CHAPTER 1: GEOTECHNICAL 3.

Classical soil mechanics--Phase II (1856

ENGINEERING to 1910 A.D.)
4. Modern soil mechanics (1910 to 1927
SOIL A.D.)
- the uncemented aggregate of mineral
grains and decayed organic matter (solid
particles) with liquid and gas in the empty
spaces between the solid particles.
- used as a construction material in
various civil engineering projects, and it
supports structural foundations.

Fundamental Properties of Soil: origin, Classical soil mechanics-Phase I

grain-size distribution, ability to drain (1776 to 1856 A.D.)
water, compressibility, shear strength, - Lateral Earth Pressure on Retaining
and load-bearing capacity. Walls (French scientist Charles Augustin
Coulomb)
Soil Mechanics is the branch of - Soil Friction Angle (Jean Victor Poncelet)
science that deals with the study of the - Earth Pressure and Equilibrium of Earth
physical properties of soil and the Masses. (William John Macquorn Rankine)
behavior of soil masses subjected to Note: Rankine's Theory is a simplification
various types of forces. of Coulomb's
Theory
Soil Engineering is an application of
principles of soil mechanics Modern Soil Mechanics (1910 to 1927
A.D.)
Geotechnical Engineering is sub- - Fundamental Properties and Parameters
discipline of civil engineering that of Clay
involves natural materials found close to - Consistency of Cohesive Soils (liquid,
the surface of the earth. plastic, and shrinkage limits)
- Plasticity Index (difference between
CIVILIZATION liquid limit and plastic limit)
- flourished along the banks of rivers Albert Mauritz Atterberg (1846-
1916)
DIKES for irrigation purposes - Theory of Consolidation for Clays
- Challenge: Soil Erosion Karl Terzaghi (1883-1963)

PYRAMIDS After 1927…

-Challenges: foundation and slope stability • Effective Stress
underground chambers • Shear strength
• Consolidation
PAGODAS • Centrifuge Testing
• Elastic Theory and Stress Distribution
After encountering several foundation- • Preloading for Settlement Control
related problems during construction over
• Swelling Clays
centuries past, engineers and scientists
• Frost Action
began to address the properties and
• Earthquake and Soil Liquefaction
behaviors of soils in a more methodical
manner starting in the early part of the • Arching Theory of Earth Pressure
18th century.
Based on the emphasis and the nature of Father of Soil Mechanics
study in the area of geotechnical Within the next few years, he would be
engineering, the time span extending engaged on projects on every continent "
from 1700 to 1927 can be divided into Peck continued with,
four major periods (Skempton, 1985): "Hence, even today, one can hardly
1. Pre-classical (1700 to 1776 A.D.) improve on his contemporary assessments
2. Classical soil mechanics-Phase I (1776 of the state of soil mechanics as
to 1856 A.D.) expressed in his summary papers and
presidential addresses." In 1939, Terzaghi soil is found at the surface, and the grain
delivered the 45th James Forrest Lecture size increases with depth. At greater
at the Institution of Civil Engineers, depths, angular rock fragments may also
London. His lecture was entitled be found.
"Soil Mechanics-A New Chapter in
Engineering Science." In it, he proclaimed The transported soils may be classified
that most of the foundation failures that into several groups, depending on their
occurred were no longer mode of transportation and deposition:
"Acts of God." 1. Glacial soils
-formed by transportation and deposition
Origin of Soil and Grain Size of glaciers
In general, soils are formed by 2. Alluvial soils
weathering of rocks. The physical -transported by running water and
properties of soil are dictated primarily by deposited along streams
3. Lacustrine soils
the minerals that constitute the soil
-formed by deposition in quiet lakes
particles and, hence, the rock from which
4. Marine soils
it is derived. -formed by deposition in the seas
5. Aeolian soils
Igneous Rocks -transported and deposited by wind
Igneous rocks are formed by the 6. Colluvial soils
solidification of molten magma ejected -formed by movement of soil from its
from deep within the earth's mantle. After original place by gravity, such as during
ejection by either fissure eruption or landslides
volcanic eruption, some of the molten
magma cools on the surface of the earth. Sedimentary Rocks
Sometimes magma ceases its mobility The deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay
below the earth's surface and cools to formed by weathering may become
compacted by overburden pressure and
form intrusive igneous rocks that are
cemented by agents like iron oxide,
called plutons.
calcite, dolomite, and quartz. Cementing
Intrusive rocks formed in the past may agents are generally carried in solution by
be exposed at the surface as a result of ground-water. They fill the spaces
the continuous process of erosion of the between particles and form sedimentary
materials that once covered them rock. Rocks formed in this way are called
detrital sedimentary rocks.
WEATHERING All detrital rocks have a clastic texture.
It is the process of breaking down rocks Sedimentary rock also can be formed by
by mechanical and chemical processes chemical processes. Rocks of this type are
into smaller pieces. classified as chemical sedimentary
rock. These rocks can have clastic or
Mechanical weathering may be caused nonclastic texture
by the expansion and contraction of rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
from the continuous gain and loss of heat,
Sedimentary rocks may undergo
which results in ultimate disintegration. weathering to form sediments or may be
Note: In mechanical weathering, large subjected to the process of metamorphism
rocks are broken down into smaller pieces to become metamorphic rocks.
without any change in the chemical
composition. Metamorphism is the process of
changing the composition and texture of
Transportation of Weathering rocks (without melting) by heat and
Products pressure. During metamorphism, new
The products of weathering may stay in minerals are formed, and mineral grains
the same place or may be moved to other are sheared to give a foliated-texture to
places by ice, water, wind, and gravity. metamorphic rocks.
The soils formed by the weathered
products at their place of origin are called
Clay Minerals
residual soils. An important - complex aluminum silicates composed of
characteristic of residual soil is the two basic units:
gradation of particle size. Fine-grained
 (1) silica tetrahedron ρs− ρw 2
(2) alumina octahedron v= D
Each tetrahedron unit consists of four 18 n
oxygen atoms surrounding a silicon atom. where v = velocity
P, = density of soil particles
Specific Gravity Pw = density of water
Specific Gravity is defined as the ratio of n= viscosity of water
the unit weight of a given material to the D= diameter of soil particles
unit weight of water.
Note: Most of the values fall within a Note:
range of 2.6 to 2.9.
Sieve analysis gives the intermediate
The specific gravity of solids of light-
dimensions of a particle; hydrometer
colored sand, which is mostly made of
quartz, may be estimated to be about analysis gives the diameter of an
2.65; for clayey and silty soils, it may vary equivalent sphere that would settle at the
from 2.6 to 2.9. same rate as the soil particle.

KARL TERZAGHI – Father of Soil Uses of Particle-Size Distribution

Mechanics Curve
A particle-size distribution curve can be
RALPH PECK – Grandfather of Soil used to determine the following four
Mechanics (1977) parameters for a given soil.

1.Effective size (D10): This parameter is

TOPIC 2: Mechanical Analysis of Soil
the diameter in the particle-size
Mechanical analysis is the distribution curve corresponding to 10%
determination of the size range of finer. The effective size of a granular is
particles present in a soil, expressed as a a good measure to estimate the
percentage of the total dry weight. hydraulic conductivity and drainage
through soil.
Methods:
1. Sieve analysis-for particle sizes 2.Uniformity coefficient (Cu): This
larger than 0.075 mm in diameter parameter is defined as
D 60
2. Hydrometer analysis-for particle Cu=
sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in D1 0
diameter
Where,
Sieve Analysis D60 diameter corresponds to 60% finer.
Sieve Analysis consists of shaking the soil
sample through a set of sieves that have 3.Coefficient of gradation (Cc): This
progressively smaller openings. U.S. parameter is defined as
standard sieve numbers and the sizes of 2
D30
openings are given in the Table. C c=
D6 0∗D1 0
Hydrometer Analysis
Hydrometer analysis is based on the
principle of sedimentation of soil grains in 4.Sorting coefficient (S.): This
water. When a soil specimen is dispersed parameter is another measure of
in water, the particles settle at different uniformity and is generally encountered
velocities, depending on their shape, size, in geologic works and expressed as
weight, and the viscosity of the water. For

√
simplicity, it is assumed that all the soil
particles are spheres and that the velocity
D75
So=
of soil particles can be expressed by D25
Stokes' law, according to which... Notes:
The sorting coefficient is not frequently
used as a parameter by geotechnical
engineers.
The percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and
clay-size particles present in a soil can be
obtained from the particle-size
distribution curve.

Curve I represent a type of soil in which

most of the soil grains are the same size.
This is called poorly graded soil.

Curve Il represents a soil in which the

particle sizes are distributed over a wide
range, termed well graded. A well-
graded soil has a uniformity coefficient
greater than about 4 for gravels and 6 for
sands, and a coefficient of gradation
between 1 and 3 (for gravels and sands).

A soil might have a combination of two or

more uniformly graded fractions. Curve Ill
represents such a soil. This type of soil is
termed gap graded.