CHAPTER- 8 REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals of the same species.

DNA Copying : During reproduction the reproductive cells produce two copies of the DNA which separate into two
cells. The DNA copies will be similar but not identical to each other. So the new individuals have slight variations
from their parents. This is the basis for variations and evolution of new species.

If there are variations in some individuals of a species they may be able to survive the changes in the environment.
So variations in species is necessary for the survival of different species and for the evolution of new species. Asexual
Reproduction produces less variations as compared to Sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction

● It involves only one parent.

● There is no formation and fusion of gametes.
● The young ones formed are almost identical to each other as well as to the parent cell.
● Asexual reproduction generally occurs during favourable environmental conditions and when there is an abundance of
food.
● It is a faster method of reproduction.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

It involves a single organism. It involves two organisms-male and female.

No gamete formation takes place. Formation and fusion of gametes takes place.
Only mitotic cell division takes place. Meiotic division occurs for gamete formation.
Very less or no genetic variation occurs, hence Genetic variation occurs, hence sexual
asexual reproduction is not useful for evolution reproduction is useful for evolution of a species.
of a species.
Eg- It includes processes like Budding, It involves processes like pollination, fertilization.
Sporulation, Fragmentation.

Genetic variation is a measure of the genetic differences that exist within a population. Variations are the differences
in DNA segments or genes between individuals .Genetic variation is caused by:

Causes of Variation

● Crossing over (or recombination) between chromatids of homologous chromosomes during meiosis.
● Errors in DNA copying.
● Migration into a population from other populations with different gene frequencies.
● Mutation

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
 1 It is an equational division as the number of It is a reductional division as the number of
chromosomes remains same in parent cell and chromosomes in daughter cells get reduced to half.
daughter cells.
2 It occurs in vegetative or somatic cells of the body. It occurs in the reproductive cells of the body.
3 It results in the formation of two diploid daughter It results in the formation of four haploid daughter
cells. cells.
4 Daughter cells are genetically identical to the parent Daughter cells show variations from the parent cells.
cell.
5 It is responsible for asexual reproduction. It leads to formation of gametes during sexual
reproduction.

Types of Asexual Reproduction

(i) Binary Fission: Seen in bacteria, protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium. (In these first pseudopodia withdrawn (karyokinesis)
the nucleus of the parent cell divides and then the cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis) resulting in the formation of two daughter
cells). It occurs during highly favourable conditions. The cell division can occur in any plane as in case of Amoeba. However,
organisms like Leishmania. (cause Kala-azar), which have a whip like flagella at one end, binary fission occurs in a definite
orientation in relation to the flagellum.

Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.

Karyokinesis: Division of Nucleus.

(ii) Multiple Fission: Seen in Plasmodium, (a malarial parasite). In this during unfavourable conditions, the parent cell
develops a thick resistant wall around itself forming a cyst. Within the wall, the cytoplasm divides many times to form many
plasmodia. When conditions become favourable, the cyst wall breaks and the Plasmodium are released.

(iii) Budding: In Yeast (a fungus),the parent cell develops a protrusion or an outgrowth at its upper end. The nucleus of the
parent cell divides and one of them moves into the outgrowth which grows bigger and finally separates from the parent cell
to lead an independent existence. Very often if the conditions are highly favourable, a chain of buds is formed.

In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site. These buds develop into tiny
individuals and when fully mature, detach from the parent body and become new independent individuals.
 BUDDING IN HYDRA

(iv) Fragmentation: Seen in multicellular organisms which have a relatively simple body organisation like Spirogyra.
Spirogyra has a filamentous body. (If it breaks into smaller pieces or fragments). Each fragment has the capacity to form a
new individual.

(v) Regeneration: It is the ability of organisms to develop their lost parts. Some organisms show have high regenerative
capacity it is also a means of reproduction for example; Planaria. (Regeneration is carried out by specialized cells which
redivide to form a mass of cells from which different cells undergo changes to become different cell types and tissues.
These changes occur in an organized sequence known as development).

(vi) Spore Formation: Fungi produce spores for reproduction. During spore formation, knob like structure called sporangium
develops from the fungal hypha. Sporangia contain spores that eventually develop into new individual. The spores are
covered by thick walls that protect them until they come in contact with moist surface or substratum and can begin to grow.
(vii) Vegetative Propagation: Method by which plants reproduce by their vegetative parts such as roots, stems, and
leaves.Mint reproduces naturally by roots. Sugarcane, jasmine by stems and Bryophyllum by leaves. In bryophyllum buds are
produced in the notches along the leaf margins and when they fall on the soil, they develop into new plants.

Advantages of Vegetative Propagation

● Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.

● Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also reproduce by vegetative propagation.
● All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.

Tissue Culture: The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in a nutrient medium under aseptic conditions.
The cell or tissue is placed in a nutrient medium where it forms a mass of cells called callus. This callus is then transferred
to another nutrient medium where it differentiates and forms a new plant. E.g- Orchids are grown by tissue culture.

Sexual Reproduction:

The mode of reproduction that takes place with the involvement of two individuals of two different sexes i.e. male and
female.During sexual reproduction, male organism having male sex organs produces male gametes i.e. sperms which are
small and motile and the female organism having female sex organs produces ova/eggs which are generally large and store
food. Male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote that grows into a new organism.

Significance of Sexual Reproduction :

● Sexual reproduction involves DNA as well as cellular apparatus of two different organisms which promotes diversity of
characters in the offspring.
● Since gametes are derived from two different organisms, it results in a new combination of genes which increases the
chances of genetic variations.
● Sexual reproduction results in the origin of new species.
● Sexual reproduction involves division in the sex organs that reduces the DNA matter to half so that the zygote formed
after fusion has the same amount of DNA as the parents it maintains DNA in a species.

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

● The reproductive parts are Stamen and Carpel.

● The parts of the flower are sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
● Sepals are green structures that protect the inner parts when the flower is in bud stage.
● Petals are colourful and attract the insects for pollination.
● Stamens are male reproductive parts and produce pollen grains that contain male gametes. Each stamen has two
parts- Filament or stalk and Anther i.e. swollen top part which produces pollen grains.
Parts of a Flower
The carpel is the female reproductive part and produces ovules that contain female gametes. It has three parts—Stigma
which is top sticky part and receives pollen grains during pollination. Style which is the middle long part and ovary which is
the swollen part and contains ovules. Each ovule has an egg cell i.e. female gamete.

The flowers may be bisexual i.e. having both stamens and carpel for example; Mustard ,China Rose (Hibiscus).
The flower may be unisexual i.e. paving either stamens or carpel for example; Papaya, Watermelon.

Pollination: The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the flower is pollination. Two types of
pollination are:
(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or another flower of the
same plant.
(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower or another flower of a
different plant of the same species. It generally takes place with the help of some agents like insects, birds, wind and water.

Fertilization: Fertilization is the process of fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote during sexual reproduction.
Pollination is followed by fertilization in plants. The events are-
* Pollen grains land on the stigma of the ovary.
* Pollen tube grows out of the pollen grains, travel through the style and reach the embryo sac, through micropyle.
* In the Pollen tube the nucleus divides into two male germ cells/gametes.

Each ovule has an Embryo sac that has two polar nuclei at the centre and a female germ cell (egg) near the micropyle.

Pollen tube releases two male germ cells inside the embryo sac , one of them fuses with female germ cell/egg and forms a
zygote which grows into the embryo, the fusion is known as syngamy. The other male germ cell fuses with two polar nuclei
to form a triploid nutritive tissue called the Endosperm.The process is known as triple fusion. So in flowering plants two
fusions take place during fertilisation(syngamy and triple fusion),hence it is called double fertilisation.

Post-fertilisation changes: After fertilisation the following changes takes place in the flower.Zygote divides several times and
forms an embryo inside the ovule.

● The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the seed.
● The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
 ● Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off.

Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e. embryo.
Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo Cotyledons store food for the future plant.
Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and radicle develops into root.
The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate conditions is known as germination.

Reproduction in Human Beings

Human beings show sexual reproduction. Male parent produces male gametes called sperms. Female parent produces
female gametes called ovum/egg. Sperms have tail and are therefore, motile. They are produced in large numbers in the
testes. Ovum is bigger, non-motile and only one ovary produces one ovum in a month. Both the gametes are microscopic
unicellular and have half the number of chromosomes as compared to the body cells, hence called Haploid cells.

Human beings become reproductively active from the onset of puberty. Puberty is the period during adolescence when the
rate of general body growth begins to slow down and reproductive tissues begin to mature. Onset of puberty in human males
is between 11 to 13 yrs of age, while in human females is between 10 to 12 yrs. of age.

Puberty is associated with many physical, mental, emotional and psychological changes in boys and girls which occur
slowly over a period of time. These are called secondary sexual characters. For instance thick dark hair start growing in new
parts of the body such as arm pits and genital area between the thighs. Thinner hair appear on legs, arms and face. Skin
becomes oily and pimples may appear on the face.

In case of boys beard and moustache start appearing, voice begins to crack, reproductive organs develop and start
producing releasing sperms.In case of girls, development of mammary glands occurs, menstruation starts.

One pair of testes are present in a bag-like

structure called scrotum which lies outside the abdominal cavity, hence they are extra abdominal in position. This is so
because the testes have to be maintained at 1-3 degree lesser temperature than the body in order to produce functional
sperms.

Functions of testes- * To produce male gametes i.e. the sperms.

● To produce a male reproductive hormone called testosterone which is responsible for producing sperms as well as
secondary sexual characteristics in males.
Sperms move into the sperm duct or the vas-deferens. Each vas-deferens rises up and enters into the abdominal cavity. It
unites with the duct coming from the urinary bladder to form a common duct called urethra which passes through the penis
and opens to the outside. Along the way the ducts of the accessory glands ( Prostate gland and Seminal Vesicles)also open
and pour their secretions into the vas deferens. A pair of Seminal Vesicles produce a fluid which provides nutrition as well as
medium for locomotion to the sperms. The fluid secreted by the Prostate gland reduces the acidity
The secretions of the three glands along with the sperms is known as semen

Function of the vas-deferens: It is meant for the passage of the sperms in the male body.
Function of the urethra: It is the common passage for both semen and urine from the body to the outside.
Penis: It is the organ which is used to introduce semen into the female body. It is richly supplied with blood vessels.

Female Reproductive System

At the time of birth each girl child already contains thousands of immature ova/eggs in her ovaries. These ova start maturing
only from the time of puberty. Only one ovum is produced by one ovary in one month and each ovary releases an ovum in
alternate months. The release of an ovum from the ovary into the fallopian tube is known as ovulation.

Functions of ovary

● To produce and release ova/eggs.

● To produce female reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone.

There are two fallopian tubes. The end lying close to the ovary has finger like structures called fimbriae. The two fallopian
tubes unite with an elastic bag like structure called uterus/womb.

Function of the fallopian tubes: It is the site of fertilization between the male and the female gametes and formation of the
zygote early embryo. The inner lining of the uterus is richly supplied with blood vessels and is known as endometrium. The
narrow opening of the uterus is called cervix.

Function of the uterus: The embryo formed in the fallopian tube comes down and gets attached to the uterine wall
(implantation) and develops for the next nine months ( Gestation period) till the baby is delivered.

Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The vagina (Birth Canal) is a muscular tube through which the
baby is delivered at the end of gestation period. It also serves as the canal for receiving the semen at the time of copulation.

The sperms travel upwards and reach the fallopian tube where one sperm fuses with the ovum to form the zygote. The
zygote divides repeatedly as it descends into the uterus and the embryo gets implanted in the uterine wall which thickens so
as to receive the embryo.

The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called placenta, which is a disc-like
structure embedded in the uterine wall. It contains finger-like villi on the embryo side, while on the mother’s side blood
spaces surround the villi. Villi provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the
developing embryo and the wastes to pass from the embryo to the mother through the placenta. When the embryo starts
resembling a human is formed, it is termed as a foetus. The foetus continues to develop inside the uterus for almost nine
months after which the baby is delivered as a result of rhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles.

Menstruation: It is the loss of blood, mucous along with the unfertilized ovum and the ruptured cells and tissues of the
uterine walls through the vagina of the female. It is a 28-day cycle which occurs in every reproductively active female (from
puberty).. If the ovum does not get fertilized, then the uterine wall starts sloughing off and there is loss of blood and mucous
etc. through the vagina.

In case the ovum gets fertilized, then the uterine wall becomes thick and spongy for nourishing the embryo and hence
menstruation does not occur. The beginning of menstruation at puberty is known as menarche. The end of menstruation
when the woman is 45-55 yrs of age is called menopause.
 Reproductive Health:

Diseases that occur as a result of sexual contact are known as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). They can be caused
by bacteria for example; syphilis, gonorrhoea; or caused by a virus for example; HIV-AIDS, warts etc.

Birth control measures: They can be of three types – mechanical/physical, chemical and surgical.

1.Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the fallopian tube . For eg Use of condoms by
males and Diaphragm & cervical caps by females.

2.Chemical methods

● Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It is fixed in the uterine wall where it secretes copper ions which
prevents the implantation of the embryo in the uterine wall.
● Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent ovulation so the eggs are not available for fertilization.

3.Surgical methods

● Vasectomy in Males: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens in males so that the sperms are not present in the
semen for fertilization.
● Tubectomy in females: It involves cutting and ligating the fallopian tubes in females so that the eggs are not available
at the site of fertilization.

Advantages of contraception: Helps in birth control, prevents sexually transmitted diseases ( Only Mechanical/physical
methods of contraception), prevent unwanted pregnancies thus maintaining female health, keeps population explosion in
check .