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THEORY XII
SCALARS AND VECTORS
All physical quantities have been categorised into two parts.

Scalars : Scalars are those physical quantities, which have only magnitude but no direction.
Examples : density, time, temperature, energy, mass, distance, speed etc.
Vectors : Vectors are those physical quantities, which have both magnitude and direction and obey the
vector law of addition
Examples : displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.
REPRESENTATION OF VECTOR
(i) Geometrical Method : Geometrically a vector is represented by the directed line segment
i.e. by a line to which a direction has been assigned with an arrow-head in the direction of the vector and
whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the vector.

It is written as OP , 'O' is called the 'initial point' of the vector (tail) and P,,

the 'terminal point' of it (head). The vector OP is also written as r i.e.,

we also write r = OP .
To represent a physical quantity in a vector form, we put an arrow above the symbol of the physical
quantity. For example, velocity is denoted by v but in vector form it is represented as v which is read as
velocity vector.
Magnitude of vector is indicated by | v| (modulus of velocity vector) and direction of vector is represent
by v . This is unit vector because its magnitude is 1. v = |v| v .
Types of Vector
(1) Polar Vector : Polar vector describe translational motion and have starting point. Example linear
displacement, linear velocity and linear acceleration, force etc.
(2) Axial Vector : Axial vectors describe rotational motion and have starting point.
Example : Angular velocity, torque, angular acceleration etc.
(ii) Collinear/Parallel Vectors : Vectors having the same line of action or having lines of action

parallel to the same line are called collinear vectors.

They may have the same sense or opposite sense of direction [parallel or antiparallel].

(iii) Coplanar Vectors : Vectors are said to be coplanar if they lie in the same plane or they are
parallel to the same plane, otherwise they are said to be non-coplanar vectors.
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(iv) Zero Vector/Null Vector : Vectors having zero magnitude are called zero or null vectors. It is

denoted by O .

Example :The velocity vector of a stationary particle, the acceleration vector of an object moving with
uniform velocity are zero vector.
(v) Unit Vector : A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and points in a particular direction. It is
used to specify the direction only. Unit vector is represented by putting a cap (^) over the quantity unit vector
is unit less and dimension less.

The unit vector in the direction of F is denoted by F and defined by

F , F = | F| F ...(1)
|F|
(vi) Negative of a Vector : The vector whose magnitude is same as that of a but the direction is
opposite to that of a is called the negative of a and is written as – a .

(vii) Position Vectors : Position vector represents the position of an object in a plane with respect to
a fixed-point that is origin of a coordinate system.

Let O be the origin and P be any point then OP is called the position
vector of P with respect to the origin O.
It can be represented by a single letter r .

OP = r . The length of the vector r represents the magnitude of vector and its direction is the
direction in which Plies as seen from O.
(viii) Equal Vectors : Two vectors are said to be equal if
(i) their magnitudes are equal
(ii) they are parallel
(iii) they have the same sense of direction. They needn't have the same initial point.
In the figure shown length of AB equal to length of CD and AB and CD have same sense of direction.

So here AB & CD are two equal vectors.

ADDITION OF VECTORS
Graphical Method
(i) Triangle Law of Vector Addition : Let us consider two vectors a and b as shown.
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Now to get the sum of these two vectors ( a + b ), shift any two vectors parallel to itself until the tail
of one vector is at the head of another vector.

Here we place the vector b in such a way that its tail touch the head of vector a , which is shown in
head figure.

Let AB = a and BC = b

Then the line joining the tail of a and head of vector b , AC gives the sum of vector a and b

Let AC = c

a + b = c AB + BC = AC
This is known as triangle law of vector addition.
We can define in this way. "If two vectors are represented by the two sides of a triangle taken in order,
then their resultant or vector sum is represented by the third side of the triangle taken in opposite order".

(ii) Parallelogram law of vector addition : Let there are two vectors P and Q in such a way that
they have common initial point and different direction as shown in figure.

Let us complete a parallelogram with P and Q as its adjacent sides.

Then, the diagonal of parallelogram passing through their common point will represent in magnitude

and direction the resultant of the vectors P and Q .

R = P + Q

Magnitude of vector R is given by the length of diagonal of the parallelogram which can be calculated
in this way.

Let the two vectors P and Q be represented in magnitude and direction by OA and OB respectively..
Considering OA and OB as two adjacent sides, parallelogram OACB is constructed.
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We drop a perpendicular CD on OA produced.

In right angled triangle ACD.
AD
cos = AD = AC cos
AC
or, AD = Q cos
Also, CD = Q sin
Now in right angle triangle ODC
OC2 = OD2 + DC2
|R|2 = (P + Q cos )2 + (Q sin )2

R= ...(2)

Let be the angle, which the resultant R makes with P .

tan = , = tan–1 ...(3)

Some special case

Case 1 :

When P and Q are in same direction, it means = 0°

R=

R= =P+Q
In this case resultant is maximum

Qsin 0
tan = =0

Case II:

When P and Q are perpendicular to each other, it means = 90°

R=

R=

Q
tan = = tan–1
P
Case III :

When P and Q are in opposite direction, it means =

R=
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=
= (P – Q)
In this case resultant will be minimum.

Q sin
tan = =0 =0

Case IV :

When two vectors are of same magnitude (| P | = | Q |)

R=

= 2P cos
2

2 2
tan =
2 2
tan = tan
2
If two vectors are of equal magnitude then the resultant of vectors bisects the angle between them.
Subtraction of Vectors
Subtraction of vector can be defined in terms of addition of two vectors.

P – Q – P + (– Q )

Let P and Q are at an angle as shown in the figure.

To get ( P – Q ), first we will draw a vector – Q as shown below. Then angle between P and Q will
be ( – ).

| P + (– Q ) =

|P – Q| =

Subtraction is not commutative, i.e.,

P – Q Q – P
Q. There are two vectors having magnitude 3 units and 4 units respectively
(a) What should be the resultant if angle between them is 60°
(b) What should be the angle between them if the magnitude of resultant is (i) 1 unit (ii) 5 units?
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Sol.: (a) | a | = 3 units, | b | = 4 units and = 60°

R= a +b =
R=

units

(b) (i) |R| =

1=
1 = 25 + 24 cos

cos = = – 1 = cos =
24
(ii) (5)2 =
25 = 25 + 24 cos
0 = 24 cos cos = 0
= /2
IMPORTANT FORMULAE/POINTS
* Vectors : Physical quantities having both magnitude and direction

* Triangle law of vector addition R = P + Q

|R| =

Qsin
tan =

* |P – Q| =
RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR IN A PLANE
When a vector is resolved along the two axes of a rectangular co-ordinate system (i.e. x and y axis),
the components of the vector are called rectangular of a vector.

Let there is a vector a from O to P at an angle from the x-axis.

Magnitude of component of a along x-axis (a x) = a cos
Magnitude of component of a along y-axis (a y) = a sin
These two components are called rectangular components of the the vector a .
Representation of Rectangular components
These components are represented in terms of unit vector.
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Unit vector along x, and y-axis are represented by $i and $j respectively as shown in figure.

| $i | = | $j | = | | = 1
these unit vectors are perpendicular to each other.
Rectangular components of vector a in terms of unit vector can be written as

a = ax $i + ay $j

a = a cos $i + a sin $j

RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR IN THREE DIMENSIONS

Components, which we get on resolving a vector, lie in space along three mutually perpendicular
directions (i.e., x, y and z axes) are called rectangular components or orthogonal components.
The vector is called non-coplanar (three-dimensional) vector

Let there be a non-coplanar vector P from O to A as shown in figure. Taking O as origin and a
rectangular parallelopiped with its three edges along the three rectangular axes i.e., x, y and z axes, is
constructed.
Here P represent the diagonal of the parallelopiped whose intercepts along these axes are P x , P y and

P z respectively which are three orthogonal components of P .

P 2 = P x2 + P y2 + P z2

or, ...(i)

Let and are the angles between P and x, y and z-axis, respectively, then we can get the
components in this way

Px
cos = P x = P cos
P

Py
cos = P y = P cos
P

Pz
cos = P z = P cos
P

Here cos , cos and cos are called the direction cosines of the vector P .
Putting the values of Px , Py and P z in (i), we get
P 2 = P 2 cos2 + P 2 cos 2 + P2 cos 2
or, P2 = P 2 (cos 2 + cos 2 + cos 2 )
or, (cos2 + cos 2 + cos 2 ) = 1
It means that the sum of the squares of the direction cosines of a vector is always unity.
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REPRESENTATION OF RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS OR ORTHOGONAL COMPONENTS
These components are represented in terms of unit vector.

$
Unit vectors along x, y, and z-axis are represented by $i , j and respectively as shown in figure.
$
| $i | = | j | = | | = 1
these unit vectors are perpendicular to each other.
Orthogonal components in terms of unit vector can be written as
$
P = P x $i + P y j + P z
$i + P cos $j
P = P cos + P cos

|P| = ....(5)

MULTIPLICATION OF VECTOR BY SCALAR

When any vector is multiplied by a scalar quantity like with any real number, it is just multiplied like an
algebraic product.

Example : Let there be a vector V and a scalar quantity . After multiplication product will be

V = V.

* If is + ve, then V1 and V will have same direction.

* If is – ve then V2 and V will have opposite direction.

MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS
(i) Scalar Product (Dot Product)
(ii) Vector Product (Cross Product)
(i) Scalar Product (Dot Product) : Scalar product of two vectors is defined as the product of the
magnitude of two vectors with cosine of smaller angle between them.
It is always a scalar, so it is called as scalar product.

Thus if A and B are two vectors having angle between them, then their scalar (Dot) product written

as A . B and read as A dot B is defined as

A . B = | A | | B | cos ...(6)
Geometrical Meaning :

Let OA = a and OB = b as shown in figure and AOB =

From B, we drop a perpendicular BL on OA.
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OL
cos =
OB
OL = OB cos
= (OA).(OB) cos
= (OA).(OL)

a . b = (Mod of a ) (Projection of b on a )
Properties
(i) It is always a scalar and it will be positive if angle between them is acute, negative if angle
between them is obtuse and zero if angle between them is 90°

(ii) It obeys commutative law

(iii) By definition cos

A. B
cos =
| A || B|

= cos –1

where is angle between two vectors.

(v) Scalar (Dot) product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is zero i.e.

(A . B) = AB cos 90º = 0
(vi) Scalar (Dot) product will be maximum when = 0° i.e.,

vectors are parallel to each other. (A. B) max = |A| |B|

(vii) If a and b are unit vectors then | a | = | b | = 1 and a . b = 1.1 cos =1

(viii) Dot product of unit vectors $i , $j ,

$i . $i = $j . $j = . =1

$i . $j = $j . = . $i = 0

(ix) Square of a vector a . a = | a | | a | cos 0° = a2

(x) If the two vectors A and B , in terms of their rectangular components, are
$
A = Ax $i + Ay j + Az and B = Bx $i + By $j + Bz , then,
$ $
A , B = (Ax $i + Ay j + Az ) . ( B = Bx $i + By j + Bz )

A . B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

Example of Dot Product
Work : Work is the dot product of force and displacement vector.
IMPORTANT FORMULAE/POINTS

* Scalar product A . B = |A|| B| cos

* $i . $j = $j . = . = 1 and $i . $j = $j . = . $j = 0
(i) Vector Product/Cross Product : Vector Product of two vectors is defined as a vector having
magnitude equal to product of the magnitude of two vectors with sine of smaller angle between them, and
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direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors and in the sense of advancement of a right
handed screw rotated from first vector to the second vector through smaller angle between them.

If A and B are two vectors, then their vector product is written as A × B is vector and is read as A

cross B . It is defined as

A × B = | A | | B | sin n ...(7)

where n is unit vector along the direction of A × B

Geometrical meaning :

Let OACB be a parallelogram having side OA = a and OB = b and AOB = .

Area of parallelogram OACB

= 2 area of triangle OAB

=2

= ab sin = |a ×b|
Thus, a × b is a vector whose modulus is the area of the parallelogram formed by the two vectors as the
adjacent sides and direction is perpendicular to both a and b .
Properties
(i) Cross product of two vectors is not commutative
a ×b b×a a ×b = – b×a
(ii) If = 0 or it means two vectors are collinear.
a ×b =0

and conversely, if a × b = 0 then the vector a and b are prallel provided a and b are non-zero
vectors.
(iii) If = 90°, then
a × b = | a | | b | sin 90° = | a | | b | n .

(iv) The vector product of any vector with itself is 0

a ×a=0
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(v) If a × b = 0, then
a = 0 or b = 0 or a | | b

(vi) If a and b are unit vectors, then a × b = 1.1 sin n = sin n

(vii) Cross product of unit vectors $i + $j and

$i × $i = $j × $j = × = 0

$i × $j = k = – $j × $i
$j × = $ = – × $j
i

× $i = $j = – $i ×
These result can be remembered easily with the help of following method
$
Around a circle placed $i , j and in anticlockwise direction as shown in figure.

Now cross product of any two unit vectors will give third unit vectors and it will be +ve if on this circle
given two vectors are in anticlockwise direction otherwise it will be – ve
$i × $j = , $j × $i = –
$j × = – $i , × $j = – $i

× $i = $j , $i × = – $j

(viii) If the two vectors A and B in terms of their rectangular component are
$ $
A × B = (a1 i$ + b1 j + c1 ) × (a2 $i + b2 j + c2 )
It can be found by the determinant method

i j k
i.e., A × B = a1 b1 c1 = $i (b 1c2 – b 2c1) – $j (a 1 c2 – a2c1) + (a 1b 2 – a2 b1 )
a 2 b2 c2

Application and Example

Torque : Torque about a point is the cross product of vector joining the point to the point or application
of force and the force.

Torque ( ) =

When r is vector joining the point to the point of application of force and F is force vector..

Q. Find a unit vector perpendicular to A = 2 $i + 3 $j + and B = $i – $j + both.

Sol.: As we have read,

C = A × B is a vector perpendicular to both A and B . Hence, a unit vector n perpendicular to

A × B can be written as
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n =
C

i j k
Here, A × B = 2 3 1

= i$ (3 + 1) + $j (1 – 2) + (– 2 – 3) = 4 $i – $j – 5

Further, | A × B | = = 42
The desired unit vector is

1
n = or,, n = (4 $i – $j – 5 )
42

IMPORTANT FORMULAE/POINTS

* A × B = |A| |B| sin n

$i × $i = $j × $j = × = 0 and $i × $j = = – $j × $i , $j × = $i = – × $j , × $i = $j = – $i ×
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QUESTION BANK
The following questions deal with the basic concepts of this section. Answer the following briefly. Go
to the next section only if your score is at least 80%. Do not consult the Study Material while attempting
these questions.

1. The magnitude of vectors A, B and C are respectively 12, 5 and 13 units and A × B = C . What is the
angle between A and B ?
2. Two vectors each of magnitude 5 units have an angle 60° between them. Find the magnitude of
(a) the sum of the vectors
(b) the difference of the vectors
3. Two forces 8 N and 10 N are acting upon a body. What will be the maximum and minimum resultant
force on the body ?
4. Two forces of 5 N and 10 N are acting with an inclination of 120° between them. What is the angle
which their resultant makes with 10 N?
5. One of the rectangular components of a velocity of 100 kmh –1 is 50 kmh –1. Find the other component
6. An aeroplane takes off at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. If the component of its velocity along the
horizontal is 250 km h–1, what is its actual velocity? Also find the vertical component of its velocity.

7. Find the direction cosines of 5 $i + 2 $j + 4 .

8. Resolve horizontally and vertically a force F = 8 N which makes an angle of 45° with the horizontal.

9. Given: a = 5 $i + 4 $j and b = 3 $j + 4 . Calculate the magnitude a + b .

10. The maximum and minimum numerical value of the resultant of two forces respectively 16 N and 4 N,
then calculate the numerical value of individual forces.

11. If P = 2 $i + 3 $j – and Q = – $i – 5 $j + 2 . Find the angle between P and Q .

12. Prove that the vectors A = 2 $i – 3 $j + and B = $i + 3 $j + are mutually perpendicular..

13. $i and $j are unit vectors along x and y-axis respectively. What is the magnitude and direction of the

vectors $i + $j and $i – $j ? What are the components of a vector A = 2 $i + 3 $j along the direction $i + $j

and $i – $j ?

14. A particle moves from position r1 = 3 i$ + 2 $j – 6 $

to position r2 = 14 i$ + 13 j – 9 under the action of

a force (4 $i + $j + 3 ) Newton. Calculate the work done.

15. For what value of m, the vector A = 2 $i + 3 $j – 6 is perpendicular to B = 3 $i – m $j + 6 ?

16. If a = 2 $i + 3 $j + 4 and b = 2 $i + 3 $j + 4 . find a × b .

17. Let a force F be acting on a body free to rotate about a point O and let r the position vector of any

point P on the line of action of the force. Then torque ( ) of this force about point O is defined as

= r × F Given, F = (2 $i + 3 $j – 4 N and 1 = (1 – j + 6)m. Find the torque of this force.

18. Determine a unit vector which is perpendicular to both P = 2 $i – $j – and Q = $i + $j – 2 .

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ANSWER

1. /2 2. (a) 5 3 units (b) 5 units

3. (i) 18 N (ii) 2N 4. = 30° 5. 50 3 kmh –1

5 2 4
6. 288.68 km h –1 , 144.34 km h–1 7. , ,
45 45 45

8. Fx = F y = 4 2 N 9. 8.602 units 10 . 10 N, 6 N

5 1
11. = cos –1 13. and – units
2 2

14. 46 J 15. – 10 16 . 7 $i – 5 $j +

1
17. = (– 17 $i + 13 $j + 5 ) N-m 18 . ( $i + $j + )
3