MATH 212 - Functional Analysis
Problem Set 2
Mike C. Homecillo
October 29, 2022
3. Show that (a) A = A
Solution:
From definition of closure it is given that A ⊂ A. We only need to show that A ⊂ A.
Now suppose x ∈ A. Either x ∈ A or x is an accumulation point of A, but accumulation
points of A are actually those of A. Hence from this, x ∈ A thus,
A ⊂ A.
It is already given that A ⊂ A and we have shown that A ⊂ A. Therefore,
A = A.
6. The diameter δ(A) is non empty set A in a metric space (X, d) is defined to be
δ(A) = sup d(x, y)
x,y∈A
A is said to be bounded if δ(A) < ∞. Show that (b) δ(A) = 0 if and only if A consists of
a single point.
Solution:
=⇒
Suppose δ(A) = 0, this means that δ(A) = supx,y∈A d(x, y) = 0. Hence, from (M2) of
metric space, if δ(A) = sup d(x, y) then x = y, since it is given that x, y are nonnegatives.
This implies that A consists only one element.
⇐=
Suppose that x is the only point in A. Now from (M2) of metric space,
sup d(x, x) = 0
since x = x. This implies that δ(A) = 0.
1
9. Prove that in any metric space (X, d), a closed ball {x ∈ X | d(x, a) ≤ r} is closed.
Solution:
Let (X, d) be any metric space and a closed ball centered at a with radius r be defined as
B̃r (a) = x ∈ X|d(x, a) ≤ r. To show that it is closed, the complement of B̃r (a) must be
open.
Now, for any x0 ∈ B̃r (a)C ,
d(x0 , a) > r
we claim that Bϵ (x0 ) where ϵ = d(x0 , a) − r > 0 is in B̃r (a)C . Hence for any y ∈ Bϵ (x0 ),
(triangle inequality)
d(x0 , a) ≤ d(x0 , y) + d(y, a)
−d(y, a) ≤ d(x0 , y) − d(x0 , a)
d(y, a) ≥ d(x0 , a) − d(x0 , y)
d(y, a) ≥ d(x0 , a) − d(y, x0 )
d(y, a) ≥ d(x0 , a) − ϵ
Now, from ϵ = d(x0 , a) − r, r = d(x0 , a) − ϵ,
d(y, a) > r
Since x0 ∈ B̃r (a)C is an arbitrary point. this shows that B̃r (a)C contains a ball and thus
an open set. Equivalently, this also shows that B̃r (a) is closed.
12. Let X be the space of all ordered n-tuples x = (ξ1 , ξ2 , ..., ξn ) of real numbers and
d(x, y) = max |ξj − ηj |
j
where y = (nj ). Show that (X, d) is complete.
Solution:
(m) (m)
(1) Suppose xm is any Cauchy sequence in Rn , where xm = (ξ1 , ..., ξ1 ). Since (xm ) is
Cauchy, then from the definition, for any ϵ > 0, there exists an N = N (ϵ) such that for all
m, r > N ,
(m) (r)
d(xm , xr ) = max |ξj − ξj | < ϵ
j−1,...,n
(2) For every fixed j = 1, ..., n,
(m) (r) (m) (r)
|ξj − ξj | ≤ max |ξj − ξj | < ϵ
j−1,...,n
that is,
(m) (r)
|ξj − ξj | < ϵ
for all m, r > N .
2
(1) (2)
Hence, for every fixed j, the sequence (ξj , ξj , ...) is a Cauchy sequence of real numbers
(m)
and it converges by completeness of R, that is, ξj → ξj as m → ∞. Using these n limits,
we define x = (ξ1 , ..., ξn ). Clearly, x ∈ Rn .
(3) From the second inequality above, with r → ∞,
(m)
|ξj − ξj | < ϵ
for all m > N .
Since the right hand side is independent of j, taking maximum over j = 1, ..., n in both
sides yields
(m)
d(xm , x) = max |ξj − ξj | < ϵ
j−1,...,n
for all m > N .
This shows that xm → x. Since (xm ) was an arbitrary Cauchy sequence, Rn with the metric
d(x, y) = max|ξj − ηj | is complete.
