Chapter 1: Scientific Measurements

Learning Goals:
1. Be able to identify materials as element, compound and mixture.
2. Be able to differentiate between chemical and physical changes.
3. Be able to differentiate between chemical and physical properties,
as well as intensive and extensive properties.
4. Understand SI units and non-SI units for a physical quantity, as
well as the meaning of prefixes such as kilo, milli, micro, and nano.
5. Understand the meaning of significant figures and rule for their
calculations.
6. Be able to use conversion factors to do dimensional analysis,
including density calculations.

Introduction
What is Chemistry? – Chemistry is the central science that studies the
properties and the changes of matter (material).
Chemistry happens in everywhere: Environmental science (acid rain, pH
in river, CO2 emission/curtailment), material science (developing new
materials), life science (biochemical processes in living organism),
pharmaceutical industry (making new medicine), forensic science,
everyday life (cooking, cleaning, sunscreens…) .etc.

1. Matter: has mass and volume.

Note: The difference between mass and weight: Mass is constant, not dependent of
locations; Weight depends on the gravity because weight is a force.

All matters have three phases (states) of matter: gas, liquid and solid.

All matters (materials) are made of 118 types of elements found in the
world (among them 90 naturally occur, the rest are made in the lab).

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Elements are simplest materials (can’t be further divided into simpler
matter by chemical means). Each element has its name and symbols:

The combination of these elements (118) created millions of

matters/materials.

Classification of materials: element, compound and mixture

 If a material is made of only one type of element, it is called
an element. Examples: oxygen gas (O2), hydrogen gas (H2),
etc.
 If a material is made of more than one type of elements in a
fixed ratio, it is called a compound. Examples: water (H2O),
carbon dioxide (CO2), etc.
 If a material is made by physically mixing two or more pure
substances (element or compounds) in any ratio, it is called a
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 mixture. Examples: sugar water solution (sugar + water);
mud (dirt + water), air (oxygen+ nitrogen +other gases).
--Homogeneous mixtures: uniform composition
--Heterogeneous mixtures: variable compositions in
different regions.

Thinking questions:
1. What is the difference between elements and compounds?
2. What is the difference between compounds and mixtures?
3. What is the difference between homogeneous mixture and
heterogeneous mixture?

Exercise 1: Distinguish the following matters as element, compound or

mixture (homogeneous or heterogeneous).
(a) Sodium metal (Na)
(b) Sugar (C6O6H12)
(c) Sea water (NaCl + water)
(d) Ice cream

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Exercise 2: Consider the following four samples of matter:
(a) Which sample(s) consist of only one element?
(b) Which sample(s) consist of only one compound?
(c) Which sample(s) consist of a mixture?

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2. Physical Properties vs. Chemical Properties.
Physical properties: can be observed without change the identity of the
matter.
Example of physical properties: color, state, density, melting point,
boiling point, conductivity, etc.

Physical properties can be further divided into two categories:

Intensive – that are independent of sample size, such as color,
boiling point, density, etc.
Extensive – depends on sample size, such as mass and volume.

Often, the ratio of two extensive properties is an intensive property:

mass
For example, Density = volume

Chemical properties: describe the way a substance react with the others.
The material changes its identity.

Examples of chemical properties: flammability, rest, ….

Carbon burns in air: C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
Metallic iron rusts in air: Fe(s) + O2 (g) Fe3O4 (s)

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3. Physical change vs. chemical change (process).
Physical change: physical appearance but not the identity changes
Chemical change: a substance is transformed into different substances.

Examples of physical change:

Ice melts: H2O (s)  H2O (l)
Water vaporizes: H2O (l)  H2O (g)

Examples of chemical change:

Combustion reaction: C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
Metallic iron rusts in air: Fe(s) + O2(g) Fe3O4(s)
Decomposition reaction: CuO (s)  Cu(s) + O2(g)

4. Units of measurement
Every physical quantity must have units: 25 meters, 19 grams ….

Two types of units: SI units and non-SI units.

(1) SI units (system international) – modernized metric system, used in
scientific world.

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Seven base SI units:

Derived SI units:
1) Volume = Length × length × length
Units of volume: m×m×m = m3 (derived SI units)

2) Density = mass / volume

Units of density: kg/m3

Prefix of SI units:
In SI units, we also use prefixes to represent very small or very large
quantities:

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Commonly used prefix in SI system:
Kilo- (k) = 1000
milli-(m) = 0.001 (10-3)
micro-() = 10-6
nano- (n) = 10-9

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(2) Non-SI units
Length: feet, inch, mile
Mass: pounds
Volume: gallon
Time: min, hour
Temperature: Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F)

Conversion among temperature scales:

K = C + 273, or C = K - 273

°F = (9/5) C + 32, or °C = (5/9) (F –32)

Exercise 3.
(a) Normal room temperature is 25 °C. Convert it to Kelvin temperature.
K = 25 + 273 = 298 K

(b) Convert 101 °F to Celsius:

°C = (101-32) × (5/9) = 38.3 °C

5. The Uncertainty of Measurements

All measurements contain error (or uncertainty), except counting or
definition.

Numbers from definitions are exact: 1 hour = 60 minutes (exact)

Other numbers from measurements are not exact (have uncertainty)

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Significant figures: all numbers obtained from a measurement,
including the last digit from an estimation.

Left scale: 24.2 (3 significant figures), uncertainty = ± 0.1

Right scale: 24.32 (4 significant figures), uncertainty = ± 0.01

The more significant figures a measurement has, the smaller the

uncertainty.

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The more significant figures a measurement has, the more precise the
measurement is (not necessary more accurate)

Accuracy – how closely individual measurements agree with the correct

value.
Precision – how closely individual measurement agree with one another.

Accuracy ≠ Precision

Example: The true mass of a sample is 22.5 grams. Two students

measured the sample three times, and their results are following:
Student A: 20.2, 20.3, 20.2 grams: precise but not accurate
Student B: 22.4, 22.5, and 22.5 grams: accurate and precise.

Accuracy depends on equipment and method,

Precision depends on carefulness.

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Guidelines to determine the number of significant figures
(1) Nonzero digits are significant: Example: 2356 (4)

(2) Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit and after a decimal point
are not significant, e.g., 0.0023 (2 significant figures)

(3) Zeros embedded in nonzero numbers are always significant, e.g.,

2047 (4 significant figures)

(4) Trailing zeros are significant if the number has a decimal point, and
are not significant if the number doesn’t have a decimal point.
Example: 4.500 (4); 320 (2)

Exercise 4. Determine the number of significant figures in the following

numbers: (a) 457 (b) 1003 (c) 0.0220 (d)1300

Sometimes the ending zeros are significant. To avoid the ambiguity, the
writer should convert the number into scientific notation: a x 10b

Example: Convert 1300 into scientific notation with (a) 2 or (b) 3 or (c)
4 significant figures.
(a) 1.3×103
(b) 1.30×103
(c) 1.300×103

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Significant figures in calculations
Rule #1: For multiplication and division, the number of significant
figures in the answer should be the same as the number of significant
figures in the one with the least number of significant figures.

Rule #2: For addition and subtraction, the answer should have the same
number of decimal places as the one with the fewest numbers of decimal
places.
3.267
+ 12.2
15.467 = 15.5

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6. Dimensional Analysis- convert one unit to another.
Example 1: How to convert a person’s height from 68.0 in to cm?
Solution:
Step 1: Find a relationship: 2.54 cm = 1 in. (exact: infinite number of sig.
figures))
Step 2: Construct conversion factors

2.54 cm or 1 in
1 in 2.54 cm

Step 3: Multiply the conversion factor to cancel the old units. Keep
proper number of significant figures for the answer.

2.54cm
68.0 in. × = 173 cm
1 in.

Example 2: Convert 8.4 ft2 to cm2.

Relationship: 1 ft = 12 in, 1 in = 2.54 cm

(1 ft/12 in) (1 in/2.54 cm) = 1 ft /30.48 cm, 1 ft2 /(30.48)2

8.4 ft2 x (30.48 cm2/1 ft2) = 7804 cm2 = 7.8 x103 cm2

Or 8.4 ft2 x (12 in/1 ft)2 (2.54 cm /1 in)2 = 7804 cm2 = 7.8 x103 cm2

Example 3: Calculate the density of a cubic magnesium, in g/cm 3, if its

mass is 14.3 g and its side length is 2.04 cm.

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Homework of Ch.1
See WileyPlus.

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