perpendicular to cen-
striking a person’s body from approximately a 45° terline. If the instrument is hung above the person,
10 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

it can be referred to as overhead sidelight (or high The instrument focused to the far quarter line also
sidelight, or high sides). Instruments lower to the splashes light onto the black masking legs. To reduce
stage, on the other hand, can be referred to as low halation and retain as much light as possible, the bar-
sidelight, or referred to by their hanging position as rel is often focused so that the shutter edge is sharp.
boom sidelight. To reduce the amount of light hitting the legs, the
upstage shutter is then cut off of the black mask-
ing leg that defines the upstage side of the opening
Overhead Sidelight
containing the overhead sidelight.
Sidelight systems are often used to provide dimension- Producing a high angle sidelight from an overhead
ality on performers’ bodies, and three-dimensional electric often results in the instruments being hung as
scenery. When walls are involved in the scenic design, far offstage as possible at the end of the batten. This
overhead sidelight can gain even more importance. If common hanging location has become another name
other systems behind the person can’t reach particu- for the system. Overhead sidelights hung at the end of
lar areas of the stage, the overhead sidelight may be a batten are also referred to as pipe ends.
the only system that can prevent an area from look-
ing “flat” (the result of being illuminated only with
Boom Sidelight
frontlight). In many situations, overhead sidelights are
often plotted like another system of area frontlight, Adding formalized sidelight booms to light plots is
with a pair of instruments, one from each side, focus- generally credited to a woman named Jean Rosenthal.
ing to the same focus point. While reviewers of the day had little appreciation
When the stage is more open and has less scenery, for the look low sidelight produced on performers
several overhead sidelights can be plotted to provide (making them look more dimensional or “plastic”),
a single-zone full stage wash from either side. An even the angle and placement of the lighting system has
sidelight blend in a single zone is often achieved using become recognized as one of her many contribu-
only three instruments focused to the far quarterline, tions to the craft of lighting. Low sidelight is now
centerline, and the near quarterline. With careful a cornerstone of every major North American dance
beam spread choices and hanging placement, these company’s light plot, and used in countless produc-
three instruments provide an even blend of sidelight tions around the world. A boom sidelight system is
coverage from one side of the stage to the other. typically comprised of a series of instruments, one in
When the batten isn’t long enough for the near each opening, that are mounted at matching heights,
quarter instrument to match the focus angle of the equipped with matching colors, and focused in match-
other two, the far and center instruments may remain ing ways. A successful boom sidelight system is gen-
hung on the overhead electric, while the near instru- erally viewed as an even wash of sidelight that covers
ment is shifted to a sidelight boom in the same open- the entire depth of a performance space and illumi-
ing. The boom unit’s vertical location on the boom is nates the sides of performers’ bodies (or dimensional
measured to the proper height in order to duplicate objects) from the audience’s perspective.
the focus angle of the other two overhead units; the While the instrument type and focus designation
same angle of light is projected onto the near quarter assigned to boom sidelights are unique to every show,
line of the stage. there are some general guidelines. Usually, the farther
Another style of overhead sidelight plots only a the actual throw distance, the smaller the beam spread
single instrument at the end of a batten to create a sin- and the higher the mounting location on the boom. For
gle light wash only onto the opposite side of the stage. example, instruments mounted at the top of a 21a-0q
Instead of plotting additional overhead instruments to boom are often assigned to focus points between the
complete the wash from the near side, this manner of centerline and the opposite black masking leg. Since the
plotting relies on boom sidelight to “fill in” the cover- actual throw distance to their focus points is the great-
age from the near side instead. est, their beam spreads are comparably the smallest,
When overhead sidelights are used in scenic often having beam spreads of 12 to 30°. Instruments
designs involving side walls, providing coverage at mounted between 10a-0q and 15a-0q above the deck are
head height invariably implies that the beam will often assigned to focus points between the two quar-
also be splashing onto the opposite wall. Though a ter lines. Their beam spreads usually range between
top shutter cut can reduce the amount of light on the 30 and 40°. Units mounted below 10 feet are often
wall, the beam is usually softened, so that the edge of assigned to focus points between the near black mask-
the beam “fades out,” rather than abruptly stopping ing leg and centerline. The beam spread chosen is
with a barrel focused to a sharp edge. A stage with- often selected to fill the depth of each near opening,
out scenery, however, presents a different challenge. so that the performer passing up- or downstage next
 A Review L 11

to the near black leg remains in as much light as pos- height. Obviously their combined width makes the
sible. Most units assigned to this function have beam overall boom width “thicker.” In tight quarters, a typ-
spreads ranging between 30 and 90°. ical plotting tactic is to restrict mounting double-hung
Combining the available instrumentation and the instruments to only above head height; single-hung
needs of the production makes these kinds of gen- units are mounted from the floor to approximately
eral height distinctions somewhat fuzzy. Any number 8a-0q, in order to provide as much passage space as
of instrument types and focuses can be specified for possible for performers or moving props between the
each design. Most designers follow the guideline stat- sidelight booms and masking legs.
ing that instruments mounted at the top of the boom
focus to the far side, while lower-mounted instru-
Downlight
ments focus to the near side. The focused beams don’t
“cross,” reducing the possibility of having too much Downlight, or toplight, is generally defined as a
intensity between two overlapped light beams in the system, instrument, or light beam originating directly
same system. above a person standing on a stage. The visual epit-
Almost any instrument type can be used for boom ome of downlight are shafts of light pointing straight
sidelight. When the light beams need to be shaped down, so that light covers the head and shoulders of
with a sharp edge, ellipsoidal lighting instruments the person. The combined light beams form symmet-
are often the first choice. While other instrument rical pools, equidistantly overlapping left to right, and
types are just as useful to produce sidelight, their up- and downstage. A full stage single-color down-
beams often require additional accessories to shape light wash typically covers the entire performance
the beams. This often translates into more time and area, from side to side, and from the upstage scenic
effort spent preparing or focusing them. In addition, stack to head height at the downstage light line.
the combined weight of several accessories can alter In reality, downlights rarely point straight down.
the boom’s center of balance, and may increase the An overhead hanging position rarely gets placed
overall footprint of the sidelight position. If alternate directly above each zone of focus points. In many
instruments are chosen for the job, then the amount cases, the instruments end up on electrics that are
of scheduled time or space may need to be increased located in the up- or downstage side of an opening.
in order to use them. In order for the focused pools to appear properly
The successful boom sidelight system begins with overlapped up- and downstage, the downlights are
symmetry between positions. Regardless of what slightly tipped during the focus to produce that effect.
instrument is used for each system, the unit type Since this is one of the systems that is more obvious
should be the same and be mounted at the same ver- to the audience’s angle of observation, however, care
tical height on each boom. Matching the unit type must be taken during the plotting, the hang, and the
means that kind of light will be the same throughout focus to create the illusion that the instruments are
the system. Matching the mounting height insures focused “straight” down.
that the focus angle will be duplicated in each open- While the focus points for downlights in the first
ing. Not only does this mean that the light source will zone can be centered in the middle of the opening,
be consistent throughout the system; it also means the they may just as easily be shifted upstage, so that
performers will contend with the same vertical instru- the downstage beam edges land close to the down-
ment arrangement while running around the booms. stage light line. The focus points for downlights in
Next, successful boom sidelight instruments the final zone, on the other hand, are often shifted
attempt to be as compact as possible. Often this downstage so that the upstage beam edges land at the
translates into all the instruments being hung in the upstage light line. If the section is drawn so that accu-
same horizontal plane, one directly above, or below rate trims and beam spreads of the instruments are
the other. While some booms mount the instruments shown, it will be clearly seen where the beam edges
directly upstage or downstage of the vertical support- and focus points of intermediate zones will need to be
ing pipe, the even more compact booms reduce this located, so that the pools symmetrically overlap.
“thickness” by hanging the instruments onstage of The number of downlight zones, and the number
the vertical support. Not only does this often facilitate of instruments used in each zone, are unique for every
focus, but it also translates into more space between show. When a production is presented on an open
the boom and either of the masking legs for perform- stage, however, the focus and symmetry of a downlight
ers or other objects to pass around it. Sometimes the system will be much more apparent to the audience’s
instruments are double-hung, both sticking out on angle of observation. Depending on the overhead elec-
either side. The phrase “double-hung” implies a pair tric trim heights and the beam sizes used for the sys-
of instruments, both vertically mounted at the same tem, the number of zones is often equal to or less than
12 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

the number of openings on the stage. The same criteria

Backlight
also determine a rough number of downlights across
each zone. To provide proper beam overlap, the most Backlight is generally defined as a system, instru-
basic downlight system for one zone is usually consid- ment, or light beam originating above and “behind”
ered to be as few as three pools across, focused on the a person standing on a stage. This often means that
centerline and the two quarterlines. backlight is pointed downstage towards the audience,
Typically, the appearance of downlights on an so that light covers the head and shoulders of the
open stage is a series of round beam pools. In that person. A full stage single-color backlight wash typi-
scenario, shutter cuts or sharp beam edges from cally covers the entire performance area, from side
barndoors are avoided unless necessary. The key to a to side, and from the upstage scenic stack to head
successful downlight system begins when the instru- height at the downstage light line. In order to pro-
ments are plotted. The beam spreads drawn in the vide coverage at the downstage light line, backlight
sectional view will inform the viewer if there’s any usually spills onto the apron, into the orchestra pit,
chance that the light beam edges will hit scenery in and sometimes into the first row of the audience. In
the air. Sometimes entire electrics are shifted up or a proscenium configuration, this coverage is more
downstage to be certain that the downlight beam successfully achieved when the backlight electric is
edges won’t catch adjacent borders, and thus force located in the upstage side of its opening between the
the downlight to receive a straight-edged shutter cut. borders. In that way, the instruments can tip as far
If that’s unavoidable, the cuts are often matched on downstage as possible, under the next border closer
all of the beams in that zone. If a zone of downlights to the audience, without being in view. This will be
needs to potentially tip upstage in order to produce illustrated in detail in Chapter Five.
equidistantly spaced pools between zones, it’s ill Backlight systems can be plotted in several dif-
advised to hang the instruments on an electric that ferent variations. In a proscenium configuration,
has an adjacent border on the upstage side. straight backlight is plotted so that the focused
The second key to producing successful downlight beams travel directly downstage to each focus
systems relates to the instrument’s hanging location point. The focused beams travel parallel to center-
on the electric. Units on one side of centerline should line, but the light is 180° from straight frontlight.
be equidistant to each other and should match their Focused backlight striking a person’s body from
counterparts on the other side of centerline. Though approximately a 45° angle from centerline is often
they may not end up pointing straight down, their called diagonal backlight, but almost any backlight
on- and offstage hanging locations should be directly between straight back and straight side is often
“in line” with each of the focus points. When that’s assigned that same directional label. Another style
not possible, the distances should be “mirrored” from of backlight clusters instruments together at center-
one side to the other and matched between electrics. line, and then “fan focuses” the units out from cen-
The third key to the downlight system’s success ter to the sides of the stage to evenly cover the zone.
is to match the focused barrel softness, so that one Since each style of system incorporates a different
beam doesn’t stand out. If the production involves number of instruments to provide coverage, each
an atmospheric haze, the hanging positions and the system creates different amounts of intensity on the
beam edges will stand out even more. Care must be performance surface.
taken while plotting and focusing to ensure that the Regardless of their plotted style, the number
appearance of the light shafts is symmetrical. of backlight zones and the number of instruments
Finally, the success of a downlight system can used in each zone are specific to each situation. The
be seen in the way in which it is controlled. If each width of the stage opening, the height of the over-
instrument is assigned to an independent channel, head electrics, and the beam spread of the selected
the units can be used as a series of specials, isolating instruments are the main parameters that define
each portion of the stage. When dimmers or channels the number of instruments required for each light
become scarce, attention should be paid to the block- zone.
ing of the production. If there’s little need for one side The first key to a successful full stage backlight
of the stage to be isolated, adjacent instruments in a system is to properly place the instruments during
zone may be combined. Another approach may be to the plotting process. Scaled sectional views, drawn
combine the offstage channels of the second and third from the front viewing plane, help determine the
zones of downlight. Usually, the center instruments of number of instruments required to adequately over-
each zone are jealously guarded to remain separate, lap the beams and provide an evenly-spaced blended
since they can isolate different portions of the most zone of light. If the system is a straight back focus,
important area of the stage. then the instruments should be placed on the electrics
 A Review L 13

so that the instruments are directly upstage of their Backdrop Wash

respective focus point. If the system is planned to be
a diagonal focus, the instruments should be plotted Lighting backdrops, cycs, and translucencies are often
to be the same consistent angle on either side of the considered by many observers to be an art form unto
focus points. themselves. Painted backdrops may require specials,
The second key to a successful full stage back- or special systems to “pop out” parts of a backdrop,
light system is to provide adequate up- and down- but often the real challenge posed by goods in the
stage coverage. The sectional view drawn from the scenic stack is creating an even wash of light.
centerline viewing plane helps determine the number That’s the epitome of a successful backdrop wash;
of zones required to provide coverage for the depth of an even wash of light, without hot spots, dark spots,
the performance space. or horizontal bands of lower intensity, that com-
The third key to a successful full stage backlight pletely covers the piece of goods, horizontally from
system is symmetry in focus. Like downlight systems, leg to leg, and vertically starting at the bottom where
focused instruments that don’t match in size, beam the goods touch the floor all the way up to where the
edge, or beam shape can be seen from the audience’s black border visually cuts off the top. For the purists,
angle of observation. Usually, shutter cuts or sharp the black masking is a black portal—there’s no light
beam edges from barndoors are avoided, unless neces- on either the black legs or the black border; there’s
sary to eliminate light off of masking. If a straight edge no “shadow line” across the top of the goods (caused
is required, it’s usually matched for the entire zone. by the black border being in between the lighting and
Finally, the success of a backlight system can the goods; and there are no “scallops” of light across
be seen in how it’s controlled. If each instrument is the top of the goods (from striplights being too close
assigned to an independent channel, the units can be to the goods or trimmed too low).
used as a series of specials, isolating each area of the Sometimes, an even wash of light on the backdrop
stage. When dimmers or channels become scarce, the is not the visual goal. If the drop is a mix of fabric, or
production’s blocking should be reviewed. Depending contains some abstract design, or if the show is a film
on the locations requiring isolation during the show, noir or cinematic realization, then an even wash might
it may be possible to join control of the sides of the be the furthest thing from the designer’s objective. In
upstage zones together. Other times a single chan- a majority of situations, however, ranging from min-
nel may control the entire upstage zone. The amount iature cycs seen through interior windows, to exte-
of control required by a backlight system can also rior wraparounds, to romantic painted backdrops, to
be affected by the color of the light. For example, a sky cycs and translucencies, the objective is to at least
backlight system equipped with a cool or saturated start with an even wash. For scenically painted goods,
color may require fewer control channels. A second it’s often a sign of respect to just provide even light
backlight system, in the same light plot, may contain and allow the design to speak for itself.
warmer or more desaturated color. Since that color Most drops can be lit with some kind of strip-
may provide more visual punch, the second system light, box cyc light, or multi-circuit sources, which
may be assigned more control channels, and assume are often placed in any available space on either
the task of providing isolation. side of the drop where they might fit in. Striplights
From the audience’s angle of observation, an are designed to project bands of light, and typically
even blend of a single color on the floor eliminates contain multiple circuits. A single instrument auto-
the possibility of distractions caused by seeing bright matically provides the ability to mix colors of light
or dark spots on the performance surface. onto the goods. Box cyc lights are also multiple-
circuit instruments, but they require more distance
from the goods in order to properly spread their
Other Lighting Systems
light beams.
In a theatrical setting, other systems of light have their For translucencies or seamless drops, the first
own nomenclature. One category are lighting systems choice is to place lights low, behind the goods. In most
whose primary responsibility is to illuminate the scen- theatrical situations, if there’s any room upstage of
ery, rather than performers. Predictably, this category the goods, striplights quickly come into play. A long
is generally referred to as scenery light, or scenic toners. row of these instruments is often placed upstage of a
While those terms may refer to systems focused onto translucency on the deck, butting into each other. This
legs, borders, or other scenic pieces or units, a back- typical configuration is called a striplight groundrow.
drop wash always refers to the instruments used to If there’s room in the air, another row of the same
illuminate the backdrops, translucencies, scrims, or kinds of instruments is hung across a batten to create
bounce drops at the back of the stage. an overhead striplight electric. Striplights can also be
14 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

mounted on vertical booms, adjacent to the sides of optics of an ellipsoidal lighting instrument. For many
the goods. In that arrangement, the same instruments old-school designers, the term still refers back to
are then collectively called vertical toning strips, or the original object, a thin piece of metal with holes.
VTS’s. Once inserted into an ellipsoidal, the light beam is
If the goods consist of an opaque painted drop, reshaped to mimic the design of the holes. Since tem-
the entire overhead striplight electric and the strip- plates “break up” the light coming out of an ellipsoi-
light groundrow are shifted to the downstage side dal, they’re perceived as producing “textured” light.
of the goods, in order to light the face of the drop. Depending on the angle, direction, color, intensity,
Sometimes a short constructed flat, called a scenic and movement, templated light can define a location,
groundrow, is placed immediately downstage of a provide dimensionality, establish a time of day, or
drop to hide the silhouettes of the striplight ground- evoke a feeling. They’re usually used in four main
row and their light leaks. If no adjacent room for applications.
striplights exists downstage of a drop, illumination First, templates can be focused from overhead
must come from other sources. positions to produce textured light on horizontal sur-
Generally speaking, the remaining choices are faces, like a stage. A templated ellipsoidal, equipped
either low, medium, or high. Low positions include with a window template, produces that pattern of
cyc troughs, footlights, or lighting positions in the light on the floor, and can define the scene’s loca-
orchestra pit. Medium hanging possibilities include tion as an interior. If, instead, the window gobo is
instruments on stands in the downstage leg openings exchanged for a tree branch template, that pattern
or the FOH balcony rail. And high choices include will be projected onto the floor, re-establishing the
overhead electrics, or FOH hanging positions. Almost scene as an exterior. An abstract “breakup” pattern,
all of these hanging positions aren’t close to the drops, on the other hand, might project mere blobs of light
so the lighting instruments used are no longer strip- onto the stage, and affect the audience’s perception of
lights, they’re other types of lighting instruments. the scene, rather than the placement.
Lighting downstage drops means the goods are Second, templates can be used to add texture
closer to plaster line, and therefore they might be lit and dimensionality onto vertical scenery. If a lake is
by more hanging locations in the FOH. In most cases, painted onto a backdrop, a templated instrument can
lighting drops from the house usually translates into be focused onto the water. After being shuttered to
instruments hung on the balcony rail or somewhere the boundaries of the water in a soft-edged focus, the
that shoot “straight in” to the drop. Since there is no mottled spots of light will add texture to the lake.
need to provide three-dimensionality, the instruments The movement of a film loop (inserted into the same
are usually positioned so that they focus straight into instrument) in the same focus can increase the illu-
the goods. While frontlight positions might be consid- sion. If a scenic design consists of several walls, on
ered, the lower the position, the easier it is to provide the other hand, a system of templated instruments
light as high as possible on the drop, up under the can be focused high on the walls. At a reduced inten-
borders. sity, the breakup pattern can visually add texture and
In many cases, regardless of their hanging posi- subtle interest to the flat surfaces.
tion, any instruments primarily assigned to provide Third, templates can be used to supply texture
illumination onto a backdrop or goods is still often and dimensionality to animate or inanimate objects on
called a drop wash. the stage. One example of this is templates inserted in
low-hung sidelights. When focused as part of a typical
boom sidelight wash, the “mottled” light can be seen
Overhead Template Wash
on the sides of performers’ bodies as they move about
Other systems are named using a direction and a mod- the stage. Another example is when templates are
ifier. A template wash refers to a system of light that, projected onto a unit set centered on the stage. When
rather than a smooth blended wash, is “broken up” templated light is projected onto the scenery, it adds
or textured. A template wash can be focused towards dimension to the otherwise flat surfaces.
a piece of scenery or a backdrop and assigned that Finally, templates can be used to apply texture
name: the “mountain template wash,” or the “sky to the air. When haze is used in a show, it’s often not
temps,” for example. It might also be assigned to side- seen until light beams strike the particles in the air.
light booms or the balcony rail. But an overhead tem- Light beams, otherwise unnoticed, can change the
plate wash almost always implies a wash designed to look and perception of an entire scene, shaped by
focus down and cover the performance surface. the different shafts of light now seen by the introduc-
These days the word “template” refers to many tion of the haze. The number of beams (defined by the
objects and devices that can be inserted into the number of holes) from a templated unit can give the
 A Review L 15

appearance of multiple sources of light produced by a ELECTRICITY AND DISTRIBUTION

single source. When this tactic is employed, the sym-
metric hanging locations for template systems may Electricity is a fundamental form of energy that is
be as important a choice as the kind of ellipsoidal created by the movement of atomic particles called
or the particular template used. Instruments hung on electrons. The combination of technological devices
overhead electrics, for example, are often located at that manipulate electricity, coupled with the desire to
specific distances from centerline, so that their beams control the visual environment, has helped propel the
will produce symmetrical shafts in the air. lighting designer’s role in theatre. From the artistic
Templated light often combines these applica- point of view, the lighting designer visually reinforces
tions. They may be included in a plot to light both the the director’s interpretation of the production. From
stage and the performers moving through the space, a technical point of view, the lighting designer con-
or they may be designed to project light that is both trols the amount of electricity to each lighting source.
seen in the air and striking objects on the stage. While the lighting designer is typically not required
Occasionally, templates will be used to provide to have a detailed knowledge of electricity, he or she
a breakup pattern over an entire backdrop. To pro- should have a basic grasp of this form of energy.
duce this effect, initial choices are made to define the The designer must have a comprehension of how to
hanging position, the beam spread, and the number control electricity, if for no other reason than safety.
of ellipsoidals. To maintain a consistent focus for
the beam edge of each “hole” in the template, the
Basic Electricity
instruments are often placed so that the templates
focus straight into the backdrop. As a result of this A basic electrical circuit is comprised of three compo-
choice, the instruments are often placed either on the nents: a source of electricity, a load using the electric-
first electric or the balcony rail. Drawing a section ity, and circuitry providing a path between the two.
from either position shows the actual throw distance There are two basic types of electricity: direct and
and the potential coverage using various-sized beam alternating current. Every electrical system uses one
spreads. Choosing the proper beam spread is directly of these two types. A demonstration of direct current
related to the number of instruments needed to cover can be seen in a typical flashlight. The electrical flow
the entire backdrop. One formula used to determine moves in a single direction of polarity from the posi-
the total number of instruments needed is based on the tive terminal of the battery (the source), through the
cautious assumption that a typical template will bulb (the load), and back to the negative terminal of
cut the overall diameter of an instrument’s beam by the battery to complete the circuit. In today’s world,
about 50%. Based on that assumption, the number low-powered direct current is seen in batteries, and is
of instruments of any particular beam spread can be used to internally power computer devices.
determined. Most electrical power provided to the consumer,
When template systems are used to “break up” ranging from entire nations to household outlets, is
an entire performance surface, they are often designed alternating current. This type of electricity is created
so that they produce as much patterned light as possi- by large generators, which essentially consist of
ble, while requiring the fewest instruments to achieve fixed magnets surrounding a rotating shaft carry-
that coverage. To achieve the maximum actual throw ing three coils of insulated wire. The rotation of the
distance for each instrument, the units are often shaft within the magnetic field generates pulsing elec-
plotted into side galleries, ladders, or overhead pipe trical current in each of the three coils. The pulsing
end hanging positions. The farther the actual throw current reverses direction, or alternates polarity, 60
distance, the larger the eventual gobo projection. times a second, thus the term 60-cycle alternating
Templated instruments are also combined with current. The individual current produced by each of
many other devices to provide visual movement while the three coils is called a phase (or a “hot”). Three-
only using conventional ellipsoidal instruments. Gobo phase 60-cycle alternating current is the standard
rotators, film loops, and other devices expand the distributed throughout the United States, but the
ways that templates can be used to create a more actual number of phases installed in any building or
diverse visual environment. performing facility may vary. Regardless of the num-
Creating all of these systems is achieved by ber of phases, an additional wire is present which
understanding the different concepts and compo- completes the circuit back to the generator, called the
nents of theatrical light. This understanding begins neutral. In many installations, another wire is also
by examining the properties and control of electricity, included as a safety precaution, called a ground.
the form of energy that allows theatrical lighting to Electricity has three related electrical attributes:
exist. amperage, wattage, and voltage, which are measured
16 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

in amps, watts, and volts. An amp is the unit of mea-

surement for electron flow from one point to another
in a circuit, often interpreted as the amount of electri-
cal flow possible through a wire. A watt is defined as
a unit of measurement expressing the amount of elec-

12

12
trical energy consumed by a device or a load. A volt is
a unit of measurement expressing electrical pressure Lighting Cable Dimmer Lighting Console
to form a current, or the electrical “force” of current Instrument (Circuit)
through a wire. 220 volts “pushes” twice as “hard” Position Circuit Dimmer Control Channel
as 110 volts. (Although typical U.S. voltage is 117 & unit # Number Number
volts, the number is often “rounded off” to 110 volts.) Figure 1.6 The Control Path
One analogy used to explain the three attributes uses
the image of a water hose and a pump. Amperage is
the amount of water (or electricity) available to pass Electricity is supplied to a device, in this case, a
through the hose to the pump. Wattage is the amount lighting instrument. The electrical source is a dim-
of water (or electricity) that must be pulled through mer, which regulates the amount of 110-volt cur-
the hose to power the pump. Voltage is the pressure rent conducted to the lighting instrument. The
at which the water (or electricity) is pushed through dimmer is connected to the lighting instrument
the hose. using a circuit, which usually refers to a cable. The
Two primary types of circuits are used to distrib- cable contains wires that bridge the electrical gap
ute electricity from the source to the load. An exam- between the dimmer and the instrument. The dim-
ple of a parallel circuit is demonstrated by several mer allows the instrument’s light output to become
clip lights plugged into a plugging strip. Two wires, more or less intense. In this example, the computer
a hot and a neutral, run to each bulb. Although all lighting console controls the dimmer with low volt-
of the loads are connected to a single source, if one age current. For our purposes, the word control
of the clip lights burn out, the rest of the lights will can be used not only as a verb, but also as a noun.
still continue to operate. This is the type of circuit Control can refer to any generic device that controls
commonly found in households and theatrical light- a dimmer, and is a requirement for every electronic
ing installations. dimming system.
A series circuit, on the other hand, is wired so The electrical path must remain unbroken in
that electricity “daisy-chains” and follows a single order for the lighting instrument to receive controlled
path through each of the lights to each other and voltage and function correctly. Understanding each
the source. Like some common strings of Christmas point in the path allows the lighting designer to prop-
tree lights, when one of the lamps burns out, the cir- erly control the electricity supplied to each device or
cuit is broken, and the other lights in the string no lighting source.
longer function. Although this type of circuitry isn’t
commonly used in theatres, an example can be seen
Dimmers
in striplights using low voltage MR-16 lamps. Each
lamp is designed to require only 12 volts of electric- Historically, direct current was the first type of elec-
ity, but the combined voltage of 10 lamps wired in tricity installed in theatres. The resistance dimmer,
a series circuit is 120 volts. The voltage is equally powered by this current, was the standard device used
divided between the lamps. Just like the Christmas to control the voltage fed to lighting instruments.
tree lights, however, a single burned out lamp results Dimmers were assembled in mechanical groups
in the loss of the entire circuit. called piano boards, so named because their appear-
ance resembled an upright piano. A piano board was
mechanically constructed so that its individual dim-
The Control Path
mers could be collectively interlocked and controlled
To manipulate light in a theatrical setting, the light- by a single handle, called a grand master. These dim-
ing designer separately controls the voltage supplied mers were bulky, hot, and hazardous. The number of
to each electrical device. To provide this separation, dimmers required for a light plot directly translated
each device has its own control path. into the same number of individual moving handles,
Figure 1.6 is an example of the four points in the which in turn defined the number of light board oper-
control path for an instrument in a computer lighting ators. The amount of control available to a light plot
system. The four points are the device, the circuit, the was often determined by labor cost or the amount of
source, and the control. backstage space available for the piano boards.
 A Review L 17

The autotransformer dimmer was introduced In these situations, some dimmer racks can be
as alternating current became more available for equipped with a device called a non-dim. Swapped
theatrical use. Although these light boards were com- out in place of a dimmer, while still being controlled
parably more compact and generated less heat, each by the console, the unit is essentially a switch. Any
dimmer was still manually manipulated by a separate device circuited to the non-dim either receives full
handle. voltage or no voltage at all. Non-dims are often used
Other types of dimming systems were introduced, to control motors, transformers, or electronics.
but they failed to gain wide acceptance. Eventually, the Improvements in technology have reduced the
electronic silicon-controlled rectifier, or SCR, proved size of individual dimmers while inversely increas-
to be the innovative device that eventually replaced ing the complexity of these devices. Although a single
both resistance and autotransformer dimmers. Rather light board can now control numerous dimmers,
than direct mechanical control provided by a handle, additional devices may also be required. “D to A’s”
a separate control device sent low-voltage direct cur- (short for digital to analog converters) are devices
rent to the SCR, which in turn controlled the amount that translate the control signal from modern light-
of alternating current sent to the lighting instrument. ing consoles to older dimmers. An opto-isolator is a
These dimmers were more compact and generated device that’s inserted into the control signal’s path,
much less heat, allowing more of them to fit into the in order to split the digital signal or act as a safe-
same space. Not only that, but since they could be guard for the electronic components inside lighting
controlled remotely in smaller groups, a greater num- consoles. These additional devices should be treated
ber of dimmers could be controlled by significantly carefully, since their omission or failure can result in
fewer light board operators. The SCR dimmer was nonfunctioning dimmer racks.
originally controlled by manual preset light boards, Likewise, the control signal connecting the light
which will be examined later in this chapter. board to these devices or the dimmers usually runs
The components of modern dimmers still consist through relatively small cables. If the cables don’t
of an SCR, an “amperage rise controlling device,” work, the dimmers don’t function either. As such,
some electronic controls, and a circuit breaker. these small control cables, and their connectors,
Beyond that, however, today’s dimmers are quieter, should also be treated with extra respect.
faster, smarter, and more compact. Several dimmers When constructing a light plot, attention must
are typically packaged into a single unit containing be paid to the number of dimmers that will be
specific shelves (or racks) and internal wiring called used and the amount of amperage they can han-
a dimmer rack. Figure 1.7 is known as a portable (or dle. When the number of existing dimmers doesn’t
touring) dimmer rack, because it’s mounted on roll- provide the amount of flexibility required to pro-
ing casters. It’s a self-contained unit requiring only duce a lighting design, one solution is to replug
an electrical source to distribute power to the indi- (or repatch) cables during the performance.
vidual dimmers. Thick feeder cables are often used Repatching will be examined in Chapter 9. Other
to supply power from a power distribution box, or solutions may include installing additional dim-
PD, to the dimmer rack. Cables or wires then run mer racks (sometimes called road racks or rental
from the dimmers to the individual units. Large cir- racks) in the performance space for the show.
cuit breakers or fuses protect the “line” side, while Before any installation is considered, a knowl-
individual circuit breakers or fuses protect each dim- edgeable electrician familiar with the space should
mer on the “load” side. be consulted.
Sometimes a dimmer rack is assigned to control Since electricity is required for any dimming
electrical devices that can’t be dimmed; doing so can to occur, and thereby most lighting designs to take
damage the device’s internal electronic components. place, protective devices are often installed in order
to protect against the possible loss of power to the
lighting console. Having a battery backup for an
entire dimmer rack is often not a financial possibility.
Figure 1.7 A Portable Dimmer Rack So when the dimmer power is cut off, limited solu-
tions include running feeder cable to a different PD,
or quickly installing a compatible generator. When
the control power is turned off, even if the dimmers
are functional, they might as well be dead. Protecting
relatively small amounts of control power is not only
financially feasible, but often now a typical part of
any installation.
18 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

Devices such as line tamers “smooth” the volt- and pre-installed circuitry. These circuitry transfer
age feeding computer lighting consoles, and prevent panels allow the circuit’s path to the dimmers to be
voltage spikes or dips to interrupt the electrical flow interrupted and routed instead to road racks.
within those delicate electronics. An uninterrupt- Since the hanging positions for the instruments
ible power supply (UPS) is essentially a large battery may vary between productions, added circuitry may
coupled with an electric sensing device. When control be installed. It often consists of cables that are plugged
power is lost, the battery immediately kicks on to sup- between the instruments and the preinstalled circuitry
ply power for a period of time. Since the output of a or dimmers. Several forms of cables may be employed
UPS is often limited to only two female connections, to rapidly install additional circuitry in performance
the temptation is to plug both of them with plugging facilities. Initially, the path and total distance from
strips. At the time of this writing, many manufacturers each hanging position to the dimmers is determined
quietly recommend that if power strips are used in this (the “run”). If added circuitry is used exclusively to
fashion, they should not be equipped with any surge route electricity from an instrument to the dimmers,
protection. UPS battery power is notoriously “dirty”; that cable is often referred to as a home run.
even though lighting consoles can handle that, the If the electrical path between the dimmer and the
plugging strip might not, and it might then be the instrument is broken, the instrument will not work. To
plugging strip that blows the power to the console. reduce the opportunities for that type of separation,
additional circuitry is usually assembled to include as
few plugs as possible. Old-school circuitry additions
Circuitry
consist of groups of cable tied or taped together, typi-
Although instruments, dimmers, or electrical devices cally referred to as a bundle. Usually the cables in a
can be mounted anywhere, an electrical route must bundle are all the same length, with the plugs labeled
be provided to conduct electricity between them to at both ends. Using bundles during installation means
complete the circuit. This electrical route is collec- that the same amount of effort required to install a
tively called circuitry, and each separate route is often single circuit will instead result in the installation of
referred to as a single circuit. Circuitry usually con- several. The modern form of added circuitry employs
sists of three elements: Wires conduct the electricity, several groups of wires enclosed in a single jacket,
insulators cover each wire to contain and separate known as multicable, or mults. Mults can terminate
electrical flow, and plugs installed on both ends of the either in several plugs at each end, or with a single
wires make certain that the electricity in the wires is connector. The plugs are then contained in a sepa-
connected in the proper arrangement. The construc- rate modular unit with a matching connector, called
tion and diameter of the wire determine the amount a breakout. Since mults employ a single outer jacket,
of current it can safely carry, which must be larger the overall size and weight of a length of mult is much
than the current required by the load. If this basic rule less than a comparable bundle, which makes it easier
is not followed, an overload will occur, and the circuit to transport, handle, and install.
will be disrupted. While only two wires are required In many cases the cable wire size is large enough
to complete the circuit, most circuitry and cables con- to supply electricity to more than one instrument.
sist of three separately insulated wires, enclosed in a When two instruments are assigned to share the same
single rubber skin or jacket with plugs at both ends. circuit, a two-fer can be used to complete the con-
Plugs are constructed to either be male (conduc- nections. A two-fer usually consists of two female
tors sticking out of the plug), or female (conductors plugs connected to cables that join into a single male
concealed inside the plug). To reduce the possibility connector. When three instruments can be safely con-
of confusion or electrocution, the established stan- nected to a single circuit, a three-fer can be used.
dard is to always have the female contain the source It is worth noting that several different types of
of electricity. In practical terms this means that instru- plugs are available for theatrical use. Although plugs
ments are always wired with male plugs, while dim- allow for rapid connection of wires, they must be
mers are always wired with female sockets. compatible with one another. If the plugs of addi-
Circuitry is often broken into two categories, tional circuitry don’t match the existing plugs of the
either preinstalled or added. Preinstalled circuitry, preinstalled circuitry, adapters must be utilized to
part of the permanent electrical infrastructure of a bridge the gap.
performance facility, is often contained in a conduit The overall bulk of cable installed during a load-in
and terminates at metal enclosures known as race- can quickly increase the overall weight and dimension
ways, plugging strips, plugging boxes, floor pockets, of any hanging position. As such, additional cable is
or drop boxes. Some facilities are equipped with an often installed by initially being attached to the instru-
intermediate point between permanent dimmer racks ments at the hanging position. As the cable is installed,
 A Review L 19

it’s tied out of the way as much as possible. Following The power formula (or the “West Virginia”
this method results in any extra lengths of cable being formula) is based on the three related attributes of
collected out of the way near the dimmers. electricity: amperage, wattage, and voltage. The for-
If there’s any possibility that the placement of mula, usually displayed in three variations, shows the
the instruments or the hanging position may need relationship between these three attributes:
to be adjusted, though, an additional portion of the
cable should be initially allocated to the hanging W=VsA Wattage equals voltage multiplied by
position. Otherwise, any movement on the part of amperage. This arrangement is how the
the instruments or the hanging position may result formula is often memorized (W. Va).
in the addition of short cables to complete the circuit W Amperage equals wattage divided
and introduce additional plugs to those routes. And A=
V by voltage.
as every electrician knows, every additional plug in
a circuit is a place where the circuit can fail. W Voltage equals wattage divided by
V=
Determining the paths, and amounts of cable A amperage.
required, for an installation is just one of the many
responsibilities delegated to the production electrician, If two of the factors are known, the third attribute
since he or she is ultimately responsible for the instal- can be determined by using these formulas.
lation, maintenance, and functionality of the lighting The second piece of information is a standard
package. In many cases, enough circuitry exists so that lamp and extension cord current capacity chart. The
there is no need to know the number of available circuits American Wire Gauge (AWG) system assigns a num-
at each hanging position. Other situations may require ber to each size of wire and establishes the amount
the lighting designer to be acutely aware of the existing of current that each wire size can safely carry. Most
circuitry inventory, since he or she will ultimately decide cable used for temporary theatrical circuitry is either
the final distribution of units at each hanging position, #12 or #14 wire gauge. The identification number is
and have to live with the potential repercussions. often marked on the cable.

Wire Gauge 10 12 14 16 18
Load Calculations
Amp Capacity 25 20 15 10 7
It has been said that all electrical devices require some
amount of amperage to operate. If a device such as Although the rated current capacity for any wire
an instrument draws more amperage than a cable can gauge can vary greatly due to the type of metal in the
handle, the result will be an overloaded circuit. When wire or the number of wires in the cable, this small
that occurs, the protective device, such as a fuse or chart shows a generic sampling of wire gauges and
a circuit breaker, should break the continuity of the capacities. A #12 (or 12-gauge) wire can safely carry
circuit. If the total number of instruments plugged 20 amps, while a #14 wire can only carry 15 amps.
into a dimmer pulls more amperage than is supplied The specific wire gauges and capacities for each
to the dimmer, the result will be the same, but the cable type employed should be determined prior to
entire dimmer will shut off. Although the production load-in.
electrician hypothetically double-checks all of the In practical terms, the power formula and the current
electrical demands required by the light plot, lack of capacity chart are two tools used by the lighting designer
time or knowledge may result in power problems that and the production electrician to make certain that no
can result in lost time. circuits, dimmers, or PD’s can be possibly overloaded.
To ensure that scenario doesn’t occur, load calcu- Here are two examples of how the two pieces of infor-
lations are performed before a light plot is mounted. mation are used to perform basic load calculations.
These calculations determine the overall amount of
electricity required by the plot when every instrument Example 1: Is it possible to plug three 1000-watt instru-
is at its highest intensity. They are often performed as ments (or 3 kilowatts, or 3 kw) simultaneously into a
the light plot is being designed. Otherwise, one may single #12 cable? Multiplying the individual wattage by
discover that the amount of amperage required by a 3 results in the total wattage being considered (1000
completed plot may exceed the amount of electricity s 3 = 3000 watts). Since the voltage is a given (110
available in the performance space. Although many dif- volts), the second version of the power formula is used.
ferent formulas and charts can be used to express elec- Divide 3000 watts by 110 volts, resulting in 27.27
trical relationships, the power formula and a wire gauge amps, much more than the 20-amp rating assigned
chart are the two pieces of information typically utilized to the #12 cable. The answer is no; three 1000-watt
by the lighting designer to perform load calculations. instruments should not be plugged into a single #12
20 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

cable. Two 1000-watt instruments, on the other hand, tools that should always be practiced during any
equal 18.18 amps, and could be plugged into the #12 time spent on a stage. And that is doubly true when
cable without exceeding its amperage rating. electricity is involved. This text presents some of the
basic laws and principles about electricity, but other
Example 2: The dimmer is rated to handle 30 amps.
texts more closely analyzing this topic are worthy of
How many 750-watt instruments can be plugged
examination. A sampling of them can be found in the
into that dimmer? This question could be determined
bibliography.
in two ways. The first method would use the second
version of the power formula to convert 750 watts
into amperage, and then divide the 30 amps by that CONTROL
result: 750 watts divided by 110 volts equals 6.8
amps. Thirty amps divided by 6.8 equals 4.4 instru- Two general terms are applied in theatrical situations
ments. In theory, the dimmer could safely carry 4.4 where dimmers control voltage to lighting instru-
instruments, but practically, it can only carry four ments or devices. Manual control implies physical
750-watt instruments. The second method would movement of a handle, lever, dial, fader, or slider to
use the first version of the power formula to convert affect a dimmer. An autotransformer light board is
the 30-amp dimmer into wattage. Thirty amps mul- an example of this control type. Moving the single
tiplied by 110 volts equals 3300 watts. If that result physical handle up or down, directly affects the volt-
is divided by 750 watts, the result is again 4.4 instru- age supplied to an instrument, and makes the light
ments. Either method arrives at the same result. brighter or darker. “Handle” has now been adapted
as a generic term, referring to anything that affects
One rough rule of thumb used is that each 1000- an instrument’s intensity. Computer control, on the
watt instrument is roughly equivalent to 10 amps. other hand, implies an electronic interface with the
(In reality, it’s just above 9 amps.) Using that rough dimmer rather than a physical one. In most cases
yard stick, how many 1000-watt instruments can be the dimmers are affected by commands issued from
plugged into a 12-pack of 20-amp dimmers? 12 times a remote device with keypads called a computer light
20-amp dimmers equals 240 amps. So, using the board or a computer lighting console.
10 amp rule of thumb, the rough answer? 24-1000- The term “control” is also used to describe the
watt instruments should not overload the dimmer numerical arrangement of the channels or dimmers
pack. (In reality, 24 s 1000-watt instruments, divided that regulate instrument intensity. When a light plot
by 110 volts, equals 218 amps. Safely under the 240 is constructed, the lighting designer decides which
amp limit of the dimmer pack.) instruments will operate together, which separately,
Rule of thumb two: How many amps are needed and how they will numerically relate to each other.
to power 15-1000-watt instruments? Rough answer: Their arrangement is documented in a form called
15-1000-watt instruments equals 15 s 10 amps each, a hookup. The word “hookup” is an anachronism
or 150 amps. (In reality, 15,000 watts, divided by carried over from the days of manual road boards.
110 volts, equals 136 amps. Safely under the rough The physical action of plugging cables into the
150-amp calculation.) dimmers meant the cables were being “hooked up”
When possible, the production electrician’s load or “patched” to the dimmer boards. The word is still
calculations on a dimmer system should be a dou- used today, but when used in conjunction with light-
ble-check of prior calculations made by the lighting ing systems controlled by computer boards, the word
designer. On larger shows involving multiple dimmer “hookup” also refers to the action of electronically
racks and power sources, however, load calculations assigning dimmers to control channels. This action is
become an exclusive part of the production electri- also referred to as softpatching.
cian’s domain. If the lighting designer possesses a basic That has resulted in a linguistic back construc-
knowledge of electricity, though, he or she will be able tion for the older system of physically plugging the
to make certain that the designed light plot can be cables into the dimmers, in order to provide control
physically realized without on-site power limitations to a lighting instrument. That’s now called hard-
imposing last minute restrictions to the design. patching. If an instrument is plugged into a cable or
Since electricity is the element that allows the- circuit that’s hardpatched into dimmer 1, then the
atrical lighting design to occur, the lighting designer instrument will turn on when the handle or fader for
and all members of the lighting department must dimmer 1 is manually brought up.
be aware of its attributes, and the fact that it’s dan- With a computer lighting console, on the other
gerous. Electricity can easily cause injury or death. hand, no matter what dimmer the instrument has
Knowledge, caution, and common sense are the basic been plugged into, the dimmer can be assigned to any
 A Review L 21

channel by softpatching the dimmer. In this example, designed as two handles, which can move together as
the cable is plugged into dimmer 2. The computer one. When the board is designed with more than two
is then programmed so that dimmer 2 is softpatched banks, additional switches adjacent to the cross-fader
(assigned) to channel 1. Now, when the computer assign any bank to either handle. Most preset light
light board is instructed to bring up channel 1, chan- boards also possess a scene master that also controls
nel 1 will instruct dimmer 2 to activate, and that same each bank. Some preset light boards possess an addi-
instrument turns on. tional row of switches above each slider, allowing
Since computerized lighting systems electroni- the dimmer to be separated from the X, Y, or scene
cally control dimmers, it’s possible for a single chan- masters to an independent master. Almost all preset
nel to control more than one dimmer. Returning light boards, however, contain a grand master, which
to the same example, the same instrument is still overrides all other controls.
hardpatched into dimmer 2. Another instrument is
plugged into dimmer 3. The computer light board is
Computer Control
now programmed to softpatch both dimmer 2 and
dimmer 3 to be controlled by channel 1. Bringing Computer lighting consoles often activate channels
up channel 1 now activates both dimmers, and both through individual sliders or knobs, or by using key-
instruments will be brought up together. On most pads and software commands.
modern computer light boards, it’s possible for any Figure 1.8 is a computer lighting console designed
number of dimmers or instruments to be controlled to control and observe channels and other informa-
by any single channel. For the ultimate flexibility, tion about the light cues. In many cases, the informa-
every instrument is hardpatched into a separate dim- tion is often displayed on the monitors. While those
mer, and then the dimmers can be softpatched into are differences, what sets computer control apart from
any combination of control channels. manual control is “cue storage” and “playback.”
On a manual preset board, the active light cue may
be one of many arranged banks of sliders, for exam-
Manual Control
ple. Once the cross-fade has been performed to acti-
Two kinds of manual light boards are still used in vate the next cue, the first row of sliders is physically
today’s theatre. Autotransformer boards contain reset. Each cue is “stored” on a document, the written
levers, each of which directly attaches to a single dim- numbers indicating the level intensity for each slider
mer. Manually moving each lever directly affects the in that particular cue. In a computer console, on the
amount of voltage passing through that dimmer to other hand, the light cue’s intensity levels are stored in
the instruments. recorded software units called memories or cues.
A preset light board, on the other hand, contains Rather than cross-fading from one scene to
rows of sliders, knobs, or levers that electronically another, the computer lighting console “plays back”
control the voltage passing through the dimmers to the different memories by loading them into a fader. One
instruments. Instead of a direct mechanical connec- basic method to load a new memory (and to cross-fade
tion, the preset light board is remotely connected to the to a new cue) is to press a single button, often labeled
dimmers by an electronic cable. Although the dimmers
aren’t directly controlled, this type of light board is
still considered a manual device, since controlling the
voltage to an instrument’s light can only be accom-
plished by manually moving some mechanism on the
board. Usually each slider in one row controls a single
dimmer. Each row (or preset, or bank, or scene) of
sliders duplicates control to the same dimmer. Slider
1 in the top row controls the same dimmer as slider 1
in the subsequent rows. While the top row is “active”
(controlling the dimmers), the sliders in the following
rows are manually “preset” by an operator for subse-
quent lighting states (or looks, or cues).
Movement from one row to another, illustrated
by de-activating row 1 while simultaneously activat-
ing row 2, is accomplished by “cross-fading” from
one row to another. An X-Y cross-fader, or some
mechanical variation, serves this function. It’s often Figure 1.8 A Computer Lighting Console
22 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

as the “Go” button. Consoles are usually designed so device management) is a bi-directional protocol that
that each memory can be assigned a predetermined can send out “inquiries” and receive responses from
length of time. This time duration is the amount of smart electrical devices. ACN (Architecture for Control
time between the moment when the Go button is Networks) is now being used in large installations, since
pressed, and the moment the memory is completely it can be distributed via an Ethernet-based system using
loaded into a fader (and the cross-fade is complete). an Internet-based “star” network of switches. ACN
Many consoles are designed with several faders, so works with other protocols to form networked audio,
that several memories can be simultaneously loaded. lighting, or other control systems. Art-Net is another
Instead of independent masters, most computer light- Ethernet-based protocol. Though it’s relatively simple,
ing consoles have physical handles called submasters and easy to implement, some consider it a “bandwidth
that control assigned channels. Software “handles” hog.” While all of these new protocols have their own
are designed into many consoles in the form of groups, strengths and weaknesses, most devices on the market
which control assigned channels. Most current console still also speak the original DMX512 standard. While
software assigns repetitive keystroke combinations to lighting designers aren’t expected to completely under-
simple keystroke shortcuts called macros. All of these stand these newer technical languages, they should
functions are discussed more thoroughly in Chapter 9, strive to grasp the implications when using or combin-
but the online or printed manual for most consoles ing any protocols.
is the most accurate source of information describing Another form of dimming control is “wireless
the capabilities of that particular light board. DMX,” which is basically sophisticated radio trans-
Many computer lighting consoles can be equipped mitters and receivers exchanging entire universes of
with additional devices to increase their functionality. DMX or other protocol information packets over
Alphanumeric keyboards can be connected to sev- airwaves utilizing proprietary message formats. Using
eral consoles, allowing typed identification labels to different methods to ensure high levels of data fidel-
be assigned to cues or other functions. A remote focus ity, these systems co-exist with Wi-Fi technology in
unit (or RFU, pronounced “ar-foo”) is a small device the currently-unlicensed 2.4-GHz band. At the time
that either connects directly to the console or operates of this writing, though, these forms of control are still
through a wireless network, allowing basic console in flux, and no doubt will remain so for some time
tasks to be performed solely using that device. Printers until new standards are adapted.
are often seen as a necessity to provide printed reports
of the information programmed into the console. Some
Computer Memory Storage
consoles are now equipped with touch screens, bypass-
ing the need for keypad entry. External backup devices Computer lighting consoles are designed to store infor-
can store some number of memories as “snapshots” mation about the memories and other lighting functions
from the main console. In case of catastrophic console on storage media. Initially that included microfloppy
interruption (or failure), the backup device can assume and floppy disks. Nowadays, storage includes hard
the role of providing intensity information to the dim- drives and USB devices. To utilize the capabilities of a
mers, regenerating some of the show’s “looks”, in lieu computer lighting console, the lighting designer must
of the disabled console. have a basic understanding of how computer infor-
mation is stored. Like every basic modern computer,
there are two basic elements involved in computer
Computer Control Protocols
memory storage. The first element is random access
When computer control was first introduced into memory (RAM), where information can be changed,
theatre lighting, its initial objective was to com- like thoughts in a brain. The second element is the stor-
municate intensity information to dimmers and age media, ranging from a floppy disk to a hard drive,
other devices using a form of digital language or where information can be written down, like a book.
“protocol.” DMX512 was the first nationally rec- To change information in a book, the book
ognized standard in this form of communication, must first be read. Reading the book transfers all of
and it’s served well for many years. It acquired its the information from the book to the brain. Then
name because it could send out control signal infor- thoughts about the book can be altered and changed
mation to 512 channels, a number designated as a in the brain. Afterwards, all of the thoughts, both old
single universe. and new, can be written back into the book. If changes
The complexity of today’s theatrical devices, are made in the brain, but the brain sleeps before writ-
however, has required more sophisticated protocols. ing the changes back into the book, then all contents
DMX512-A has updated the protocol to include inter- of the book will be forgotten. The brain must read the
national text packet transmissions. RDM (remote book again before the thoughts can be changed.
 A Review L 23

The RAM in a computer lighting console is much &IGURE !

like that brain. To be able to change information
in a computer console, the information must be 1 1, 2
transferred from the floppy disk or hard drive into
the RAM of the console. Once the information is in 7 F 1 2 3 4 5 6 M
RAM, the information can be changed or altered.
After the information is changed it can be written &IGURE "
back onto the floppy or the hard drive. If the RAM
of the computer reboots, in some cases, it’s the same 2 2 3
as the brain going to sleep. All of the altered informa- 10 5 F 1 2 3 4 5 6 M
tion may have been forgotten. Whatever information
has been changed in the RAM since the last transfer &IGURE #
back to the floppy disk or hard drive may have been F Ø SCENE
lost. For information to be written (or stored), it must 1 SCENE
1 2 3 4 5 6
be transferred back to the storage media. This topic is
discussed further in Chapter 8.
7 X Ø
X
F X F F
F Ø SCENE

2 1 2 3 4 5 6
Y
SCENE
Computer Lighting Console Control
Philosophies
10 Y Ø F
F 5 F
Understanding the basic logic employed by modern Figure 1.9 Manual Light Board Written Cues and
computer lighting consoles can be assisted by examin- Moves; A) Autotransformer LQ1, B) Autotransformer LQ2,
ing the methods and reasoning used to execute light cues and C) Preset for LQ1 and LQ2
on manual light boards. A piano or autotransformer
light board, for example, typically consists of six han- to keep everyone in the same rhythm. SM: “Light cue
dles, each handle mechanically controlling one dimmer. 1, GO!” Board Op: “6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, complete!”
All six handles can be mechanically “interlocked” and Once light cue 1 is complete, the board opera-
controlled by a seventh, master handle. When the grand tors then refer to their individual cue sheets to pre-
master moves up or down, the other affected handles pare for light cue 2. Figure 1.9B shows the written
move with it. The term “grand master” is now com- shorthand for light cue 2; dimmer 2 fades down to
monly applied to any fader or handle that overrides all 5, while dimmer 3 fades up to full, all in 10 counts.
other intensity output in a light board. In this cue, while the other two dimmers cross-fade,
Each light cue on an autotransformer board is dimmer 1 remains stationary. Since it doesn’t move,
achieved by manually grasping the handles and mov- dimmer 1 doesn’t get listed; these manual cue sheets
ing them at a predefined speed. Figure 1.9 shows two only list the dimmers that move and change intensity.
written cues and their actions on two different light When the stage manager calls “Light cue 2 GO,” the
boards. Figure 1.9A shows the written shorthand for affected dimmers move to their new levels in 10 seconds,
light cue 1; dimmer 1 and 2 fade up to full in 7 counts. again counted down by the leader. Dimmer 1 remains
Next to that is a sketch showing the handles for dim- untouched, “tracking” through the light cue.
mers 1 and 2 moving in the direction of their 7-count Manual preset light boards, with multiple rows
fade up to full. If a light cue requires several handles of dimmers, introduced a new way of cross-fading
to move simultaneously in different directions to dif- between light cues and required a new method for
ferent levels, it may require more than one person. the cues to be recorded. A basic preset light board
If the light plot is controlled by many autotransformer has two scenes. Figure 1.9C shows the operator sheet
boards arranged in the same area, the light cue’s timing for the same cue sequence. Both scene X and scene Y
is typically coordinated by one of the senior board are preset with the same levels that were shown on
operators. After the stage manager says the magic “G” the autotransformer board. When the call is made for
word*, the senior board op counts the seconds in Light Q1, the board op moves the Scene X fader han-
reverse out loud to the rest of the operators, in order dle up in 7 seconds, and the sliders for dimmer 1 and 2
fade up to Full. When the stage manager calls for
Light Q2, the board op cross-fades to Scene Y.
*The magic “G” word is “GO”, but it’s never spoken on headset
Once complete, the sliders for Scene X are com-
(especially by the stage manager) unless used to give a command.
Otherwise, when folks hear the word out of context, if they’re pletely deactivated, and can be re-set for Light Q3.
not paying attention, they can jump the gun, and perform a cue The common operator tactic is to first move all the
at the wrong moment in the show. sliders in Scene X to zero. Performing this action
24 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

means there’s then no chance that an errant slider &IGURE ! &IGURE " &IGURE # &IGURE $
will be accidentally left active at any level from the CHAN CHAN CHAN CHAN

previous cue (light cue 1). Yes, it’s rather embarrass- 1 1 1 1

ing. After all the sliders are “zeroed,” then the opera- MEM MEM MEM MEM

tor presets the sliders to the intensities written on the M1 F M1 5 M1 F M1 5

preset sheets for Light Q3. The preset sheets list each M2 F M2 5 M2 F M2 5
slider’s intensity. Once the scene is set, the operator
visually checks to make certain that the physically M3 F M3 5 M3 F M3 5
preset sliders match the written paperwork. M4 F M4 5 M4 F M4 5
The thought processes shown in these examples M5 F M5 5 M5 F M5 5
provide the basis for the two types of logic used in
today’s computer lighting consoles. As an interesting Preset Console Tracking Console
note, the original code name assigned to the original
Strand Palette computer lighting console was the &IGURE % &IGURE & &IGURE '
CHAN CHAN CHAN
“4PB6E,” shorthand for “4 piano boards, 6 electri-
1 1 1
cians.” The logic employed in the console design was MEM MEM MEM

an emulation of the actions and logic used to run M1 5 M1 5 M1 5

either earlier light board. Both logics are based on
M2 5 M2 5 M2 5
the fundamental fact that “looks,” or “light cues,” or
“states” can be recorded as memories and assigned M3 7 M3 7 M3 7
a numeric label. When the GO button is pressed, a M4 5 M4 7 M4 5
command is sent to the light board, which “loads”
the memory into a fader. After the memory has been M5 5 M5 7 M5 5
loaded, the handle of the fader may be used like a Preset "To Track" "Q Only"
grand master. One memory could be loaded into
a fader at one time. Today’s lighting consoles are Figure 1.10 Computer “Cue Only” and “Tracking”
designed with multiple fades, allowing several sepa- Screens
rate memories with different levels and time durations
to be simultaneously executed.
Each memory or lighting state in a computer memory 1, and then recorded at that level into the
preset console is recorded as an individual snapshot, five memories. Since channel 1 has been unaddressed
like the manual 2-scene preset board. The inten- after memory 1, and remained at the same intensity
sity level of each channel is individually addressed in in memories 2 through 5, however, the console has
every memory. The computer tracking console, on automatically assigned the channel’s non-movement
the other hand, sees light cues like the autotrans- in those memories as “tracking.” Figure 1.10D illus-
former board. It records the same memories, but trates the process employed to make the same change
only alters channel intensities that are different from in channel 1’s intensity in all five memories. Memory
the previous memory. Unaddressed channels “track 1 is accessed, the intensity for channel 1 is reduced
through” that memory. For further explanation, con- to 50%, and memory 1 is then re-recorded “to
sider this next example. track.” Since the computer tracking console has now
Figure 1.10A shows a grid, with memory numbers recorded a new initial (or hard) command for chan-
listed down the left-hand row, and channel 1 listed at nel 1, it will track that reduced intensity through the
the top of the column. Five memories are created on following four memories. The single record instruc-
both types of light boards. Channel 1 is brought up to tion changes the level in all five memories.
Full in memory 1, and then recorded at that intensity There’s a second function in a computer track-
through memory 5. After all five memories have been ing console that separates it from the computer preset
recorded, the decision is made to reduce channel 1’s console. Using the five-memory example, the decision
intensity to 50%, in all five memories. Figure 1.10B is now made to increase channel 1’s intensity up to
shows that process on the computer preset console; 70%, but record that only in memory 3. Figure 1.10E
each of the five memories must be accessed, channel illustrates processing that change in the computer
1’s intensity is reduced to 50%, and then each mem- preset console: Access memory 3, keystroke channel
ory is re-recorded. 1 to up to 7, and re-record memory 3.
The computer tracking console has initially That could be the same keystroke sequence typed
programmed channel 1’s intensities the same way. into the computer tracking console, but Figure 1.10F
Figure 1.10C shows channel 1 brought to Full in shows the result of re-recording memory 3 “to track.”
 A Review L 25

Channel 1 then tracks at 70% through memory 4 and 5. the logic, command language, limitations, and work-
To confine the intensity change solely to memory 3, arounds of a given computer lighting console can be
the computer tracking console must be instructed critical to achieving a successful design. Understanding
to re-record the intensity change in memory 3 “cue the differences can affect how the memories are con-
only.” Figure 1.10G illustrates the result of this structed, stored, or manipulated. If there are any
command. While the light board records channel 1 at questions or unfamiliarity with a particular console,
7 in memory 3, it also automatically reverts channel the advice is simple: Be prepared. Acquire information
1’s intensity back to its previous level in the following from every possible source, including manuals, down-
memory. In this example, after re-recording memory loaded cheat sheets, board operators, lighting rental
3 “cue only,” memory 4 is assigned a hard command shop technicians, or manufacturer reps, to name a
reverting channel 1’s intensity back down to 50%. few. Borrow time on a showroom demo model, if one
Memory 5 then follows that command, and tracks can be found. Watch the board being programmed
channel 1’s intensity as 50% as well. for another show. Acquire phone numbers of experi-
A hard command, or hard level, in this type of enced operators who will tolerate late-night blither-
console is defined as an intensity change assigned to ing phone calls of confusion. Don’t presume that the
a channel, which establishes a point of tracking, as board operator will have a full understanding of, or
opposed to a matching intensity level from a previous grasp the implications, of actions taken while pro-
memory that then merely tracks through that memory. gramming the console. If the lighting designer doesn’t
The hard command given to channel 1 in memory 4 have a complete understanding of functions or com-
initiates a tracking change in channel intensity. Once mands, hours of work can quickly be destroyed.
the channel’s intensity is changed and recorded into
memory, the hard command forces the channel to
Cue and Memory Nomenclature
remain at that intensity through all subsequent mem-
ories until another hard command is encountered to The word cue has two general meanings. A called cue
alter the intensity level. In this example, channel 1 is a command (usually given by a stage manager) at
will remain at 50% until a subsequent memory is a specific moment to initiate a specific action. The
loaded into the fader that has channel 1 changing to spoken command given during a show results in an
a different recorded intensity, a hard command. action, or the cue, being taken. (“Curtain, GO!”)
To create memory 6 as a fade to black (FTB), all When combined with an adjective, however, the
active channels from memory 5 would be programmed word cue is also defined as the specific desired effect
to 00% and recorded “to track” as memory 6, effec- predetermined to take place as a result of that com-
tively stopping any tracking intensities. If memory 7 mand. Other types of cues may occur during a perfor-
is then recorded without changing any other chan- mance to affect scenery (“Fly Cue 14, GO!”), sound
nel information, it will contain no active channel (“Sound Cue F, GO!”), or other facets of the produc-
intensities, since no levels are tracking into the mem- tion (“Banana Cue, GO!”), but a light cue usually
ory. The hard command zeros in memory 6 block the implies a change in dimmer or channel intensities
path of any intensity information that may be tracking from one state or look to another. When manual light
from hard commands given in memories 1 through 5, boards are used, a completed light cue usually refers
and are known as “blockers.” To ensure that a mem- to a completed static arrangement of dimmers or
ory designated as a “fade to black” doesn’t later have channels to produce a single visual image.
intensity information track into it from prior memo- When computer light consoles are involved, the
ries, the FTB memory is often programmed with all unit of RAM containing a recorded arrangement of
pertinent channels containing hard command zeros. channel intensities is called a memory. Strictly speak-
The FTB memory can then also be referred to as a ing, while a cue is a command that may activate a mem-
blocker cue, since all tracking intensity information is ory, it may instead imply the movement of a submaster,
being stopped at that memory. activation of a macro, or any other manual change in
the overall electrical state of the production. As far as
computer light consoles are concerned, however, the
Shelley ’s
Notes distinction between these two terms has blurred. While
Shelley’s Notes:
a memorized unit of RAM is indeed a memory, any
Know Your Console
memory may also be referred to as a cue.
This is a basic explanation of the logic used in the two When referring to light cues, nomenclature is used
primary types of computer light boards. Certainly, to identify the type of cue being discussed. Whereas
there is much more complexity regarding command called cues are initiated by the stage manager’s spo-
structures than can be discussed in this text. Knowing ken command, additional cues may be programmed
26 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

to begin automatically without a second command. fades to black, followed by the lights fading
A stage manager’s call book will list the called light back up and restoring to the same previous
cues, but there may be many uncalled follow cues pro- lighting state.
grammed “in the background” to initiate additional UÊ
Êpostset cue is the lighting state seen by the
lighting changes, preset moving light fixtures, activate audience as they leave the theatre after the bows.
special effects, or control other devices. A follow cue This cue is often used when the main curtain
begins the instant that the first memory completes its is not closed and the stage is exposed to the
fade; the second cue is referred to as an “autofollow.” audience’s view.
Here are other names given to types of light cues:
There is also nomenclature for series of cues that
UÊ
Êpreset cue often refers to the lighting state occur close in time to one another:
seen on stage prior to the beginning of a show,
or the opening of the main curtain. UÊ
˜Êœ«i˜ˆ˜}ÊÃiµÕi˜ViʜvÌi˜ÊLi}ˆ˜ÃÊÜˆÌ ÊÌ iÊ
UÊ
Êfronts up cue typically adds only frontlight house lights fading to 50% (or half) and ends
to a preset cue. This term is often applied to the with the lighting state that establishes the first
first light cue called after the main curtain has “look” in the show.
been removed to begin a performance. UÊ
Êtransition sequence usually begins with the
UÊ
Êfronts out cue typically subtracts only final cue of the first scene, and ends with the
frontlight from the previous cue. This term lighting state that establishes the second scene.
is often applied to the final cue called before UÊ
Êfinal sequence often begins with the first cue
the curtain flies in at the end of an act or a changing the last established look in the show,
performance. and ends with the bow preset cue.
UÊ
Êbase cue is the name given to the first cue in UÊ
Êbow sequence often begins when the curtain
a scene, upon which other less substantial cue is raised for the bows. This sequence is often a
changes within the same scene are made. combination of a fronts up cue and a series of
UÊ
˜Êeffect cue involves a programmed series blackouts and restores.
of actions typically involving a collection of
channels, which activate in a sequential pattern.
Computer Lighting Console Syntax
UÊ
Êfade to black cue fades all of the lights
completely out, resulting in darkness. For many computer lighting consoles, spoken words or
UÊ
Êblackout is the same action as a fade to black phrases are interpreted by a board operator and typed
cue, but the fade typically happens in a zero into a keypad to achieve the desired result. On many
count (a bump). computer lighting consoles, a specific area of the com-
UÊ
Êbow cue is the look used during curtain call puter monitor, known as the command line, reflects
when performers take their bows. Though it may these programmed keystrokes as numerals or symbols
be a copy or modification of a cue seen earlier in as they are typed in (or “entered”). The command line
the show, its main intent is to make certain that provides a simple visual confirmation that the correct
the faces of the performers can be seen. programming sequence of instructions has been exe-
UÊ
Êbow preset cue is often used when a closed cuted. Although programming sequences, or command
main curtain prevents the audience from seeing structures, may vary wildly between lighting console
the performers move to their position onstage manufacturers to achieve the same result, many typo-
prior to the bows. It’s usually the same as the graphical symbols have been adopted as shorthand
bow cue, but without any frontlight. When the for English words. Many lighting designers write their
cue is active, no light is seen on the curtain. notes and corrections using this shorthand, so that the
UÊ
Êbow ride cue adds frontlight to the bow symbology of the written notes match the command
preset cue when the main curtain opens for structure display to confirm accurate programming.
bows. It often consists of intensities loaded into For example, the “” and “@” characters are
a submaster. Bringing the sub to full adds the often employed, respectively, to display the selection of
frontlight onto the bow preset cue. The sub’s a continuous range of channels and their intensity acti-
intensities can then be removed or added as the vation. If channels 1 through 10 are simultaneously
curtain opens or closes. When the bow ride cue activated, the command line displays “1  10.” If the
is removed, the bow preset cue remains on stage. same channels are set to a matching intensity of 50%,
UÊ
Êrestore cue is a copy of a previously used cue. pressing the “at” “5” and “0” buttons can result in the
One example may be seen during bow sequences command line displaying “1  10 @ 50.” In another
at the end of a show, when the stage quickly example, the “ ” symbol is often used in place of the
 A Review L 27

words “and” or “plus,” while the “” symbol is often SECONDS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

employed to represent “minus” or “less.” If channels MEM 1

1 through 10 and channel 15 are set to a matching TIME 5
intensity of 25%, the command line might read “1 
Figure 1.11 A Basic Time Fade
10 15 @ 25.” If channels 1 through 5 and channels
7 through 10 are all set to 70%, the command line may
read “1  10  6 @ 70.” For the purposes of this text,
the “” symbol will indicate any continuous number SECONDS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

series, the “@” symbol will replace the word “at,” “ ” MEM 1
will replace “and,” and “” will mean “minus.” TIME 5/
10
Depending on the manufacturer and model of
computer lighting console, some variation of this Figure 1.12 A Split Time Fade
command structure may be successful and achieve
the desired action. Or not. Some program languages
are reversed and require the channels to be addressed Some light boards have the ability to “split” the
after the intensities. Other languages, on the other time fade. All of the channels that move up can be
hand, are completely touch-based interfaces. In order assigned a different speed than all of the channels
to understand and be assured that the proper pro- that move down. If memory 1 is assigned an upfade
gramming is taking place, the lighting designer must time of 5 seconds and a downfade time of 10 seconds,
undertake the effort to understand the program- most consoles would display that time duration as
ming structure employed by that particular lighting “5/10.” Figure 1.12 is a time map showing memory
console. Some lighting designers write the console’s 1 with that split time fade assignment. Although the
name on their paperwork, in order to remind them upfade channels still take 5 seconds to complete, the
which one they’re working on at that moment. downfade channels in the same memory take 5 more
seconds to complete the overall fade.
Time Fades
Waits and Delays
Understanding time fades is fairly simple. On a manual
light board, the time fade assigned to a cue indicates Understanding waits and delays can be a bit more
the amount of time that should occur between the involved. Both of these terms also refer to durations of
stage manager’s call and the moment the fade is com- time, but they are separate from a time fade, and the
plete. Dimmers assigned to move in a light cue can be definition of the terms can interchange between manu-
divided into two categories: dimmers that move up (an facturers of different lighting consoles. These additional
upfade) and dimmers that move down (downfade). time durations can be assigned to most memories used
One example of an upfade cue is the first cue to as light cues. Consider two memories, memory 1 and
fade up into a scene from a black stage. A downfade memory 2, each assigned a time fade of 5 seconds. For
cue, on the other hand, is the last one at the end of the our purposes, a wait is defined as the amount of time
scene, that fades the stage out to complete darkness, that occurs between the moment at which the GO but-
a fade to black. ton is pressed and when memory 1 actually loads into
When discussing a computer light board, a time a fader. The wait affects only the memory to which it’s
fade is defined as the duration of time that occurs assigned. Figure 1.13 is a time map that shows the effect
between the moment the GO button has been pressed of assigning a wait of 3 seconds to memory 1. After
(to load a memory into a fader) and the moment the the GO button is pushed, 3 seconds will elapse before
fade is complete (the memory is completely loaded). memory 1 begins its timed fade. The overall elapsed
In most computer lighting consoles, every memory time is 8 seconds. The value of this function is discussed
used as a light cue can be assigned a single time fade, later in Chapter 13 when part cues are examined.
which determines the amount of time that will occur A delay, on the other hand, always implies a
for all of the channels to complete their movement. If “link” to another memory, usually the next memory
memory 1 is assigned a 5-second time fade, it could be in sequence. For our purposes, a delay is defined as
illustrated with a time map, as shown in Figure 1.11.
The numbers across the top show the number of SECONDS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
seconds. The time fade of memory 1 is shown as a
MEM 1
line with a dot at each end. The 5-second time fade WAIT 3
starts at zero, when the GO button is pushed, until
the fade is complete. Figure 1.13 A Time Fade with an Assigned Wait
28 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

SECONDS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS
MEM 1
DELAY 5 The lighting instrument is a device typically
MEM 2 containing a lamp that receives electricity to pro-
Figure 1.14 Two Time Fades with an Assigned Delay duce light. Selecting the proper lighting instrument
is a basic skill that a lighting designer must possess
in order to provide designed illumination. That selec-
tion begins by knowing the different characteristics
the amount of time between the moment at which of each instrument type. The characteristics of the
the GO button is pressed (loading memory 1 into a instruments are determined by a combination of their
fader) and when the cue that it is linked to (in this individual components.
case memory 2) automatically loads into a fader.
The GO button is only pressed once to complete the Components of Lighting Instruments
two fades. Figure 1.14 is a time map that shows the
effect of assigning a 5-second delay to memory 1. Theatrical lighting instruments usually consist of
After the GO button is pushed, memory 1 immedi- three components contained within a housing. These
ately begins its timed fade. Five seconds later, mem- components are lamps, reflectors, and lenses.
ory 2 automatically begins its timed fade. The overall
length of time for both cues to complete their fade is The Lamps
10 seconds. In this example, the length of the delay is Most modern theatrical lighting instruments produce
the same as memory 1’s fade time. Since the second a beam of light using a lamp as a source. Different
cue starts loading at the same moment that the first lamps create different colors, intensities, and types
cue completes, this is a perfect example; memory 2 is of light. Modern lamps contain a filament and an
an autofollow cue. inert gas, both of which are enclosed in a transpar-
Figure 1.15 is a time map that shows the effect of ent bulb or envelope mounted on a base. Electricity
assigning a 3-second delay to memory 1. After the GO passing through the filament produces light. Not only
button is pushed, memory 1 immediately begins its does the base secure the lamp to the socket and con-
timed fade. Three seconds later, memory 2 automati- duct electricity to the filament, bases often pre-align
cally begins its timed fade. The overall length of time the filament in the proper relationship to a reflector
for both cues to complete their fade is 8 seconds. within an instrument.
The terms “time fade,” “wait,” and “delay” can The two main types of lamps used for modern
vary in their meaning, depending on the manufac- theatrical stage lighting are incandescent and tung-
turer of the console. Not only can the terms imply sten-halogen lamps. Both of these types of lamps are
different functions between manufacturers, the manufactured in a variety of wattages and produce a
terms can also have unique implications for differ- range of color temperatures.
ent lighting consoles created by the same manufac- Figure 1.16 shows an HPL lamp that con-
turer. Though the semantics may be interchangeable, tains the proprietary four-filament design branded
or completely different, most computer light boards as “Source Four.” The HPL is the light engine for
provide these functions. Since semantics can vary an entire product line of theatrical lighting instru-
between consoles, the lighting designer must know ments. While this lamp can be “burned” (or turned
which set of terms to use in order to properly pro- on) regardless of its physical position, some lamps
gram that particular lighting console. Smart (or cau- must be turned upside down (or burned “base-up”)
tious) lighting designers often write definitions of to ensure proper lamp life.
the terms directly on paperwork they keep close at
hand while they create the light cues, in order to
eliminate confusion.
Figure 1.16 HPL Lamp with Four
Filaments
SECONDS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

MEM 1
DELAY 3
MEM 2

Figure 1.15 Two Time Fades with an Assigned

Overlapping Delay
 A Review L 29

Distinctions between the types and wattages of improvements consistently increase lamp life and
most lamps are designated by three-letter codes assigned intensity and significantly reduce power consumption.
by the Accredited Standards Committee C78. This While the eventual niche of LED fixtures in enter-
committee is one of many overseen by the American tainment lighting is still to be seen, it seems apparent
National Standards Institute (ANSI). The three-letter that they will be a part of the industry. At the time of
codes, typically referred to as the ANSI code, provide a this writing, however, the color consistency of LED
system to assure compatibility among similarly coded sources is still hard to maintain, their light output is
lamps from various manufacturers. Among other still rather “spotty,” and almost all of the fixtures are
attributes, the ANSI code identifies the type of base, very expensive to rent or purchase.
the wattage, the rated length of life, and the physical One source that’s only recently been displayed at
dimensions of the filament and lamp. Other attributes trade shows is the plasma light source. In their cur-
typically listed for each lamp include its color, and the rent pill-sized shape, these sources claim to be
amount of light produced by that lamp. The measure- 10 times more efficient than traditional incandes-
ment used to define the amount of light produced by cent light bulbs, twice as efficient as current high-end
a lamp is expressed in units called lumens. A lumen is LEDs, and have eye-popping lamp life. How they will
roughly defined as the time rate flow of light emitted fit into the entertainment industry is, at the time of
by the flame of a theoretical wax candle. A foot-candle this writing, a source of massive speculation.
is the level of illumination on a surface 1 foot away
from the flame of that theoretical candle. The Reflectors
Often the design of a lamp is specific to a particu-
lar instrument. If the proper lamp isn’t used, the light The light that is created by most lamps is cast in all
output may be hampered, the lamp may have a pre- directions. Theatrical instruments are designed so that
maturely shortened life, or, in some cases, the lamp a lamp is typically contained within a mirrored reflec-
may explode. The proper lamp should be placed in tor to direct as much of the light as possible toward
the proper instrument. the lens. Three different types of reflectors are most
In most cases, any oil, grease, or foreign matter often used in theatrical lighting instruments. They are
left on the bulb can drastically reduce the life of the shown in sectional view in Figure 1.17.
lamp. Any fingerprints or smudges on a bulb should The spherical reflector on the left-hand side of
be removed. Figure 1.17 redirects rays of light that would other-
Black lights (UV) are used to visually “pop” chem- wise be lost in the housing back through the source
ically treated colors on stage, or to provide eerie visual toward the lens. Though not all of the light is effi-
effects. Since the source requires a ballast, “dimming” ciently used, the reflector dramatically increases the
the source often translates into expensive dimmable amount of light coming out of the front of the instru-
ballasts, or the need for external dousing devices. ment. This reflector is used mainly for Plano-convex
Other types of illumination sources have been and Fresnel instruments.
adopted by the theatrical industry. Metal halide The parabolic reflector in the center of Figure
lamps (HMI) produce a high color temperature light. 1.17 directs the rays of light in a more controlled fash-
Once exclusively used in movies and television, these ion. When the source is placed at the proper location,
sources and fixtures have become mainstays when the rays of light reflected from a parabolic reflector
intense beams of light are required. Since the source are essentially parallel. This reflector often uses no
requires a high voltage and a ballast, the source lens to concentrate or direct the light.
can’t be dimmed. Instead, the housings also require The ellipsoidal reflector on the right-hand side of
external dousing devices. Regardless of their hous- Figure 1.17 is shaped like a football with one end cut
ing, HMI instruments require knowledge to safely off and a small hole for a lamp cut in the other. This
mount the instrument, control the beam, and espe- reflector redirects more light towards the lens, and is
cially change the lamp.
The LED, acronym for Light Emitting Diode,
was a source initially used for years in small devices,
such as alarm clocks or calculators. In the late 90’s,
fixtures were introduced using LEDs in the primary
colors of red, blue, and green (RBG). Today’s lighting
devices are powered by multiple-colored LED systems,
Spherical Parabolic Ellipsoidal
achieve millions of color mixes, and are housed in a
variety of instrument types. Applications for the source Figure 1.17 Spherical, Parabolic, and Ellipsoidal
are in constant development, and manufacturing Reflectors
30 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

Source Convergence
Point

Air
Air
A B C
Light D Focal
Length

Glass Figure 1.20 Light Passing Through a Plano-Convex

Lens

Figure 1.18 Refracted Light

a tighter, more powerful beam. Figure 1.20A shows
often considered by many to be more efficient than rays of light from a single source passing through
the first two. The diagram shows that the beams of the Plano side of a lens. The spreading light from the
light cross in front of the reflector. source is condensed to form a more powerful beam.
Figure 1.20B shows parallel rays of light entering
The Lenses the Plano side of the lens and converging to a single
point. Figure 1.20C shows rays of light from a single
Figure 1.18 shows light refracted, or redirected, as source passing through the convex side of a lens. The
it passes through glass. In theatrical lighting instru- lens concentrates the beam to create parallel rays
ments, the amount of refraction is a result of two of light. Figure 1.20D shows parallel rays of light
choices; the curvature and thickness molded into entering the lens and converging at a single point.
the lens, and the angle of the light source in relation The distance from that single point to the optical
to the lens. Some amount of light passing through a center of the lens (roughly the middle) is called the
lens is transformed into heat. Because of that, thicker focal length of the lens.
lenses absorb more heat and are more susceptible to The left-hand side of Figure 1.21 shows light
heat fracture. Lenses in theatrical instruments are from a source passing through a step lens. The
constructed from either glass or plastic to control the shaded area represents the glass area that has been
beam of light created by the lamp inside the housing. “cut away” from the Plano side of the lens. Although
Figure 1.19 shows three basic types of lens sur- much of the glass has been removed, the effect of
faces. The convex lens on the left-hand side bulges the lens has been retained. The elimination of the
out, while a concave lens in the middle cuts in. A glass has reduced the weight and the amount of heat
convex lens cut in half results in a Plano-convex lens absorption.
(“Plano” means flat), shown on the right-hand side. The center illustration of Figure 1.21 shows par-
This is the basic lens configuration employed in most allel rays passing through a Fresnel lens. The shaded
theatrical lighting instruments. area represents the portion of glass that has been “cut
By varying its position, in relation to the light away” from the convex side of the lens. This type of
source in a theatrical instrument, a convex-convex lens produces a more diffused, softer edged beam of
lens is used either to converge the light to a single light.
point, or concentrate a spreading beam of light into The right-hand illustration of Figure 1.21 shows
rays of light from a source passing through a double
plano-convex lens system. The distance between the

Point of
Convergence

Focal
Length
Convex Concave Plano-Convex
Figure 1.21 Step Lens, Fresnel Lens, and Double
Figure 1.19 Convex, Concave, and Plano-Convex Lens Plano-Convex Lens
 A Review L 31

optical center of the lens system (if the two lenses are Figure 1.22 The Beam Projector
identical, this is in the middle between them) to the
convergence point where the rays cross, establishes
the focal length for the lens system.

The Individual Instruments

Lamps, reflectors, and lenses combined in different
housings, create theatrical lighting instruments. They Figure 1.23 The Plano-Convex
are generally categorized by type, wattage, and the Instrument
degree of beam spread that they produce.
This next section provides a brief description of
today’s current lighting instruments, accompanied by
a small illustration. Almost every instrument shown
is produced by multiple manufacturers. Due to space
limitations, only one example is shown to illustrate
each fixture type. While all of the equipment pic- Figure 1.24 The Fresnel Instrument
tured in this section is of high quality, the manufac-
turer’s name is included solely to provide clarity, not
endorsement.
Figure 1.22: The beam projector, or BP, consists
of a parabolic reflector mounted in a housing with-
out a lens. The lamp and a small circular secondary instruments is the lens; the Fresnel lens has a softer
reflector, which blocks direct light from escaping the edge. Perhaps because the Fresnel lens is “cut-away,”
housing, move together on a carriage relative to the though, it can withstand greater heat. Current instru-
static reflector. The carriage movement alters the size ments equipped with Fresnel lenses can be lamped up
of the beam spread. If the beam is focused too wide, to 18,000 watts.
however, the secondary reflector blocks the center Figure 1.25: The parabolic aluminized reflector,
of the beam, creating a “doughnut” of light with a or PAR, is a sealed-beam lamp, like a car headlight.
dark hole in the middle. BP light is often described The filament, reflector, and lens are combined into a
as “shafty,” and is typically used to create “sun- single, non-moving unit. The housing, or PAR can,
light.” Controlling the edges of a BP beam can be merely holds the lamp, color, and any external hard-
very difficult. ware. The size and dispersion of the lamp’s ellipti-
Figure 1.23: The Plano-Convex instrument, or cal beam depends on the type, size, and number of
PC, is comprised of a housing containing a lamp facets that are molded into the lens. The light beam
and a spherical reflector. The beam spread is con- has “punch,” but often retains a soft edge.
trolled by a single convex-convex lens mounted in Figure 1.26: The Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight,
the housing, with the flat side of the lens facing into also known as an ellipsoidal, an ERS, or a profile,
the lamp. The lamp and reflector move together on a combines the ellipsoidal reflector and a double con-
carriage closer or farther away from the lens, allow- vex-convex lens system. Some versions of ellipsoidals
ing the cone of light coming out of the instrument to
become larger (or flooded) or smaller (or spotted). Figure 1.25 The PAR Can Instrument
The edge of the beam can be shaped using external
accessories such as barndoors. The beam edge of a
PC is sharper than that of a Fresnel lens. This instru-
ment has historically been one of the workhorses of
European lighting.
Figure 1.24: For many manufacturers, the Fresnel
instrument is the same as the PC, but equipped with
a Fresnel lens. It’s the same body, containing a lamp Figure 1.26 The Ellipsoidal Reflector
and spherical reflector mounted on a carriage in the Spotlight Instrument
same arrangement as the PC. Because of that, the
Fresnel’s beam spread can also get larger or smaller,
and the edge of the beam can be shaped using
barndoors. The main difference between the two
32 L A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO STAGE LIGHTING

use a single step lens, but no matter; they’re generi- Figure 1.27 A Source Four
cally named after the reflector. The lens system of the Ellipsoidal Instrument
ellipsoidal directs the lamp’s beam to invert, or “flip-
flop”. An opening in the middle of the instrument,
known as the gate, is located close to this inversion
point. This is where pieces of metal called shutters
are shoved into the light beam to shape its edges. The
beam can also be shaped with other devices, like a Figure 1.28 A Zoom Ellipsoidal
template or a film loop, which will be discussed later Instrument
in this chapter. Those devices can shape the beam
to project images ranging from a static pattern to
moving projected flames. The lenses are contained
in a tube, or barrel. Adjusting the tube, or “running
the barrel,” moves the lenses closer or farther away Figure 1.29 A Source Four PAR or
from the reflector, and the light beam changes focus, PARNel Instrument
becoming sharper or softer. Since the ellipsoidal’s
design enables it to project concentrated light beams
over extended distances, the instrument is often also
chosen to perform long-range tasks in a light plot.
Figure 1.27: While lamps have become more effi-
cient, the body designs have also become smaller and
more lightweight. The ETC Source Four Ellipsoidal Figure 1.30: Housings containing a row of mul-
uses the HPL lamp, which is equipped with four fila- tiple lamps are called striplights, whose main purpose
ments. The Source Four’s beam output exceeds many is to create a smooth band of light. Striplights are
comparable lamps of higher wattage while consum- usually internally wired to produce more than one
ing less electricity. Between their economy and effi- wash of light from a single unit. Each wash, or cir-
ciency, the Source Four is the chosen workhorse for cuit, is typically equipped with a matching color.
many lighting designers. Source Four’s are now avail- Changing the intensities of the circuits allows the dif-
able in fixed beam spreads ranging from 5o to 90o. ferent washes of color to be mixed. While striplights
Figure 1.28: While many ERS instruments pos- are often hung in a row across a batten in order to
sess only a single fixed beam spread, other versions light backdrops or areas of the stage, they can also
have the ability to change the relationship between be placed on the apron and used as footlights. A row
their lenses and the reflector. Generically known as of striplights placed on the deck to light backdrops is
zoom ellipsoidals, their beam spread can dramatically often referred to as a groundrow. The size, weight,
change in size, while retaining the ability to shape number of circuits, and lamp types available in strip-
or alter the beam. Since their beam size can be eas- lights are extensive.
ily altered, they’re often selected for tasks where the Figure 1.31: A different striplight configuration
unit’s pool size may be undecided until the moment is used specifically to project light onto backdrops or
when they’re focused. This Selecon Pacific 14°-35° cycloramas. Since this is their designed intent, they’re
Zoomspot exemplifies the unit type; the beam spread often referred to as cyc lights. This illustration shows
boundaries are part of its name. Though useful for a four-circuit (or four-cell) cyc light in a square config-
a variety of tasks, zoom ellipsoidals contain more uration. When plotting these instruments, the general
mechanical parts, so they’re usually a little bulkier rule of thumb is to provide 1 foot of distance between
and heavier than their fixed-beam counterparts. the cyc light and the backdrop for every foot of side-
Figure 1.29: The HPL lamp has also been to-side coverage desired on the backdrop.
adapted to other bodies and reflectors. The Source
Four PAR and Source Four PARNel have become Figure 1.30 A Striplight Instrument
compact alternatives to both the traditional PAR
and Fresnel. Utilizing Source Four technology, both
of these lighting instruments have established them-
selves as lighting instruments with their own set of Figure 1.31 A Four-Cell Cyc Light
strengths. While the Source Four PAR changes beam Instrument
spreads by exchanging lenses, the PARNel can spot
or flood the beam spread by rotating one of a pair of
lenses contained in the housing.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
she objected to “Satan’s Kingdom Aristocratical,” on the score of its
halting measures.
The most striking characteristic of our Quaker diarist is precisely
this clear, cold, unbiased judgment, this sanity of a well-ordered
mind. What she lacks, what the journal lacks from beginning to end,
is some touch of human and ill-repressed emotion, some word of
pleasant folly, some weakness left undisguised and unrepented. The
attitude maintained throughout is too judicial, the repose of heart
and soul too absolute to be endearing. Here is a significant entry,
illustrating as well as any other this nicely balanced nature, which
gave to all just what was due, and nothing more:—
“There has been a disorder lately among ye cats. Our poor old
Puss, who has been for some time past unwell, died this morning, in
ye 13th year of her age. Peter dug a grave two feet deep on ye bank
in our garden, under ye stable window, where E. S., Peter and I saw
her decently interred. I had as good a regard for her as was
necessary.”
Was ever affection meted out like this? Was there ever such
Quaker-like precision of esteem? For thirteen years that cat had
been Elizabeth Drinker’s companion, and she had acquired for her
just as good a regard as was necessary, and no more. It was not
thus Sir Walter spoke, when Hinse of Hinsdale lay dead beneath the
windows of Abbotsford, slain by the great staghound, Nimrod. It was
not thus that M. Gautier lamented the consumptive Pierrot. It is not
thus that the heart mourns, when a little figure, friendly and familiar,
sits no longer by our desolate hearth.
 FRENCH LOVE-SONGS

Quand on est coquette, il faut être sage;

L’oiseau de passage
Qui vole à plein cœur
Ne dort pas en l’air comme une hirondelle,
Et peut, d’un coup d’aile,
Briser une fleur.
—Alfred de Musset.

The literature of a nation is rooted in national characteristics. Foreign

influences may dominate it for a time; but that which is born of the
soil is imperishable, and must, by virtue of tenacity, conquer in the
end. England, after the Restoration, tried very hard to be French,
and the “happy and unreflecting wantonness” of her earlier song
was chilled into sobriety by the measured cadences of Gallic verse;
yet the painful and perverse effort to adjust herself to strange
conditions left her more triumphantly English than before. We are
tethered to our kind, and the wisest of all wise limitations is that
which holds us well within the sphere of natural and harmonious
development.
It is true, however, that nationality betrays itself less in lyrics,
and, above all, less in love lyrics, than in any other form of literature.
Love is a malady, the common symptoms of which are the same in
all patients; and though love-songs—like battle-songs and drinking-
songs—are seldom legitimate offsprings of experience, they are
efforts to express in words that sweet and transient pain. “Les âmes
bien nées”—without regard to birthplace—clearly of their passion,
and seek their “petit coin de bonheur” under Southern and Northern
skies. The Latin races have, indeed, depths of reserve underlying
their apparent frankness, and the Saxons have a genius for self-
revelation underlying their apparent reticence; but these traits count
for little in the refined duplicity of the love-song.
Garde bien ta belle folie!
has been its burden ever since it was first chanted by minstrel lips.
M. Brunetière frankly admits the inferiority of the French lyric, an
inferiority which he attributes to the predominance of social
characteristics in the literature, as in the life of France. When poetry
is compelled to fulfil a social function, to express social conditions
and social truths, to emphasize fundamental principles and balance
contrasted forces, the founts of lyrical inspiration are early dried.
Individualism is their source,—the sharp, clear striking of the
personal note; and the English, says M. Brunetière, excel in this
regard. “To Lucasta. Going to the Warres,” has no perfect
counterpart in the love-songs of other lands.
Even the eager desire of the Frenchman to be always intelligible
(“That which is not lucid is not French”) militates against the
perfection of the lyric. So too does his exquisite and inborn sense of
proportion. “Measure,” says Mr. Brownell, “is a French passion;” but
it is a passion that refuses to lend itself to rapturous sentiment.
Et veut que l’on soit sage avec sobriété
is hardly a maxim to which the genius of the love-song gives willing
ear. Rather is she the La Belle Dame sans Merci, or the Elfin Lady
who rode through the forests of ancient France.

My sire is the nightingale,

That sings, making his wail,
In the wild wood, clear;
The mermaid is mother to me,
That sings in the salt sea,
In the ocean mere.
 “What,” asks Mr. Brownell hopelessly, “has become of this Celtic
strain in the French nature?”—a strain which found vent in the
“poésie courtoise,” playful, amorous, laden with delicate subtleties
and fond conceits. This poesie—once the delight of Christendom—
echoes still in Petrarch’s sonnets and in Shakespeare’s madrigals; but
it is difficult to link its sweet extravagances with the chiselled verse
of later days, and critics forget the past in their careful
contemplation of the present. “French poetry,” says Mr. Zangwill,
“has always leant to the frigid, the academic, the rhetorical,—in a
word, to the prosaic. The spirit of Boileau has ruled it from his cold
marble urn.”
But long before Boileau lay in his urn—or in his cradle—the poets
of France, like the poets of Albion, sang with facile grace of love,
and dalliance, and the glory of youth and spring. The fact that
Boileau ignored and despised their song, and taught his obedient
followers to ignore and despise it also, cannot silence those early
notes. When he descended frigidly to his grave, Euterpe tucked up
her loosened hair, and sandalled her bare white feet, and girdled her
disordered robes into decent folds. Perhaps it was high time for
these reforms. Nothing is less seductive in middle age than the
careless gayety of youth. But once France was young, and Euterpe a
slip of a girl, and no grim shadow of that classic urn rested on the
golden days when Aucassin—model of defiant and conquering lovers
—followed Nicolette into the deep, mysterious woods.

Jeunesse sur moy a puissance,

Mais Vieillesse fait son effort
De m’avoir en sa gouvernance,

sang Charles d’Orléans, embodying in three lines the whole history

of man and song. Youth was lusty and folly riotous when Ronsard’s
mistress woke in the morning, and found Apollo waiting patiently to
fill his quiver with arrows from her eyes; or when Jacques Tahureau
watched the stars of heaven grow dim before his lady’s brightness;
or when Vauquelin de la Fresnaye saw Philis sleeping on a bed of
lilies, regardless of discomfort, and surrounded by infant Loves.

J’admirois toutes ces beautez

Égalles à mes loyautez,
Quand l’esprit me dist en l’oreille:
Fol, que fais-tu? Le temps perdu
Souvent est chèrement vendu;
S’on le recouvre, c’est merveille.

Alors, je m’abbaissai tout bas,

Sans bruit je marchai pas à pas,
Et baisai ses lèvres pourprines:
Savourant un tel bien, je dis
Que tel est dans le Paradis
Le plaisir des âmes divines.

With just such sweet absurdities, such pardonable insincerities,

the poets of Elizabeth’s England fill their amorous verse. George
Gascoigne “swims in heaven” if his mistress smiles upon him; John
Lyly unhesitatingly asserts that Daphne’s voice “tunes all the
spheres;” and Lodge exhausts the resources of the vegetable and
mineral kingdoms in searching for comparisons by which to set forth
the beauties of Rosalind. The philosophy of love is alike on both
sides of the Channel, and expressed in much the same terms of soft
insistence. Carpe diem is, and has always been, the lover’s maxim;
and the irresistible eloquence of the lyric resolves itself finally into
these two words of warning, whether urged by Celt or Saxon.
Herrick is well aware of their supreme significance when he sings:—
 Gather ye rose-buds while ye may,
Old Time is still a-flying:
And this same flower that smiles to-day,
To-morrow will be dying.

Then be not coy, but use your time,

And while ye may, go marry;
For having lost but once your prime,
You may forever tarry.

Ronsard, pleading with his mistress, strikes the same relentless

note:—

Donc, si vous me croyez, Mignonne,

Tandis que vostre âge fleuronne
En sa plus vert nouveauté,
Cueillez, cueillez vostre jeunesse;
Comme à cette fleur, la vieillesse
Fera ternir vostre beauté.

May-day comes alike in England and in France. Herrick and Jean

Passerat, poets of Devonshire and of Champagne, are equally
determined that two fair sluggards, who love their pillows better
than the dewy grass, shall rise from bed, and share with them the
sparkling rapture of the early dawn. Herrick’s verse, laden with the
freshness of the Spring, rings imperatively in Corinna’s sleepy ears:—
 Get up, get up, for shame! The blooming Morn
Upon her wings presents the god unshorn.
See how Aurora throws her fair
Fresh-quilted colours through the air.
Get up, sweet Slug-a-bed, and see
The dew bespangling herb and tree.

And then—across the gayety of the song—the deepening note of

persuasion strikes a familiar chord:—

Come, let us go, while we are in our prime;

And take the harmless folly of the time!
We shall grow old apace, and die
Before we know our liberty.

Passerat is no less insistent. The suitors of the sixteenth and

seventeenth centuries seem to have dedicated the chill hours of
early morning to their courtship. Nor was the custom purely pastoral
and poetic. When Lovelace makes his appointments with Clarissa
Harlowe at five A. M., the modern reader—if Richardson has a
modern reader—is wont to think the hour an unpropitious one; but
to Herrick and to the Pléiade it would have seemed rational enough.

Laissons le lit et le sommeil

Ceste journée:
Pour nous, l’Aurore au front vermeil
Est desjà née

sings the French poet beneath his lady’s window; adding, to

overcome her coyness—or her sleepiness—the old dominant
argument:—
 Ce vieillard, contraire aus amans,
Des aisles porte,
Et en fuyant, nos meilleurs ans
Bien loing emporte.
Quand ridée un jour tu seras,
Mélancholique, tu diras:
J’estoy peu sage,
Qui n’usoy point de la beauté
Que si tost le temps a osté
De mon visage.

No less striking is the similarity between the reproachful couplets

in which the singers of England and of France delight in denouncing
their unfaithful fair ones, or in confessing with harmonious sighs the
transient nature of their own emotions. Inconstancy is the breath of
love’s nostrils, and the inspiration of love’s songs, which enchant us
because they express an exquisite sentiment in its brief moment of
ascendency. The tell-tale past, the dubious future, are alike
discreetly ignored. Love in the drama and in the romance plays
rather a heavy part. It is too obtrusively omniscient. It is far too self-
assertive. Yet the average taxpayer, as has been well remarked, is no
more capable of a grand passion than of a grand opera. The utmost
he can achieve is some fair, fleeting hour, and with the imperative
gladness of such an hour the love-song thrills sympathetically. It is
not its business to

recapture
That first fine careless rapture.

It does not essay the impossible.

Now the old and nameless French poet who wrote—
 Femme, plaisir de demye heure,
Et ennuy qui sans fins demeure,

was perhaps too ungraciously candid. Such things, when said at all,
should be said prettily.

Sigh no more, ladies, sigh no more,—

Men were deceivers ever;
One foot in sea, and one on shore,
To one thing constant never.

Gay voices came bubbling with laughter from the happy days
that are dead. Sir John Suckling, whose admirable advice to an
overfaithful young suitor has been the most invigorating of tonics to
suitors ever since, vaunts with pardonable pride his own singleness
of heart:—

Out upon it! I have loved

Three whole days together,
And am like to love three more,
If it prove fair weather.

Time shall moult away his wings

Ere he shall discover
In the whole wide world again
Such a constant lover.

Sir John Sedley epitomizes the situation in his praises of that

jade, Phillis, whose smiles win easy pardon for her perfidy:—
 She deceiving,
I believing,—
What need lovers wish for more?

And Lovelace, reversing the medal, pleads musically—and not in vain

—for the same gracious indulgence:—

Why shouldst thou sweare I am forsworn,

Since thine I vowed to be?
Lady it is already Morn,
And ’twas last night I swore to thee
That fond impossibility.

Mr. Lang is of the opinion that no Gallic verse has equalled in

audacity this confession of limitations, this “Apologia pro Vita Sua;”
and perhaps its light-heartedness is well out of general reach. But
the French lover, like the English, was made of threats and promises
alike fruitless of fulfilment, and Phillis had many a fair foreign sister,
no whit more worthy of regard. Only, amid the laughter and raillery
of a Latin people, there rings ever an undertone of regret,—not
passionate and heart-breaking, as in Drayton’s bitter cry,—
Since there’s no help, come let us kiss and part,
but vague and subtle, linking itself tenderly to some long-ignored
and half-forgotten sentiment, buried deep in the reader’s heart.
Mais où sont les neiges d’antan?
A little sob breaks the smooth sweetness of Belleau’s verse, and
Ronsard’s beautiful lines to his careless young mistress are heavy
with the burden of sighs:—
 Quand vous serez bien vieille, au soir, à la chandelle,
Assise auprès du feu, devisant et filant,
Direz, chantant mes vers, en vous esmerveillant:
‘Ronsard me célébroit du temps que j’estois belle.’

The note deepens as we pass into the more conscious art of

later years, but it is always French in its grace and moderation. How
endurable is the regret with which de Musset sings of Juana, who
loved him for a whole year; how musical his farewell to Suzon,
whose briefer passion lasted eight summer days:—

Que notre amour, si tu m’oublies,

Suzon, dure encore un moment;
Comme un bouquet de fleurs pâlies;
Cache-le dans ton sein charmant!
Adieu! le bonheur reste au gîte:
Le souvenir part avec moi:
Je l’emporterai, ma petite,
Bien loin, bien vite,
Toujours à toi.

In Murger’s familiar verses, so pretty and gay and heartsick, in

the finer art of Gautier, in the cloudy lyrics of Verlaine, we catch
again and again this murmur of poignant but subdued regret, this
sigh for the light love that has so swiftly fled. The delicacy of the
sentiment is unmatched in English song. The Saxon can be
profoundly sad, and he can—or at least he could—be ringingly and
recklessly gay; but the mood which is neither sad nor gay, which is
fed by refined emotions, and tranquillized by time’s subduing touch,
has been expressed oftener and better in France. Four hundred and
fifty years ago François Villon touched this exquisite chord in his
“Ballade des Dames du Temps Jadis,” and it has vibrated gently ever
since. We hear it echoing with melancholy grace in these simple
lines of Gérard de Nerval:—

Où sont les amoureuses?

Elles sont au tombeau!
Elles sont plus heureuses,
Dans un séjour plus beau.

Nerval, like Villon, had drunk deep of the bitterness of life, but
he never permitted its dregs to pollute the clearness of his song:—
Et vent que l’on soit triste avec sobriété.
In the opinion of many critics, the lyric was not silenced, only
chilled, by the development of the classical spirit in France, and the
corresponding conversion of England. Its flute notes were heard now
and then amid the decorous couplets that delighted well-bred ears.
Waller undertook the reformation of English verse, and accomplished
it to his own and his readers’ radiant satisfaction; yet Waller’s seven-
year suit of Lady Dorothy Sidney is the perfection of that poetic love-
making which does not lead, and is not expected to lead, to
anything definite and tangible. Never were more charming tributes
laid at the feet of indifferent beauty; never was indifference received
with less concern. Sacharissa listened and smiled. The world—the
august little world of rank and distinction—listened and smiled with
her, knowing the poems were written as much for its edification as
for hers; and Waller, well pleased with the audience, nursed his
passion tenderly until it flowered into another delicate blossom of
verse. The situation was full of enjoyment while it lasted; and when
the seven years were over, Lady Dorothy married Henry, Lord
Spencer, who never wrote any poetry at all; while her lover said his
last good-bye in the most sparkling and heart-whole letter ever
penned by inconstant man. What would the author of “The Girdle,”
and “Go, Lovely Rose,” have thought of Browning’s uneasy rapture?
 O lyric love, half angel and half bird,
And all a wonder and a wild desire.

He would probably have pointed out the exaggeration of the

sentiment, and the corresponding looseness of the lines. He would
certainly have agreed with the verdict of M. Sévelinges, had that
acute critic uttered it in his day. “It is well,” says M. Sévelinges, “that
passionate love is rare. Its principal effect is to detach men from all
their surroundings, to isolate them, to render them independent of
the relations which they have not formed for themselves; and a
civilized society composed of lovers would return infallibly to misery
and barbarism.”
Here is the French point of view, expressed with that lucidity
which the nation so highly esteems. Who shall gainsay its
correctness? But the Saxon, like the Teuton, is sentimental to his
heart’s core, and finds some illusions better worth cherishing than
truth. It was an Englishman, and one to whom the epithet “cynical”
has been applied oftenest, and with least accuracy, who wrote,—

When he was young as you are young,

When he was young, and lutes were strung,
And love-lamps in the casement hung.
 THE SPINSTER
The most ordinarie cause of a single life is liberty, especially
in certain self-pleasing and humorous minds, which are so
sensible of every restriction, as they wil goe neere to thinke their
girdles and garters to be bonds and shakles.—Bacon.

In the Zend-Avesta, as translated by Anquetil-Duperron, there is a

discouraging sentence passed upon voluntary spinsterhood: “The
damsel who, having reached the age of eighteen, shall refuse to
marry, must remain in Hell until the earth is shattered.”
This assurance is interesting, less because of its provision for the
spinster’s future than because it takes into consideration the
possibility of her refusing to marry;—a possibility which slipped out
of men’s minds from the time of Zoroaster until our present day. A
vast deal has been written about marriage in the interval; but it all
bears the imprint of the masculine intellect, reasoning from the
masculine point of view, for the benefit of masculinity, and ignoring
in the most natural manner the woman’s side of life. The trend of
argument is mainly in one direction. While a few cynics gibe at love
and conjugal felicity, the mass of poets and philosophers unite in
extolling wedlock. Some praise its pleasures, others its duties, and
others again merely point out with Euripides that, as children cannot
be bought with gold or silver, there is no way of acquiring these
coveted possessions save by the help of women. Now and then a
rare word of sympathy is flung to the wife, as in those touching lines
of Sophocles upon the young girls sold in their “gleeful maidenhood”
to sad or shameful marriage-beds. But the important thing to be
achieved is the welfare and happiness of men. The welfare and
happiness of women are supposed—not without reason—to follow as
a necessary sequence; but this is a point which excites no very deep
concern.
Catholic Christendom throughout the Middle Ages, and long
afterwards, offered one practical solution to the problem of unmated
and unprotected womanhood,—the convent. The girl robbed of all
hope of marriage by bitter stress of war or poverty, the girl who
feared too deeply the turmoil and violence of the world, found
shelter in the convent. Within its walls she was reasonably safe, and
her vows lent dignity to her maidenhood. Bride of the Church, she
did not rank as a spinster, and her position had the advantage of
being accurately defined; she was part of a recognized social and
ecclesiastical system. No one feels this more solidly than does a nun
to-day, and no one looks with more contempt upon unmarried
women in the world. In her eyes there are but two vocations,—
wifehood and consecrated virginity. She perceives that the wife and
the religious are transmitters of the world’s traditions; while the
spinster is an anomaly, with no inherited background to give repute
and distinction to her rôle.
This point of view is the basis of much criticism, and has
afforded scope for the ridicule of the satirist, and for the outpourings
of the sentimentalist. A great many brutal jests have been flung at
the old maid, and floods of sickly sentiment have been wasted on
her behalf. She has been laughed at frankly as one rejected by men,
and she has been wept over as a wasted force, withering patiently
under the blight of this rejection. “Envy, hatred, malice, and all
uncharitableness” have been ascribed to her on one side, and a host
of low-spirited and treacly virtues, on the other. The spinster of
comedy is a familiar figure. A perfectly simple and ingenuous
example is the maiden aunt in “Pickwick,” Miss Rachel Wardle, whom
Mr. Tupman loves, and with whom Mr. Jingle elopes. She is spiteful
and foolish, envious of youth and easy to dupe. She is utterly
ridiculous, and a fair mark for laughter. She is pinched, and
withered, and hopelessly removed from all charm of womanhood;
and—it may be mentioned parenthetically—she is fifty years old. We
have her brother’s word for it.
 There is nothing in this straightforward caricature that could, or
that should, wound anybody’s sensibilities. The fun is of a robust
order; the ridicule has no subtlety and no sting. But the old maid of
the sentimentalists, a creature stricken at heart, though
maddeningly serene and impossibly unselfish, is every bit as remote
from reality, and far less cheerful to contemplate. What can be more
offensive than the tearful plea for consideration put forward by her
apologists, who, after all, tolerate her only because, having no
career of her own, she is expected to efface herself in the interests
of other people. “The peculiar womanly virtues,” says a recent writer
upon this fruitful theme, “the power of self-sacrifice, warm
sympathies, compassion, patient endurance, represent an untold
amount of suffering on the part of the weaker sex in past ages. It is
to the world’s advantage that the fruit of such suffering be not lost.”
Here is a sparkling view of life; here is a joyous standpoint of
observation. There is generosity enough in the world to win for the
dejected, the wistful, the pathetic woman a fair share of
commiseration; provided always that she does not oppose her own
interests to the interests of those around her. But what if she
honestly prefers her own interests,—a not uncommon attitude of
mind? What if patient endurance be the very last virtue to which she
can lay claim? What if she is not in the least wistful, and never casts
longing looks at her sister-in-law’s babies, nor strains them
passionately to her heart, nor deems it a privilege to nurse her
nephews through whooping-cough and measles, nor offers herself in
any fashion as a holocaust upon other people’s domestic altars?
What if, holding her life in her two hands, and knowing it to be her
only real possession, she disposes of it in the way she feels will give
her most content, swimming smoothly in the stream of her own
nature, and clearly aware that happiness lies in the development of
her individual tastes and acquirements? Such a woman may, as Mr.
Brownell says, exhibit transparently “her native and elemental
inconsistencies;” but she calls for no commiseration, and perhaps
adds a trifle to the harmonious gayety of earth.
 That she should be censured for laying claim to what is truly
hers seems unkind and irrational,—a tyranny of opinion. Marriage is
a delightful thing; but it is not, and never can be, a duty; nor is it as
a duty that men and women have hitherto zealously practised it. The
outcry against celibacy as a “great social disease” is louder than the
situation warrants. It is the echo of an older protest against the
deferring of the inevitable wedding-day; against the perverse
“boggling at every object,” which Burton found so exasperating a
trait in youth, and which La Bruyère calmly and conclusively
condemns. “There is,” says the French moralist, “a time when even
the richest women ought to marry. They cannot allow their youthful
chances to escape them, without the risk of a long repentance. The
importance of their reputed wealth seems to diminish with their
beauty. A young woman, on the contrary, has everything in her
favour; and if, added to youth, she possesses other advantages, she
is so much the more desirable.”
This is the simplest possible exposition of the masculine point of
view. It is plain that nothing is farther from La Bruyère’s mind than
the possibility of a lifelong spinsterhood for even the most
procrastinating heiress. He merely points out that it would be more
reasonable in her to permit a husband to enjoy her youth and her
wealth simultaneously. The modern moralist argues with less suavity
that the rich woman who remains unmarried because she relishes
the wide and joyous activity fostered by her independence is a
transgressor against social laws. She sins through dire selfishness,
and her punishment is the loss of all that gives dignity and
importance to her life. Only a few months ago a strenuous advocate
of matrimony—as if matrimony had need of advocates—pointed out
judicially in “Harper’s Magazine” that the childless woman has
nothing to show for all the strength and skill she has put into the
business of living. She may be intelligent, stimulating, and serene.
She may have seen much of the world, and have taken its lessons to
heart. She may have filled her days with useful and agreeable
occupations. Nevertheless, he considers her existence “in the long
run, a bootless sort of errand;” doubting whether she has acquired
anything that can make life more interesting to her at thirty-five, at
forty-five, at seventy. “And so much the worse for her.”
This is assuming that there are no interests outside of marriage;
no emotions, ambitions, nor obligations unconnected with the
rearing of children. We are invited to believe that the great world,
filled to its brim with pleasures and pains, duties, diversions, and
responsibilities, cannot keep a woman going—even to thirty-five—
without the incentive of maternity. Accustomed as we are to the
expansive utterances of conjugal felicity, this seems a trifle
overbearing. Charles Lamb thought it hard to be asked by a newly
wedded lady how—being a bachelor—he could assume to know
anything about the breeding of oysters. To-day the expressed doubt
is how—being spinsters or bachelors—we can assume to know
anything about the serious significance of life.
It is not the rich and presumably self-indulgent woman alone
who is admonished to mend her ways and marry. The sentence
extends to the working classes, who are held to be much in fault.
Even the factory girl, toiling for her daily bread, has been made the
subject of censure as unjust as it is severe. What if she does covet
the few poor luxuries,—the neat shoes and pretty frock which
represent her share of æsthetic development? What if she does
enjoy her independence, and the power to spend as she pleases the
money for which she works so hard? These things are her
inalienable rights. To limit them is tyranny. To denounce them is
injustice. We may sincerely believe that she would be better and
happier if she married; and that the bringing up of children on the
precarious earnings of a working-man would be a more legitimate
field for her intelligence and industry. But it is her privilege to decide
this point for herself; and no one is warranted in questioning her
decision. She does not owe matrimony to the world.
There is still another class of women whose spinsterhood is
hardly a matter of choice, yet whose independence has aroused
especial criticism and denunciation. A few years ago there appeared
in “Macmillan’s Magazine” a well-written article on the educated,
unmarried, and self-supporting women, who, in London alone, fill
countless clerical, official, and academic positions. It was pointed out
that these toilers, debarred by poverty from agreeable social
conditions, lead lives of cheerful and honourable frugality, preserving
their self-respect, seeking help and commiseration from none,
enjoying their scanty pleasures with intelligence, and doing their
share of work with eager and anxious precision. Surely if any
creatures on God’s earth merit some esteem, these spinsters may be
held in deference. Yet the writer of the article unhesitatingly, though
not unkindly, summed up the case against them. No woman with a
sensitive conscience, he avowed, can be happy on such terms. “She
more than suspects she is in danger of serious moral deterioration....
She is aware that her mode of life is essentially selfish, and therefore
stands condemned.”
In the name of Heaven, why? Would her mode of life be less
selfish if she asked a support from a married brother, or a wealthy
aunt? Is it necessary to her moral well-being that she should pass
her days in polite servitude? Apparently it is; for hardly had the
“Macmillan” article appeared, when a more strenuous critic in the
“Spectator” took its writer severely to task, not for his censorship,
but for his leniency. The “Spectator” declared in round terms that
the woman who devotes herself to the difficult problem of her own
support “lives a more or less unnatural life of self-dependence;—the
degree of the unnaturalness depending on the degree of her self-
dependence, and the completeness of the disappearance of that
religious devoutness which prevents loneliness from degenerating
into self-dependence.”
Shades of Addison and Steele pardon this cumbrous sentence!
That self-dependence might degenerate into loneliness we can
understand; but how or why should loneliness degenerate into self-
dependence, and what has either loneliness or self-dependence to
do with the “disappearance of religious devoutness”? Is religion also
a perquisite of family life? May we not be devout in solitude? “Be
able to be alone,” counsels Sir Thomas Browne, whose piety was of
a most satisfying order. It is not profane to plan or to advance an
individual career. We do not insult Providence by endeavouring to
provide for ourselves. And if the restlessness of modern life impels
women of independent fortune to enter congenial fields of work, the
freedom to do this thing is their birthright and prerogative. We can
no more sweep back the rising tide of interests and ambitions than
we can sweep back the waves of the Atlantic. A hundred years ago,
marriage was for an intelligent woman a necessary entrance into life,
a legitimate method of carrying out her ideas and her aims. To-day
she tries to carry them out, whether she be married or not. Perhaps
some awkwardness of self-assertion disfigures that “polished
moderation” which is her highest grace; but the frank resoluteness
of her attitude is more agreeable to contemplate than sad passivity
and endurance. Mr. John Stuart Mill said that a woman’s inheritance
of “subjection”—he never minced words—induced, on the one hand,
a capacity for self-sacrifice, and, on the other, a habit of
pusillanimity. Both characteristics have been modified by changing
circumstances. But with more courage and less self-immolation has
come a happier outlook upon life, and an energy which is not always
misplaced. Mariana no longer waits tearfully in the Moated Grange.
She leaves it as quickly as possible for some more healthful
habitation, and a more engaging pursuit.
There is one English author who has defended with delicacy that
sagacious self-respect which, even in his time, preserved a woman
now and then from the blunder of an unequal and unbecoming
marriage. De Quincey, extolling the art of letter-writing, pays this
curious bit of homage to his most valued correspondents:—
“Three out of four letters in the mail-bag will be written by that
class of women who have the most leisure, and the most interest in
a correspondence by the post; and who combine more intelligence,
cultivation, and thoughtfulness than any other class in Europe. They
are the unmarried women over twenty-five, who, from mere dignity
of character, have renounced all prospects of conjugal and parental
life, rather than descend into habits unsuitable to their birth. Women
capable of such sacrifices, and marked by such strength of mind,
may be expected to think with deep feeling, and to express
themselves (unless when they have been too much biassed by
bookish connections) with natural grace.”
This is something very different from the “All for Love, and the
World well lost,” flaunted by novelists and poets; very different from
the well-worn “Quand on n’a pas ce qu’on aime, il faut aimer ce
qu’on a,” which has married generations of women. But in the
philosophy of life, the power to estimate and to balance scores
heavily for success. It is not an easy thing to be happy. It takes all
the brains, and all the soul, and all the goodness we possess. We
may fail of our happiness, strive we ever so bravely; but we are less
likely to fail if we measure with judgment our chances and our
capabilities. To glorify spinsterhood is as ridiculous as to decry it.
Intelligent women marry or remain single, because in married or in
single life they see their way more clearly to content. They do not, in
either case, quarrel with fate which has modelled them for, and
fitted them into, one groove rather than another; but follow,
consciously or unconsciously, the noble maxim of Marcus Aurelius:
“Love that only which the gods send thee, and which is spun with
the thread of thy destiny.”
 THE TOURIST

See Thrale’s grey widow with a satchel roam,

And bring in pomp laborious nothings home.
The Baviad.

“Potter hates Potter, and Poet hates Poet,”—so runs the wisdom of
the ancients,—but tourist hates tourist with a cordial Christian
animosity that casts all Pagan prejudices in the shade. At home we
tolerate—sometimes we even love—our fellow creatures. We can see
large masses of them in church and theatre, we can be jostled by
them in streets, and be kept waiting by them in shops, and be
inconvenienced by them at almost every turn, without rancorous
annoyance or ill will. But abroad it is our habit to regard all other
travellers in the light of personal and unpardonable grievances. They
are intruders into our chosen realms of pleasure, they jar upon our
sensibilities, they lessen our meagre share of comforts, they are
everywhere in our way, they are always an unnecessary feature in
the landscape.
I love not man the less, but nature more,
wrote Byron, when sore beset; but the remark cannot be said to
bear the stamp of truth. Nine tenths of the poet’s love for nature
was irritation at the boundless injustice and the sterling stupidity of
man. He would never have expressed so much general benevolence
had Europe in his time been the tourist-trodden platform it is to-day.
We might, were we disposed to be reasonable, bear in mind the
humiliating fact that we too are aliens, out of harmony with our
surroundings, and marring, as far as in us lies, the charm of ancient
street or the still mountain side. Few of us, however, are so candid
as Mr. Henry James, who, while detesting his fellow travellers,
frankly admits his own inherent undesirability. “We complain,” he
says, “of a hackneyed and cockneyized Europe; but wherever, in
desperate search of the untrodden, we carry our much-labelled
luggage, our bad French, our demand for a sitzbath and pale ale, we
rub off the bloom of local colour, and establish a precedent for
unlimited intrusion.”
This is generous, and it is not a common point of view.
“Americans do roam so,” I heard an Englishwoman remark
discontentedly in Cook’s Paris office, where she was waiting with
manifest impatience while the clerk made up tickets for a party of
trans-Atlantic kindred. It never seemed to occur to her that she was
not upon her own native heath. The habit of classifying our distastes
proves how strong is our general sense of injury. We dislike English
tourists more than French, or French more than English, or
Americans more than either, or Germans most of all,—the last a
common verdict. There is a power of universal mastery about the
travelling Teuton which affronts our feebler souls. We cannot cope
with him; we stand defeated at every turn by his resistless
determination to secure the best. The windows of the railway
carriages, the little sunny tables in the hotel dining-rooms, the back
seats—commanding the view—of the Swiss funiculaires;—all these
strong positions he occupies at once with the strategical genius of a
great military nation. No weak concern for other people’s comfort
mars the simple straightforwardness of his plans, nor interferes with
their prompt and masterly execution. Amid the confusion and misery
of French and Italian railway stations, he plays a conqueror’s part,
commanding the services of the porters, and marching off
triumphantly with his innumerable pieces of hand luggage, while his
fellow tourists clamour helplessly for aid. “The Germans are a rude,
unmannered race, but active and expert where their personal
advantages are concerned,” wrote the observant Froissart many
years ago. He could say neither more nor less were he travelling
over the Continent to-day.
 Granted that the scurrying crowds who infest Italy every spring,
and Switzerland every summer, are seldom “children of light;” that
their motives in coming are, for the most part, unintelligible, and
their behaviour the reverse of urbane;—even then there seems to be
no real cause for the demoralization that follows in their wake, for
the sudden and bitter change that comes over a land when once the
stranger claims it as his own. It is the cordial effort made to meet
the tourist halfway, to minister to his supposed wants, and to profit
by his supposed wealth, that desolates the loveliest cities in the
world, that flouts the face of nature, and rasps our most tender
sensibilities. Venice turned into a grand bazaar, Vaucluse packed with
stalls for the sale of every object which ought never to be found
there, the Falls of the Rhine lit up by electricity, like the
transformation scene of a ballet;—is it our misfortune or our fault
that these things may be directly traceable to us? Do we like to see
a trolley-car bumping its way to Chillon, or to find the castle
entrance stocked with silver spoons, and wooden bears, and
miniature Swiss châlets? Shall I confess that I watched a youthful
countrywoman of my own carrying delightedly away—as an
appropriate souvenir of the spot—a group consisting of Mother bear
sitting up languidly in bed, Nurse bear wrapping Infant bear in
swaddling-cloths, and Doctor bear holding a labelled bottle of
medicine? There seemed a certain incongruity about the purchase,
and a certain lack of sensibility in the purchaser. Chillon is not
without sombre associations, nor poetic life; and if Byron’s “Prisoner”
no longer wrings our hearts, still youth is youth,—or, at least, it used
to be,—and the
seven columns, massy and grey,
were at one time part of its inheritance. Is it better, I wonder, to
begin life with a few illusions, a little glow, a pardonable capacity for
enthusiasm, or to be so healthily free from every breath of
sentiment as to be capable—at eighteen—of buying comic bears
within the melancholy portals of Chillon.
 Travelling, like novel-writing, is but a modern form of activity;
and tourists, like novelists, are increasing at so fearful a rate of
speed that foreign countries and library shelves bid fair to be equally
overrun. There was a time when good men looked askance both
upon the page of fable, and upon those far countries where reality
was stranger than romance. “I was once in Italy myself,” confesses
the pious Roger Ascham; “but I thank God my abode there was but
nine days.” Nine days seem a scant allowance for Italy. Even the
business-like traveller who now scampers “more Americano” over
Europe is wont to deal more generously with this, its fairest land.
But in Roger Ascham’s time nine days would hardly have permitted a
glimpse at the wonders from which he so swiftly and fearfully
withdrew.
Now and then, as years went by, men with a genuine love of
roving and adventure wandered far afield, unbaffled by difficulties,
and unscandalized by foreign creeds and customs. James Howell,
that most delightful of gossips and chroniclers, has so much to say
in praise of “the sweetness and advantage of travel,” that even now
his letters—nearly three hundred years old—stir in our hearts the
wayfarer’s restless longing. After being “toss’d from shore to shore
for thirty-odd months,” he can still write stoutly: “And tho’ these
frequent removes and tumblings under climes of differing temper
were not without some danger, yet the delight which accompany’d
them was far greater; and it is impossible for any man to conceive
the true pleasure of peregrination, but he who actually enjoys and
puts it into practice.” Moreover, he is well assured that travel is “a
profitable school, a running academy, and nothing conduceth more
to the building up and perfecting of a man. They that traverse the
world up and down have the clearest understanding; being faithful
eye-witnesses of those things which others receive but in trust,
whereunto they must yield an intuitive consent, and a kind of implicit
faith.”
In one respect, however, Howell was a true son of his day, of the
day when Prelacy and Puritanism alternately afflicted England. For
foreign cities and foreign citizens he had a keen and intelligent
appreciation; nothing daunted his purpose, nor escaped his
observation; but he drew the line consistently at the charms of
nature. The “high and hideous Alps” were as abhorrent to his soul as
they were, a century later, to Horace Walpole’s. It was the gradual—I
had almost said the regrettable—discovery of beauty in these
“uncouth, huge, monstrous excrescences” which gave a new and
powerful impetus to travel. Here at least were innocent objects of
pilgrimage, wonders uncontaminated by the evils which were
vaguely supposed to lurk in the hearts of Paris and of Rome. It was
many, many years after Roger Ascham’s praiseworthy flight from
Italy that we find Patty More, sister to the ever-virtuous Hannah,
writing apprehensively to a friend:—
“What is to become of us? All the world, as it seems, flying off to
France, that land of deep corruption and wickedness, made hotter in
sin by this long and dreadful Revolution. The very curates in our
neighbourhood have been. I fear a deterioration in the English
character is taking place. The Ambassador’s lady in Paris could not
introduce the English ladies till they had covered up their bodies.”
This sounds rather as though England were corrupting France.
Perhaps, notwithstanding the truly reprehensible conduct of the
curates,—for whom no excuse can be made,—the exodus was not so
universal as the agitated Mrs. Patty seemed to think. There were still
plenty of stay-at-homes, lapped in rural virtues, and safe from
contamination;—like the squire who told Jane Austen’s father that he
and his wife had been quarrelling the night before as to whether
Paris were in France, or France in Paris. The “Roman Priest
Conversion Branch Tract Society” gave to bucolic Britain all the
Continental details it required.
But when the “hideous Alps” became the “matchless heights,”
the “palaces of Nature,” when poets had sung their praises lustily,
and it had dawned upon the minds of unpoetic men that they were
not merely obstacles to be crossed, but objects to be looked at and
admired;—then were gathered slowly the advance guards of that
mighty army of sight-seers which sweeps over Europe to-day.
“Switzerland,” writes Mr. James gloomily, “has become a show
country. I think so more and more every time I come here. Its use in
the world is to reassure persons of a benevolent imagination who
wish the majority of mankind had only a little more elevating
amusement. Here is amusement for a thousand years, and as
elevating certainly as mountains five miles high can make it. I expect
to live to see the summit of Mount Rosa heated by steam-tubes, and
adorned with a hotel setting three dinners a day.”
The last words carry a world of weight. They are the key-note of
the situation. Tourists in these years of grace need a vast deal of
food and drink to keep their enthusiasm warm. James Howell lived
contentedly upon bread and grapes for three long months in Spain.
Byron wrote mockingly from Lisbon: “Comfort must not be expected
by folks that go a-pleasuring;” and no one ever bore manifold
discomforts with more endurance and gayety than he did. But now
that the “grand tour”—once the experience of a lifetime—has
become a succession of little tours, undertaken every year or two,
things are made easy for slackened sinews and impaired digestions.
The average traveller concentrates his attention sternly upon the
slowness of the Italian trains, the shortness of the Swiss beds, the
surliness of the German officials, the dirt of the French inns, the
debatableness of the Spanish butter, the universal and world-
embracing badness of the tea. These things form the staple topics of
discussion among men and women who exchange confidences at
the table d’hôte, and they lend a somewhat depressing tone to the
conversation, which is not greatly enlivened by a few side remarks
connecting the drinking water with the germs of typhoid fever. It is
possible that the talkers have enjoyed some exhilarating
experiences, some agreeable sensations, which they hesitate—
mistakenly—to reveal; but they wax eloquent on the subject of cost.
“The continual attention to pecuniary disbursements detracts terribly
from the pleasure of all travelling schemes,” wrote Shelley in a
moment of dejection; and the sentiment, couched in less Johnsonian
English, is monotonously familiar to-day. Paying for things is a great
trouble and a great expense; and the tourist’s uneasy apprehension
that he is being overcharged turns this ordinary process—which is
not wholly unknown at home—into a bitter grievance. To hear him
expatiate upon the subject, one might imagine that his fellow
creatures had heretofore supplied all his wants for love.
Great Britain had sent her restless children out to see the world
for many years before faraway America joined in the sport, while the
overwhelming increase of German travellers dates only from the
Franco-Prussian War. Now the three armies of occupation march and
countermarch over the Continent, very much in one another’s way,
and deeply resentful of one another’s intrusion. “The English”—again
I venture to quote Froissart—“are affable to no other nation than
their own.” The Americans—so other Americans piteously lament—
are noisy, self-assertive, and contemptuous. The fault of the
Germans, as Canning said of the Dutch,—
Is giving too little and asking too much.
All these unlovely characteristics are stimulated and kept well to the
fore by travel. It is only in our fellow tourists that we can recognize
their enormity. When Mr. Arnold said that Shakespeare and Virgil
would have found the Pilgrim Fathers “intolerable company,” he was
probably thinking of poets and pietists shut up together in fair
weather and in foul, while the little Mayflower pitched its slow way
across the “estranging sea.”
It requires a good deal of courage to quote Lord Chesterfield
seriously in these years of grace. His reasonableness is out of favour
with moralists, and sentimentalists, and earnest thinkers generally.
But we might find it helpful now and then, were we not too wrapped
in self-esteem to be so easily helped. “Good breeding,” he says
thoughtfully, “is a combination of much sense, some good nature,
and a little self-denial for the sake of others, with a view to obtain
the same indulgence from them.” Here is a “Tourist’s Guide,”—the
briefest ever penned. We cannot learn to love other tourists,—the
laws of nature forbid it,—but, meditating soberly on the impossibility
of their loving us, we may reach some common platform of
tolerance, some common exchange of recognition and amenity.
 THE HEADSMAN
Et cependant, toute grandeur, toute puissance, toute
subordination repose sur l’exécuteur: il est l’horreur et le lien de
l’association humaine. Otez du monde cet agent
incompréhensible; dans l’instant même l’ordre fait place au
chaos, les trônes s’abîment, et la société disparaît.
Joseph de Maistre.

What a sombre and striking figure in the deeply coloured background

of history is the headsman, that passive agent of strange tyrannies,
that masked executor of laws which were often but the expression
of man’s violence! He stands aloof from the brilliant web of life, yet,
turn where we will, his shadow falls across the scene. In the little
walled towns of mediæval Europe, in the splendid cities, in the broad
lands held by feudal lord or stately monastery, wherever the struggle
for freedom and power was sharpest and sternest, the headsman
played his part. An unreasoning and richly imaginative fear wrapped
him in a mantle of romance, as deeply stained as the scarlet cloak
which was his badge of office. Banished from the cheerful society of
men (de Maistre tells us that if other houses surrounded his abode,
they were deserted, and left to crumble and decay), he enjoyed
privileges that compensated him for his isolation. His tithes were
exacted as ruthlessly as were those of prince or baron; and if his
wife chattered little on summer days with friendly gossips, she was
sought in secret after nightfall for hideous amulets that blessed—or
cursed—the wearer. From father to son, from son to grandson, the
right was handed down; and the young boy was taught to lift and
swing the heavy sword, that his hand might be as sure as his eye,
his muscles as hard as his heart.
 Much of life’s brilliant panorama was seen from the elevation of
the scaffold in the days when men had no chance nor leisure to die
lingeringly in their beds. They fell fighting, or by the assassin’s hand,
or by the help of what was then termed law; and the headsman,
standing ever ready for his rôle, beheld human nature in its worst
and noblest aspects, in moments of stern endurance and supreme
emotion, of heroic ecstasy and blank despair. Had he a turn for the
marvellous, it was gratified. He saw Saint Denis arise and carry his
severed head from Montmartre to the site of the church which bears
his name to-day. He saw Saint Felix and Saint Alban repeat the
miracle. He heard Lucretia of Ancona pronounce the sacred name
three times after decapitation. Ordericus Vitalis, that most engaging
of historians, tells us the story of the fair Lucretia; and also of the
Count de Galles, who asked upon the scaffold for time in which to
say his Pater Noster. When he reached the words, Et ne nos inducas
in tentationem, the headsman—all unworthy of his office—grew
impatient, and brought down his shining sword. The Count’s head
rolled on the ground, but from his open lips came with terrible
distinctness the final supplication, Sed libera nos a malo.
These were not trivial experiences. What a tale to tell o’ nights
was that of Théodoric Schawembourg, whose headless trunk arose
and walked thirty paces from the block! Auberive, who has
preserved this famous legend, embroiders it with so many fantastic
details that the salient point of the narrative is well-nigh lost; but the
dead and forgotten headsman beheld the deed in all its crude
simplicity. Had he, on the other hand, a taste for experimental
science, it was given him to watch the surgeons of Prague, who in
1679 replaced a severed head upon a young criminal’s shoulders,
and kept the lad alive for half an hour. Panurge, it will be
remembered, was permanently successful in a similar operation; but
Panurge was a man of genius. We should hardly expect to find his
like among the doctors of Prague.
Strange and unreasonable laws guaranteed to the headsman his
full share of emoluments. He was well paid for his work, and never
suffered from a dull season. From the towns he received poultry and
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