DIGITAL NOTES

ON
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DESIGN (R22A6904)
For
IT
Prepared by
Mrs. G. Vaidehi
Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE

B.TECH III YEAR – II SEM (R22)

(2024-2025)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
(Affiliatedto JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved byAICTE - Accredited byNBA & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade - ISO 9001:2015 Certified)

Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India
 MALLAREDDYCOLLEGEOFENGINEERING&TECHNOLOGY

B. TECH - III- YEAR II-SEM-IT

EMBEDDEDSYSTEMS DESIGN (R22A6904)
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
For embedded systems ,the course will enable the students to:

1. To understand micro controllers architecture and it functionalities

2. Understand the core of an embedded system
3. To learn the embedded firmware design and development
4. To understands the embedded programming concepts

UNIT-I:
INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLERS:
8051 Microcontroller:
Overview of 8051 Microcontroller, 8051 Architecture, Pin diagram, Memory Organization,
Addressing Modes, and Instruction setof8051.
Arduino: Overview of Arduino, Introduction to ATMEGEA 328P, Arduino board. Introduction
Arduino Programming: Setup (), loop (), Digital Read (), Digital Write ()
AnalogRead(), AnalogWrite().

UNIT-II: INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

Definition of embedded systems, Embedded systems Vs General computing systems, History of
embedded systems, Classification, Major application Areas, Purpose of embedded systems,
characteristic sand quality attributes of embedded systems.

UNIT-III: TYPICAL EMBEDDED SYSTEM: Core of the embedded system, Sensors and
actuators, Onboard communication interfaces-I2C,SPI,parallel interface;External communication
interfaces-RS232,USB,infrared,Bluetooth,Wi-Fi,ZigBee,GPRS.

UNIT-IV: EMBEDDED FIRMWAREDESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT:

Embedded firmware design approaches -superloop-basedapproach,operating system-based
approach; embedded firmware development languages -assembly language-based development,
high level language-based development.

UNIT-V EMBEDDED PROGRAMMING:

Assembly language: Interfacing LED, LCD and keypad to 8051 Microcontroller.
Embedded C: Interfacing LED, RGB LED, LCD, Switch, Sensors, Buzzer to Arduino UNO,
Serial communication programming with Arduino.

TEXTBOOKS:
1. Introduction to Embedded Systems-shibukv, McGraw Hill Education.
2. Kenneth. J.Ayala, The 8051 Microcontroller, 3rd Edition Cengage Learning

REFERENCEBOOKS:
1. The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems Second Edition Muhammad Ali
Mazidi Janice GillispieMazidiRolin D. McKinlay
2. Embedded Systems- An integrated approach - Lyla B Das, Pearsoneducation2012.

COURSEOUTCOMES:
After going through this course, the student will be able to
1. The student will learn the internal organization of popular 8051 microcontrollers.
2. Understand the core of the embedded systems
3. Understand the internal and external communication interface
4. Understand Embedded Firmware design approaches
5. Understand embedded programming concepts
 Unit-1
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLERS:
8051 Microcontroller:
 Overview of 8051 Microcontroller
 8051 Architecture
 Pin diagram
 Memory Organization
 Addressing Modes
 Instruction setof8051.

Arduino:
 Overview of Arduino.
 Introduction to ATMEGEA 328P.
 Arduinoboard:Introduction
 Arduino Programming:
Setup (), loop (), Digital Read (), Digital Write () AnalogRead (), Analog Write ().
Introduction
THE 8086 MICROPROCESSOR:
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central
processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components
including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. An Integrated circuit that contains all
the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) of a computer is called Microprocessor.

FEATURES OF 8086 Microprocessor:

 The 8086 microprocessor is a 16-bit microprocessor. What this means is that the ALU and
the internal registers work with 16 bit of binary data at a time.
 It has 16 bits of the data bus. Because of this, the 8086 can read or write either 16 bit or 8 bit
of data at a time.
 The 8086 microprocessor has 20 bits of address lines that can access 220 address locations.
 Each memory location is a byte-addressable memory location.
Therefore, the total amount of memory that the 8086 microprocessor contains = 220 bytes = 1
MB
Therefore, the 8086 can access up to 1 MB of memory.
 It works in the frequency range of about 5-10 MHz
 It can prefetch up to 6 instruction bytes from memory and queues them in order to speed up
instruction execution.
 It requires +5V power supply.
 A 40 pin dual in line package.
 It has 256 vectored interrupts
 It consists of 29,000 transistors.
 8086 is designed to operate in two modes, Minimum mode and Maximum mode.
 The minimum mode is selected by applying logic 1 to the MN /MX input pin.
 This is a single microprocessor configuration.
 The maximum mode is selected by applying logic 0 to the MN / MX input pin.
 This is a multi micro processors configuration.
 Components of 8086 microprocessor
The 8086 microprocessor consists of two main blocks:

 Bus Interface Unit (BIU)

 Execution Unit (EU)

The Bus Interface Unit (BIU) consists of the following components:

• Instruction Queue

• Segment Registers

• Instruction Pointer (IP)

The Execution Unit (EU) consists the following:

• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

• Control Unit

• General Purpose registers

• Index registers and pointers (except IP)

• Flags and Operands

8051 Microcontroller: Introduction

 A microcontroller is a programmable integrated circuit (IC) that consists of a small CPU, RAM
and I/O pins. Microcontroller units (MCUs) are widely used in many devices.

 A microcontroller is a highly integrated single chip, which consists of on chip CPU (Central
Processing Unit), RAM (Random Access Memory), EPROM/PROM/ROM (Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory), I/O (input/output) Ports – serial and parallel, timers,
interrupt controller etc..

 The 8051 microcontroller is a very popular 8-bit microcontroller introduced by Intel in the
year 1981

 8051 is one of the first most popular microcontroller also known as MCS-51

 8051 works at +5 Volts DC.

 It is available as a 40-pin DIP chip

 It is an 8-bit microcontroller which means data bus is of 8-bits. Therefore, it can process 8-
 bits at a time. It is used in wide variety of embedded systems like robotics, remote controls,
automotive industry, telecom applications, power tools etc.

 Initially it came out as N-type metal-oxide-semiconductor (NMOS) based microcontroller, but

later versions were based on complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor(CMOS) technology.

 These microcontrollers were named as 80C51, where C in the name tells that it is based on
CMOS technology.

Development/Classification of microcontrollers
Development of some popular microcontrollers is given as follows.
Difference betweenMicroprocessorandMicrocontroller:

S.No Microprocessor Microcontroller

1 Microprocessor is the Micro Controller is theheart

heart of Computer of an embedded
system. system.

2 It is only a processor, so memory and Micro Controller has a processor along

I/O components need to be connected with internal memory and I/O
externally components.

3 Memory and I/O has to be connected Memory and I/O are already present,
externally, so the ciruit becomes and the internal circuit is small
large.

4 You can’t use it in compact systems You can use it in compact systems

5 It is mainly used in personal It is used mainly in a washing machine,

computers MP3 players, and embedded
systems

6 Cost of the entire system is high Cost of the entire system is low

7 Due to external components, the total As external components are low, total
power consumption is high. power consumption is less. So it can be
Therefore, it is not ideal for the used with devices running on stored
devices running on stored power like power like batteries.
batteries.

8 Most of the microprocessors do not Most of the microcontrollers offer

have power saving features. power-saving mode.

9 Microprocessor has a smaller number Microcontroller has more register.

of registers, so more operations are Hence the programs are easier to write
memory- based

10 It’s complex and expensive, with a It’s simple and inexpensive with less
large number of instructions to number of instructions
process. to process.
Features of 8051Microcontroller:
 Eight-bit CPU with registers A (the accumulator) and B
 8-bit data bus and 16-bit address bus
 Eight-bit program status word (PSW)
 Eight-bit stack pointer (SP)
 Four register banks, each containing eight registers
 4 KB on chip program memory (ROM or EPROM)).
 128 bytes on chip data memory(RAM).
 Two -16 bit timers T0 and T1
 Five Interrupts (3 internal and 2 external).
 Four Parallel ports each of 8-bits (PORT0, PORT1,PORT2,PORT3) with a total of 32 I/O
lines.
 One 16-bit program counter and One 16-bit DPTR ( data pointer).

Overview of the 8051 Family

8051 microcontroller was initially designed by Intel Corporation in 1981. Features of 8051 made it
extremely popular in market. Because of it’s popularity and high demand Intel allowed other
manufacturers to fabricate and market different variants of 8051 with a condition that all these variants
should be code compatible with 8051.
This resulted in a lot of variants of 8051 in market, among which 8052 and 8031 are the most popular
ones. Therefore, 8052 and 8031 are considered as the family members of 8051.
8052
8052 is the super set of 8051 as it has all the features of 8051 with
an extra timer and an extra RAM of 128 bytes. Therefore, 8052 has a total of 256 bytes of RAM and
3 timers in all. Also all the programs written for 8051 will run on 8052 as 8052 is super set of 8051,
but it’s reverse is not true.

Characteristic 8051 8052 8031

RAM 128 256 bytes 128 bytes

bytes

ROM (on- 4 KB 4 KB 0 KB
chip)

Number of 2 3 2
Timer

Interrupt 6 8 6
Sources

Serial Port 1 1 1
 Number of 32 32 32
I/O Ports

8031
8031 is referred to as ROM-less microcontroller chip because it has 0 K byes of on-chip ROM. For
it’s operation, 8031 requires external ROM which aids it in fetch and execute operations. Apart from
this, it shares almost all the features of 8051

ARCHITECTURE& BLOCKDIAGRAM OF 8051

MICROCONTROLLER:
Fig.3.BlockDiagramof8051 Microcontroller.
 8051 Microcontroller consists of
 an 8-bit ALU&CPU(Central Processing Unit)
 Oscillator
 Interrupt Control
 Bus Control
 one 8-bit PSW(Program Status Word Register),
 A and B registers ,
 one 16-bit Program counter ,
 one 16-bit Data pointer register(DPTR),
 128 bytes of RAM and 4kB of ROM and
  four parallel I/O ports each of 8-bit width.
1. CPU(Central Processing Unit):
The CPU is the brain of any processing machine. It is the part that is responsible for managing all
the tasks of the microcontroller. The CPU is an independent unit.
Users can not interfere with the CPU controlling how it should function. It identifies the tasks
present in the ROM and then processes them.
In the 8051 microcontroller architecture, the CPU is responsible for managing registers. Registers
are a type of memory in a computer. They can store and manipulate data.
2. Oscillator
 Generally, we know that the microcontroller is a device, therefore it requires clock pulses for its
operation of microcontroller applications.
 For this purpose, microcontroller 8051 has an on-chip oscillator which works as a clock source
for Central Processing Unit of the microcontroller. The output pulses of oscillator are stable.
 Therefore, it enables synchronized work of all parts of the 8051 Microcontroller.
3. Interrupts
 In the 8051 microcontroller architecture, interrupts stop the microcontroller’s current task.
Interrupts are caused when some other program has a higher priority request for execution.
 When an interrupt occurs, the ongoing task stops, the sub-routine for the interrupt is executed,
and then the previous job resumes
 8051 has 5 interrupt sources, out of which two are peripheral Interrupts, two are timer interrupts and one
is a serial port interrupt.

4. Memory
The next part of the 8051 microcontroller architecture is the memory. For any data manipulation to
occur, we require a set of instructions.
 A program is a set of commands, which is needed by the Microcontroller to perform a
particular task. These programs need a storage space where they can be stored and later the
microcontroller interpret them and perform the specific task.
 8051 microcontroller architecture include two types of memory, such as : program memory
and data memory.
  The instructions of the CPU are stored in the Program Memory. It is usually implemented as
Read-Only Memory or ROM, where the Program written into it will be retained even when
the power is down or the system is reset.
 Data Memory in a Microcontroller is responsible for storing values of variables, temporary
data, intermediate results, and other data for the proper operation of the program.
 In the 8051 microcontroller architecture, the microcontroller has 4KB ROM and 128 bytes of
RAM.
5. Bus
A bus is a group of wires. Communication within the microcontroller happens through this bus. There
are either 8 or 16 or more wires in the bus. If the 8051 microcontroller architecture has 8 wires, it can
carry 8 bits of data. If the 8051 microcontroller architecture has 16 wires, it can carry16 bits of data.
The bus further falls into two categories:
Address Bus: The address bus in the 8051 microcontroller architecture is of 16 bits. This bus transfers
data from the CPU to the memory. There are different addressing modes in this bus:
 Immediate addressing modes.
 Register addressing mode.
 Direct Addressing mode.
 Register indirect addressing mode.
Data Bus: In 8051 microcontroller architecture, the data bus is 8 bits. It helps in carrying the
data from one place to another.

6. Input/output Ports
 A microcontroller controls small operations for a system. It is embedded in the systems. We
might sometimes need to connect the microcontroller to other devices. In the 8051
microcontroller architecture, we have 4 input/output ports. We connect other input/output
peripherals using these ports.
 All the 4 ports function bidirectionally i.e., either input or output according to the software
control.
7. Timers/Counters
In the 8051 microcontroller architecture, we have two timers. They are each 16 bits. We have
the timers to generate gaps between two events. The two timers generate two delays(gaps),
and the suitable one is chosen.
 The timer produces the delay according to the demand of the processor and sends the signal to
the processor once the respective delay gets produced.
 Microcontroller 8051 is incorporated with two 16 bit counters & timers. The counters are
separated into 8-bit registers. The timers are utilized for measuring the intervals, to find out
pulse width, etc.

The microcontroller also includes a program counter, data pointer, stack & stack pointer, instruction
registers including latches, temporary registers & buffers for the I/O ports.
8. A and B Registers: The A and B registers are special function registers which hold the results of
many arithmetic and logical operations of 8051
A register is also called the Accumulator and as its name suggests, is used as a general register to
accumulate the results of a large number of instructions
9. The R registers: The "R" registers are a set of eight registers that are named R0, R1, etc. up to
and including R7.
These registers are used as auxiliary registers in many operations.
The "R" registers are also used to temporarily store values.
10. STACK in 8051 Microcontroller
 The stack is a part of RAM used by the CPU to store information temporarily. This information
may be either data or an address
 In 8051 the RAM locations 08 to 1F (24 bytes) can be used for the Stack
 The register used to access the stack is called the Stack pointer which is an 8-bit register.
 There are two important instructions to handle this stack. One is the PUSH and the other is the
POP.
 The loading of data from CPU registers to the stack is done by PUSH and the loading of the
contents of the stack back into a CPU register is done by POP.
11. Stack Pointer (SP)
Stack Pointer (SP) – it contains the address of the data item on the top of the stack. Stack may reside
anywhere on the internal RAM. On reset, SP is initialized to 07 so that the default stack will start from
address 08 onwards.
12. Data Pointer Register (DPTR) :
 It is a 16-bit register which is the onlyuser-accessible.
 DPTR, as the name suggests, is used to point to data.
 It is used by a number of commands which allow the 8051 to access external memory.
 When the 8051 accesses external memory it will access external memory at the address
indicated by DPTR.
 This DPTR can also be used as two 8-registers DPH and DPL
 Data Pointer (DPTR) – DPH (Data pointer higher byte), DPL (Data pointer lower byte).
13. PSW (Program Status Word)
 The program status word (PSW) register is an 8-bit register. It is also referred to as the flag register.
Although the PSW register is 8 bits wide, only 6 bits of it are used by the 8051.The two unused
bits are user-definable flags.
 Four of the flags are called conditional flags, meaning that they indicate some conditions that
result after an instruction is executed. These four are CY (carry), AC (auxiliary carry), P (parity),
and OV (overflow).
 As seen from below figure, the bits PSW.3 and PSW.4 are designated as RS0 and RS1 as register
selection bit, respectively, and are used to change the bank registers.
The PSW.5 and PSW.l bits are general-purpose status flag bits and can be used by the programmer
for any purpose. In other words, they are user definable. See below Figure for the bits of the PSW
register

CY, the carry flag

 This flag is set whenever there is a carryout from the D7 bit.
 This flag bit is affected after an 8-bit addition or subtraction.
 It can also be set to 1 or 0 directly by an instruction such as “SETB C” and “CLR C” where
“SETB C” stands for “set bit carry” and “CLR C” for “clear carry”.
AC, the auxiliary carry flag
 This flag is used by instructions that perform BCD (binary coded decimal) arithmetic.
P, the parity flag
The parity flag reflects the number of 1 s in the A (accumulator) register only.
 If the A register contains an odd number of Is, then P = 1. Therefore, P = 0 if A has an even
number of 1s.
OV, the overflow flag
 This flag is set whenever the result of a signed number operation is too large, causing the high-
order bit to overflow into the sign bit.
 In general, the carry flag is used to detect errors in unsigned arithmetic operations.
 The overflow flag is only used to detect errors in signed arithmetic operations.
Pin Description of 8051 Microcontroller
Pins from 1-8

Port 1: The pins in this port are bi-directional and can be used for input and output. The pins are
individually controlled; some are used for input while others are used for output purposes.

Pin 9

This pin is also called ‘Reset Pin’. This is used for resetting the microcontroller to its initial values.
If the pin is set at logic 0, the chip runs normally. When the oscillator is running, setting the pin at
logic 1 for more than two machine cycles will reset the microcontroller.

Pins from 10-17

PORT 3: These pins are same as pins in port 1 because of their bidirectional input port.

 Pin 10 and Pin 11 perform receiving and transmitting operation of serial data using ‘RS-
232’ protocol.
 Pin 12 and Pin 13 are used to interrupt inputs.
 Pin 14 and Pin 15 perform alternative functions linked with Timer 0 and Timer 1.
 Pin 16 and Pin 17 are used when working with external memory.

Pins from 18-19

The pins are used for connecting an external crystal oscillator module with the microcontroller.

Pin 20

Also called Vss. This is the ground pin that represents 0V.

Pins from 21-28

PORT 2: These are another set of bidirectional input port, they are used when processing external
memory. Higher order address bus signals are multiplexed with this quasi-bidirectional port.

Pin 29
Also called PSEN (Program Store Enable) it controls and manages the access to external CODE
memory.

Pin 30

Named as Address Latch Enable (ALE). It is used when working with external memory. ALE
activity is disabled in some devices where external memory is not used. Thus helping in reducing
the electromagnetic interference generated by the product.

Pin 31

Named as External Access (EA). In order to execute code from internal memory this pin is
connected to Vcc. To execute code from external memory the pin must be grounded.

Pins from 32-39

Port 0: These are set of another bidirectional input port. Unlike Port 1, Port2 and Port 3 this port
lacks pull-up resistors.

Pin 40

Named as Vcc. This is usually a 5V pin on 5V devices and 3V pin on 3V devices.

I/O Pins

The 8051 microcontrollers are mostly 8-bit ports, thus giving a total of 32 pins which you can use
to read input and control output. All of them are bidirectional in nature so they can perform as both
input and output. Some of the ports perform alternate functions as discussed above such as to
support access to external memory. This is done to reduce the size of the microcontroller device.
When these ports are busy in performing their alternate functions, they can not be made toact as
input-output ports.
Memory organization :

The 8051 microcontroller has 128 bytes of Internal RAMand 4kB of on chip ROM .The RAM is
also known as Data memory and the ROM isknownasprogrammemory.

Program memory organization in 8051:

The Program Memory or ROM is a type of non-volatile memory used in microcontrollers where
the code or the program to be executed is stored using the program counter (PC), like tables or
initialization program.

Intel 8051 has an internal/ built-in ROM of 4KB and can be extended up to 64KB by using an
external program memory. The program memory allocation can be done in two ways depending
on the status of the EA pin (External Access Pin), which is an active low pin (i.e., activates when
low-signal is provided).

Program memory:

Program memory accessed through EA pin. In program memory two categories

takes place:
a) If EA is high, internal program memory is accessed to 0FFFH memory location and external

program memory accessed from 1000H to FFFFH memory locations.

b) If EA is low, only external program memory accessed from 0000H to FFFFH memory locations.

Data memory organization in 8051:

The Data Memory or RAM is a volatile memory since cutting off power to the IC will result in loss
of information or data. RAM is used for temporarily storing the data and the auxiliary results
generated during the runtime.

Older version of 8051 used to consist built-in 256 bytes of RAM now, and it consists of an
additional 128 bytes, which are accessed by indirect addressing.

The data memory in 8051 is divided into three parts:

1. Lower 128 bytes (00H – 7FH), which are addressed b either Direct or Indirect addressing.
Further, the Lower 128 bytes are divided into three parts,

 Register Banks (Bank 0,1,2,3) from 00H to 1FH – 32 bytes

 Bit Addressable Area from 20H to 2FH – 16 bytes
 General Purpose Register (Scratch Pad Area) from 30H to 7FH – 80 bytes

2. Upper 128 bytes (80H – 0FFH) for the Special Function Register (SFRs) which includes I/O
ports (P0, P1, P2, P3), Accumulator (A), Timers(THx, TLx, TMOD, TCON, PCON), Interrupts(IE,
IP), Serial Communication controls(SBUF, SCON), Program Status Word (PSW). These are
addressed using Direct addressing.

3. 128 bytes of Additional Memory

Register Banks:

The 8051 has four Register Banks with each bank having 8 “R” registers, which are used in many
of its instructions. These R registers are numbered from 0 through 7 (R0, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6,
and R7). These registers are generally used to assist in manipulating values and moving data from
one memory location to another. For example, to add three numbers say, 0AH, 0BH, 0CH, we
would execute the following instruction:

These banks are accessed one at a time by bit addressing of D3 and D4 bits of PSW (Program Status
Word) SFR by changing the values of RS0 and RS1 by SETB, and CLR commands. For example,
“SETB PSW.3” will set PSW.3 = 1, and Bank 1 register is selected. By default, Bank 0 is selected.
  16 bytes of bit addressable areaand
 80 bytes of general purpose area (Scratch pad memory) as shown in the diagram below.
This area is also utilized by the microcontroller as a storage area for the operating stack.
 The registers are named as R0-R7 .Each register can be addressed by its name or by its
RAM address.

ForEx :MOV A, R7orMOV R7,#05H

Bit addressable memory area

16 bytes of RAM is allotted as a bit addressable memory. It consists of 16 x 8 = 128 bits. These
128 bits can be individually bit-addressed, starting from 00H to 7FH or can be byte-addressable for
20H to 2FH.

Bit addressing is very useful when we want to monitor the status of a particular pin of any port.

General-purpose area/Scratchpad area

The rest of the RAM from 30H to 7FH, these 32 bytes can be addressed directly or indirectly using
direct or indirect addressing modes, respectively. Therefore it’s also called Scratch Pad Memory.
You may read or write a full byte (8-bit) data at these locations.

8051 Microcontroller: Addressing Modes

Addressing:-The CPU can access data in a register or in memory or be provided as an immediate

value. These various ways of accessing data are called addressing modes.
The 8051 provides a total of five distinct addressing modes.
They are as follows:-
1) Immediate addressing modes.
2) Register addressing modes.
3) Direct addressing modes.
4) Register indirect - addressing mode.
5) Indexed addressing mode.

1) Immediate Addressing mode:-

In Immediate Addressing mode, the operand, which follows the Opcode, is a constant data of either
8 or 16 bits. The name Immediate Addressing came from the fact that the constant data to be stored
in the memory immediately follows the Opcode.
The constant value to be stored is specified in the instruction itself rather than taking from a register.
The destination register to which the constant data must be copied should be the same size as the
operand mentioned in the instruction.

Example:-
MOV A, # 82H ; load 82H into A
MOV R4, # 100 ; load the decimal value 100 in to R4
MOV B, # 40H ; load 40H in to B
MOV P1, # 55H ; load 55H directly to port 1
MOV DPTR , # 4521 H ; DPTR =4521 H

2) Register - Addressing Mode:-

In the 8051 Microcontroller Memory Organization Tutorial, we have seen the organization of RAM
and four banks of Working Registers with eight Registers in each bank.

In Register Addressing mode, one of the eight registers (R0 – R7) is specified as Operand in the
Instruction.

It is important to select the appropriate Bank with the help of PSW Register.

Example:-
MOV A,RO ;copy the contents of R0 in to A
MOV R2,A ;copy the contents of A in to R2
ADD A,R5 ;Add contents of R5 to A
MOV R7,DPL ;load R7 with contents of DPL

3) Direct Addressing mode:-

In direct addressing mode the data is in a RAM Memory location whose addressing is known
and this address is given as a part of the instruction.
Although the entire 128 bytes of RAM can be addressed using direct addressing mode It is most
often used to access RAM locations 30-7FH
Example:-
MOV R0, 40H ; save content of RAM location 40H in Ro
MOV 7FH, A ; save content of A in to RAM location 7FH
MOV A,07H ;same as move A1 R7 is copies data in R7 to A
MOV 03H, 04H ; it copies data in R4 to R3

4) Indirect addressing mode:-

In the Indirect Addressing Mode or Register Indirect Addressing Mode, the address of the Operand
is specified as the content of a Register. This will be clearer with an example.
Example: MOV A, @R1
The @ symbol indicates that the addressing mode is indirect. If the contents of R1 is 56H, for
example, then the operand is in the internal RAM location 56H. If the contents of the RAM location
56H is 24H, then 24H is moved into accumulator.
Only R0 and R1 are allowed in Indirect Addressing Mode. These register in the indirect addressing
mode are called as Pointer registers.

5) Indexed addressing mode:-

With Indexed Addressing Mode, the effective address of the Operand is the sum of a
base register and an offset register. The Base Register can be either Data Pointer (DPTR) or
Program Counter (PC) while the Offset register is the Accumulator (A).
In Indexed Addressing Mode, only MOVC and JMP instructions can be used. Indexed
Addressing Mode is useful when retrieving data from look-up tables.
Example: MOVC A, @A+DPTR
Here, the address for the operand is the sum of contents of DPTR and Accumulator.
8051 Instruction Set:
Before seeing the types of instructions, let us see the structure of the 8051 Microcontroller
Instruction. An 8051 Instruction consists of an Opcode (short of Operation – Code) followed by
Operand(s) of size Zero Byte, One Byte or Two Bytes.
The Op-Code part of the instruction contains the Mnemonic, which specifies the type of
operation to be performed. All Mnemonics or the Opcode part of the instruction are of One Byte
size.
 • No Operand
• Data value
• I/O Port
• Memory Location
• CPU register
There can multiple operands and the format of instruction is as follows:

MNEMONIC DESTINATION OPERAND, SOURCE OPERAND

A simple instruction consists of just the opcode. Other instructions may include one or more operands.
Instruction can be one-byte instruction, which contains only opcode, or two-byte instructions, where
the second byte is the operand or three byte instructions, where the operand makes up the second and
third byte.

Based on the operation they perform, all the instructions in the 8051 Microcontroller Instruction Set
are divided into five groups. They are:

 Data Transfer Instructions

 Arithmetic Instructions
 Logical Instructions
 Boolean or Bit Manipulation Instructions
 Program Branching Instructions
We will now see about these instructions briefly.

1. Arithmetic Instructions:
Using Arithmetic Instructions, you can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
The arithmetic instructions also include increment by one, decrement by one and a special
instruction called Decimal Adjust Accumulator.
Fo rexample:
ADDA, R1-Theresult of addition(A+R1) will be stored in the accumulator.
 ADD-Addition Operation
 ADDC-Addition with Carry
 SUB-Subtract operation
 SUBB-Subtract with Barrow
 MUL-Multiplication Operation
 DIV-Divison Operation
  INC -Incrementing by one
 DEC-Decreamenting by one

2. Logical Instructions: The Logical Instructions are used toperform logical operationslikeAND,
OR, XOR, NOT, Rotate, Clear and Swap. Logical Instruction are performed on Bytes of data
ona bit-by-bit basis. Logic instructions perform logic operations upon corresponding bits of
two registers. After execution, the result is stored in the first operand.
 ANL-Logical AND Operation
 ORL-Logical OR operation
 XRL-Logical Exclusive Operation
 CPL-Complement Operation
 RL-Rotate Left Operation
 RLC-Rotate Left Through Carry
 RC-Rotate Right Operation
 RRC-Rotate Right Through Carry
3. Data Transfer Instructions: Data transfer instructions move the content of one register
toanother. The register the content of which is moved remains unchanged. If they have the suffix
“X”(MOVX),thedatais exchangedwithexternal memory.

4. Boolean Variable Instructions: Boolean or Bit Manipulation Instructions will deal with bit
 variables. Similar to logic instructions, bit oriented instructions perform logic operations. The
difference is that these are performed upon single bits.

5. Program Branching Instructions:

The last group of instructions in the 8051 Microcontroller Instruction Set is the Program Branching
Instructions. These instructions control the flow of program logic. The mnemonics of the Program
Branching Instructions are as follows.

Consider the below table lists the conditional jumps instruction used in 8051

Instructions Action

JC Jump if CY = 1

JNC Jump if CY ≠ 1

JNB Jump if bit = 0

JB Jump if bit = 1

JZ Jump if A = 0

DJNZ Decrement and Jump if register ≠ 0

JNZ Jump if A ≠ 0

CJNE A, data Jump if A ≠ data

CJNE reg, #data Jump if byte ≠ data

JBC Jump if bit = 1 and clear bit

 Arduino
Overview of Arduino:
Arduino is a prototype platform (open-source) based on an easy-to-use hardware and software. It
consists of a circuit board, which can be programed (referred to as a microcontroller) and a ready-
made software called Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment), which is used to write and
upload the computer code to the physical board.
The key features are
 Arduino boards are able to read analog or digital input signals from different sensors and turn
it into an output such as activating a motor, turning LED on/off, connect to the cloud and many
other actions.
 You can control your board functions by sending a set of instructions to the microcontroller on
the board via Arduino IDE (referred to as uploading software).
 Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, Arduino does not need an extra piece of
hardware (called a programmer) in order to load a new code onto the board. You can simply use
a USB cable.
 Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it easier to learn to
program.
 Finally, Arduino provides a standard form factor that breaks the functions of the micro-
controller into a more accessible package.
Board Types
Various kinds of Arduino boards are available depending on different microcontrollers used. However,
all Arduino boards have one thing in common: they are programed through the Arduino IDE.
The differences are based on the number of inputs and outputs (the number of sensors, LEDs, and
buttons you can use on a single board), speed, operating voltage, form factor etc. Some boards are
designed to be embedded and have no programming interface (hardware), which you would need to
buy separately. Some can run directly from a 3.7V battery, others need at least 5V.

Arduino UNO
Arduino UNO is a basic and inexpensive Arduino board and is the most popular of all the Arduino
boards with a market share of over 50%. Arduino UNO is considered to be the best prototyping board
for beginners in electronics and coding.

Arduino UNO comes with different features and capabilities. As mentioned earlier, the microcontroller
used in UNO is ATmega328P, which is an 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR architecture.

UNO has 14 digital input – output (I/O) pins which can be used as either input or output by connecting
them with different external devices and components. Out of these 14 pins, 6 pins are capable of
producing PWM signal. All the digital pins operate at 5V and can output a current of 20mA.

60
Arduino hardware is a PCB-mounted microcontroller that you can program and use for simple daily
tasks, mathematical computations, and prototyping and testing. An Arduino development board
consists of the core microcontroller with its supplementary components and the necessary circuitry to
communicate with the PC which we will be using for both communications as well as programming the
microcontroller.

For communication or programming purposes, we will be using a USB to TTL converter, which will
be embedded within the Arduino board.

Arduino block diagram shows the important modules on an Arduino UNO board.

In the UNO board, the main component is the ATMega328P. It is the heart of the Arduino UNO.

Arduino block diagram

61
 Arduino UNO-Pin diagram

Arduino UNO BoardDescription:

Power USB

Arduino board can be powered byusing the USB cable from your computer. All you need to do is
connect the USB cable to the USB connection (1).

Power (Barrel Jack)

Arduino boards can be powered directly from the AC mains power supply by connecting it to the
Barrel Jack (2).

Voltage Regulator

The function of the voltage regulator is to control the voltage given to the Arduino board and
stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements.

Crystal Oscillator

The crystal oscillator helps Arduino in dealing with time issues. How does Arduino calculate time?
The answer is, by using the crystal oscillator. The number printed on top of the Arduino crystal is
16.000H9H. It tells us that the frequency is 16,000,000 Hertz or 16 MHz.

Arduino Reset

You can reset your Arduino board, i.e., start your program from the beginning. You can reset the
UNO board in two ways. First, by using the reset button (17) on the board. Second, you can connect
an external reset button to the Arduino pin labeled RESET (5).

Pins (3.3, 5, GND, Vin)

3.3V (6) − Supply 3.3 output volt

5V (7) − Supply 5 output volt

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Most of the components used with Arduino board works fine with 3.3 volt and 5 volt.

GND (8)(Ground) − There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of which can be used to ground
your circuit.

Vin (9) − This pin also can be used to power the Arduino board from an external power source, like AC
mains power supply.

Analog pins

The Arduino UNO board has six analog input pins A0 through A5. These pins can read the signal from
an analog sensor like the humidity sensor or temperature sensor and convert it into a digital valuethat
can be read by the microprocessor.

Main microcontroller

Each Arduino board has its own microcontroller (11). You can assume it as the brain of your board. The
main IC (integrated circuit) on the Arduino is slightly different from board to board. The
microcontrollers are usually of the ATMEL Company. You must know what IC your board has before
loading up a new program from the Arduino IDE. This information is available on the top of the IC.

ICSP pin

Mostly, ICSP is an AVR, a tiny programming header for the Arduino consisting of MOSI, MISO, SCK,
RESET, VCC, and GND. It is often referred to as an SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface), which could be
considered as an "expansion" of the output. Actually, you are slaving the output device to the master of
the SPI bus.

Power LED indicator

This LED should light up when you plug your Arduino into a power source to indicate that your board
is powered up correctly. If this light does not turn on, then there is something wrong with the connection.

TX and RX LEDs

On your board, you will find two labels: TX (transmit) and RX (receive). They appear in two places
on the Arduino UNO board. First, at the digital pins 0 and 1, to indicate the pins responsible for serial
communication. Second, the TX and RX led (13). The TX led flashes with different speed while sending
the serial data. The speed of flashing depends on the baud rate used by the board. RX flashes during the
receiving process.

Digital I/O

The Arduino UNO board has 14 digital I/O pins (of which 6 provide PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
output. The pins 0 to 13 are used as a digital input or output for the Arduino board. These pins can be
configured to work as input digital pins to read logic values (0 or 1) or as digital output pins to drive
different modules like LEDs, relays, etc.

External Interrupt Pins: This pin of the Arduino board is used to produce the External interrupt
and it is done by pin numbers 2 and 3.

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 PWM Pins: This pins of the board is used to convert the digital signal into an analog by varying the
width of the Pulse. The pin numbers 3,5,6,9,10 and 11 are used as a PWM pin.

SPI Pins: This is the Serial Peripheral Interface pin, it is used to maintain SPI communication with the
help of the SPI library. SPI pins include:

SS: Pin number 10 is used as a Slave Select

MOSI: Pin number 11 is used as a Master Out Slave In

MISO: Pin number 12 is used as a Master In Slave Out

SCK: Pin number 13 is used as a Serial Clock

AREF Pin: This is an analog reference pin of the Arduino board. It is used to provide a reference voltage
from an external power supply.

Introduction to ATMEGEA 328P:

ATMEGA328P is high performance, low power controller from Microchip. ATMEGA328P is an 8-
bit microcontroller based on AVR RISC architecture. It is the most popular of all AVR controllers as
it is used in ARDUINO boards.

Applications

There are hundreds of applications for ATMEGA328P:

 Used in ARDUINO UNO, ARDUINO NANO and ARDUINO MICRO boards.

 Industrial control systems.
 SMPS and Power Regulation systems.
 Digital data processing.
 Analog signal measuring and manipulations.
 Embedded systems like coffee machine, vending machine.
 Motor control systems.
 Display units.
 Peripheral Interface system.

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ATMega328 Pinout Configuration
ATMEGA328P is a 28 pin chip as shown in pin diagram above. Many pins of the chip here have more
than one function. We will describe functions of each pin in below table.

Pin Pin name Description Secondary Function

No.

1 PC6 (RESET) Pin6 of Pin by default is used as RESET pin. PC6 can only
PORTC be used as I/O pin when RSTDISBL Fuse is
programmed.

2 PD0 (RXD) Pin0 of RXD (Data Input Pin for USART)

PORTD
USART Serial Communication Interface
[Can be used for programming]

3 PD1 (TXD) Pin1 of TXD (Data Output Pin for USART)

PORTD
USART Serial Communication Interface
[Can be used for programming]

INT2( External Interrupt 2 Input)

65
4 PD2 (INT0) Pin2 of External Interrupt source 0
PORTD

5 PD3 (INT1/OC2B) Pin3 of External Interrupt source1

PORTD

OC2B(PWM - Timer/Counter2 Output Compare

Match B Output)

6 PD4 (XCK/T0) Pin4 of T0( Timer0 External Counter Input)

PORTD
XCK ( USART External Clock I/O)

7 VCC Connected to positive voltage

8 GND Connected to ground

9 PB6 Pin6 of XTAL1 (Chip Clock Oscillator pin 1 or External

(XTAL1/TOSC1) PORTB clock input)
TOSC1 (Timer Oscillator pin 1)

10 PB7 Pin7 of XTAL2 (Chip Clock Oscillator pin 2)

(XTAL2/TOSC2) PORTB
TOSC2 (Timer Oscillator pin 2)

11 PD5 Pin5 of T1(Timer1 External Counter Input)

PORTD
(T1/OC0B)
OC0B(PWM - Timer/Counter0 Output Compare
Match B Output)

12 PD6 (AIN0/OC0A) Pin6 of AIN0(Analog Comparator Positive I/P)

PORTD

OC0A(PWM - Timer/Counter0 Output Compare

Match A Output)

13 PD7 (AIN1) Pin7 of AIN1(Analog Comparator Negative I/P)

PORTD

66
14 PB0 (ICP1/CLKO) Pin0 of ICP1(Timer/Counter1 Input Capture Pin)
PORTB

CLKO (Divided System Clock. The divided

system clock can be output on the PB0 pin)

15 PB1 (OC1A) Pin1 of OC1A (Timer/Counter1 Output Compare Match A

PORTB Output)

16 PB2 (SS/OC1B) Pin2 of SS (SPI Slave Select Input). This pin is low when
PORTB controller acts as slave.
[Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) for
programming]

OC1B (Timer/Counter1 Output Compare Match B

Output)

17 PB3 (MOSI/OC2A) Pin3 of MOSI (Master Output Slave Input). When

PORTB controller acts as slave, the data is received by this
pin. [Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) for
programming]
OC2 (Timer/Counter2 Output Compare Match
Output)

18 PB4 (MISO) Pin4 of MISO (Master Input Slave Output). When

PORTB controller acts as slave, the data is sent to master
by this controller through this pin.

[Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) for

programming]

19 PB5 (SCK) Pin5 of SCK (SPI Bus Serial Clock). This is the clock
PORTB shared between this controller and other system for
accurate data transfer.
[Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) for
programming]

20 AVCC Power for Internal ADC Converter

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21 AREF Analog Reference Pin for ADC

22 GND GROUND

23 PC0 (ADC0) Pin0 of ADC0 (ADC Input Channel 0)

PORTC

24 PC1 (ADC1) Pin1 of ADC1 (ADC Input Channel 1)

PORTC

25 PC2 (ADC2) Pin2 of ADC2 (ADC Input Channel 2)

PORTC

26 PC3 (ADC3) Pin3 of ADC3 (ADC Input Channel 3)

PORTC

27 PC4 (ADC4/SDA) Pin4 of ADC4 (ADC Input Channel 4)

PORTC
SDA (Two-wire Serial Bus Data Input/output
Line)

28 PC5 (ADC5/SCL) Pin5 of ADC5 (ADC Input Channel 5)

PORTC
SCL (Two-wire Serial Bus Clock Line)

Introduction to Arduino Programming:

Arduino IDE
The Arduino IDE is open-source software, which is used to write and upload code to the Arduino boards.
The IDE application is suitable for different operating systems such as Windows, Mac OS X, and
Linux. It supports the programming languages C and C++. Here, IDE stands for Integrated
Development Environment.

The Arduino IDE will appear as:

68
The program or code written in the Arduino IDE is often called as sketching. We need to connect the
Genuino and Arduino board with the IDE to upload the sketch written in the Arduino IDE software. The
sketch is saved with the extension '.ino.

Toolbar Button
The icons displayed on the toolbar are New, Open, Save, Upload, and Verify

It is shown below:

Upload
The Upload button compiles and runs our code written on the screen. It further uploads the code to the
connected board. Before uploading the sketch, we need to make sure that the correct board and ports are
selected.

We also need a USB connection to connect the board and the computer. Once all the above measures
are done, click on the Upload button present on the toolbar.

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Open

The Open button is used to open the already created file. The selected file will be opened in the current
window.

Save

The save button is used to save the current sketch or code.

New

It is used to create a new sketch or opens a new window.

Verify

The Verify button is used to check the compilation error of the sketch or the written code.

Serial Monitor

The serial monitor button is present on the right corner of the toolbar. It opens the serial monitor.

Arduino Functions
The functions allow a programmer to divide a specific code into various sections, and each section
performs a particular task. The functions are created to perform a task multiple times in a program.

The function is a type of procedure that returns the area of code from which it is called.

For example, to repeat a task multiple times in code, we can use the same set of statements every time
the task is performed.

Advantages of using Functions

Let's discuss some advantages of using functions in programming, which are listed below:

 It increases the readability of the code.

 It conceives and organizes the program.
 It reduces the chances of errors.
 It makes the program compact and small.
 It avoids the repetition of the set of statements or codes.
 It allows us to divide a complex code or program into a simpler one.
 The modification becomes easier with the help of functions in a program.

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BUILT IN FUNCTIONS
The Arduino programming language comes with a huge array of built in functions that are useful for
all of our projects. These built in functions allow us to save time on the programming side of our builds.
We don't have to spend time developing our own functions, we can just use the ones that are provided.

The Arduino has two common functions setup() and loop(), which are called automatically in the
background. The code to be executed is written inside the curly braces within these functions.The
Arduino void setup and void loop functions are mandatory.

Void setup ()

void setup() - It includes the initial part of the code, which is executed only once. It is called as
the preparation block.

As the void setup function is called only once at the very beginning of the program, this will be the
place to:

 Initialize variables’ values.

 Setup communications (ex: Serial).
 Setup modes for digital pins (input/output).
 Initialize any hardware component (sensor/actuator) plugged to the Arduino.
 Etc.
The void setup, as its name suggest, is made for you to do any setup required at the beginning of the
program. Don’t write the core functionalities here, just the initialization code.

Depending on the complexity of your program, you may have a lot of instructions to write in that void
function. You can create new functions that you call from the void setup, no problem with that.

Void loop ():

void loop() - It includes the statements, which are executed repeatedly. It is called the execution
block.

Now, in the void loop you’ll write your main program, knowing that the initialization is already done.
In this function, always keep in mind that the last line is followed by the first line!

Also, any variable you’ve declared inside the void loop will be lost when the program exits and enters
the function again. So, if you want to be able to keep data between 2 void loop, make sure to declare
variables in a more global scope.

As for void setup, there’s no need to write all the code directly in the function. You can create as many
other functions as you want (and classes too), and call those functions in the void loop. Ideally, the void
loop should contain just a few lines calling other functions.

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DIGITALWRITE ()

The digital Write () function is used to control the voltage that is output from a digital pin on the
Arduino board. This is usually written in the loop() function of a sketch.

Syntax:
digitalWrite(pin, value)
Parameters:
pin: the pin number to be used
value: HIGH or LOW

When reading or writing to a digital pin there are only two possible values a pin can take/be-set-
to: HIGH and LOW. If the pin has been configured as an OUTPUT with pinMode(), its voltage will be
set to 5 volts for HIGH and 0 volts for LOW.

Example:
int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to digital pin 13

void setup()
{
pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin as output
}

void loop()
{
digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); // sets the LED on
delay(1000); // waits for a second
digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW); // sets the LED off
delay(1000); // waits for a second
}

DIGITALREAD ()
The digital Read () function reads the value from a specified digital pin, either HIGH or LOW. It will
read voltage connected to the digital pin as either HIGH or LOW, on or off.

Syntax:
digitalRead(pin)

Parameters:
pin: the number of the digital pin you want to read (int)

Example:
Sets pin 13 to the same value as pin 7, declared as an input.

int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to digital pin 13

int inPin = 7; // pushbutton connected to digital pin 7
int val = 0; // variable to store the read value

void setup()
{
pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the digital pin 13 as output

72
 pinMode(inPin, INPUT); // sets the digital pin 7 as input
}

void loop()
{
val = digitalRead(inPin); // read the input pin
digitalWrite(ledPin, val); // sets the LED to the button's value
}
DELAY()
Pauses the program for the amount of time (in miliseconds) specified as parameter. (There are 1000
milliseconds in a second.)

Syntax:
delay(ms)

Parameters:
ms: the number of milliseconds to pause.

ANALOGWRITE ():
Writes an analog value (PWM wave) to a pin. Can be used to light a LED at varying brightness’s or
drive a motor at various speeds. After a call to analogWrite(), the pin will generate a steady square
wave of the specified duty cycle until the next call to analogWrite(). On the Arduino UNO, analog
pins 0 - 5, digital pins 11, 10, 9, 6, 5, 3 and use the analogWrite() function

Syntax:
analogWrite(pin, value)

Parameters:
pin: the pin to write to.
value: the dutycycle: between 0 (always off) and 255 (always on).

Example:
This example sets the output to the LED proportional to the value read from the potentiometer. Tjhis
will allow us to control the brightness of an LED using a potentiometer.

int ledPin = 9; // LED connected to digital pin 9

int analogPin = 3; // potentiometer connected to analog pin 3
int val = 0; // variable to store the read value

void setup()
{
pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the pin as output
}

void loop()
{
val = analogRead(analogPin); // read the input pin
analogWrite(ledPin, val / 4); // analogRead values go from 0 to 1023, analogWrite values from 0 to
255
}

73
ANALOGREAD ():
Reads the value from the specified analog pin. It will map input voltages between 0 and 5 volts into
integer values between 0 and 1023.

Syntax:
analogRead(pin)

Parameters:
pin: the number of the analog input pin to read from (0 to 5 on most boards)

Returns:
int (0 to 1023)

Example:
This example reads a value from a potentiometer.

int analogPin = 3; // potentiometer middle pin connected to analog pin 3

// outside leads to ground and +5V
int val = 0; // variable to store the value read

void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600); // setup serial
}

void loop()
{
val = analogRead(analogPin); // read the input pin
Serial.println(val); // debug value
}

Description
Built In function
This function is called once, when the program
starts, and when the Arduino is shut down and
setup() restarted.
This function is repeatedly called while the
Arduino program is running.
loop()
Reads the value from a digital pin. Accepts a pin
number as a parameter, and returns
digitalRead() the HIGH or LOW constant.
Writes a HIGH or LOW value to a digital output
pin. You pass the pin number
digitalWrite() and HIGH or LOW as parameters.
Sets a pin to be an input, or an output. You pass
the pin number and
pinMode() the INPUT or OUTPUT value as parameters.

74
 Reads the value from an analog pin.
analogRead()
writes an analog value to a pin
analogWrite()
pauses the program for a number of
milliseconds specified as parameter
delay()

Your first Arduino program will surely involve making a led turn on the light, and then
turn off.

75
 UNIT-II
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
EMBEDDED SYSTEM:
An Electronic/Electro mechanical system which is designed to perform a specific function
and is a combination of both hardware and firmware (Software)

EXAMPLES:

Electronic Toys,

Mobile Handsets,

Washing Machines, Air Conditioners,

Automotive Control Units,

Set Top Box, DVD Player etc…

Embedded Systems are:

 Unique in character and behavior

 With specialized hardware and software

History of Embedded Systems:

First Recognized Modern Embedded System: Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) developed
by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. It has two modules

 1.Command module (CM) 2. Lunar Excursion module (LEM)

 RAM size 256, 1K ,2K words
 ROM size 4K,10K,36K words
 Clock frequency is 1.024MHz
 5000 ,3-input RTL NOR gates are used
 User interface is DSKY (display/Keyboard)

60
 Embedded Systems Vs General Computing Systems:

General Purpose Computing System Embedded System

A system which is a combination ofgeneric A system which is a combination of special
hardware and General Purpose Operating System purpose hardware and embedded OSfor
for executing a varietyof applications executing a specific set of applications
Contain a General Purpose Operating System May or may not contain an operating system
(GPOS) for functioning
Applications are alterable (programmable)by The firmware of the embedded systemis
user (It is possible for the end user to re-install the pre-programmed and it is non-alterable by
Operating System, and add or removeuser end-user
applications)
Performance is the keydeciding factor onthe Application specific requirements (lik
selection of the system. Always „Faster is Better‟ performance, power requirements, memory
usage etc) are the keydeciding factors
Less/not at all tailored towards reduced operating Highly tailored to take advantage of the
power requirements, options for different levels power saving modes supported by hardware
of power management. and Operating System
Response requirements are not time critical For certain category of embedded systems
like mission critical systems, the response
time requirement is highly critical
Execution behavior is deterministic fo
Need not be deterministic in execution behavior certain type of embedded systems like „Hard
Real Time‟ systems

CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

 Based on Generation
 Based on Complexity & Performance
 Based on deterministic behavior
 Based on Triggering

Embedded Systems - Classification based on Generation:

First Generation: The early embedded systems built around 8-bit microprocessors

like 8085 and Z80 and 4-bit microcontrollers with simple hardware and firmware.

EX. stepper motor control units, Digital Telephone Keypads etc.

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 Second Generation: Embedded Systems built around 16-bit microprocessors and 8

or 16-bit microcontrollers, following the first generation embedded systems

EX. SCADA, Data Acquisition Systems etc

Third Generation: Embedded Systems built around high performance 16/32 bit
Microprocessors/controllers, Application Specific Instruction set processors like
Digital Signal Processors (DSPs), and Application Specific Integrated Circuits
(ASICs).The instruction set is complex and powerful.

Ex: Robotics, industrial process control, networking etc.

Fourth Generation: Embedded Systems built around System on Chips (SoC’s),

Re- configurable processors and multicore processors. It brings high
performance, tight integration and miniaturization into the embedded device
market

Ex: Smart phone devices, MIDs etc.

Embedded Systems - Classification based on Complexity & Performance

Small Scale:
The embedded systems built around low performance and low cost 8 or 16 bit
microprocessors/ microcontrollers. It is suitable for simple applications and
where performance is not time critical. It may or may not contain OS.
 washing machine.
 Oven.
 Automatic Door Lock.
 Motion Controlled Home Security System.
 Keyboard controller.
 CD Drive.
 fax machine.
Medium Scale:
Embedded Systems built around medium performance, low cost 16- or 32-bit
microprocessors / microcontrollers or DSPs. These are slightly complex in hardware and
firmware. It may contain GPOS/RTOS.Various examples of medium scale embedded

62
 systems are routers for networking, ATM (is. Automated Teller Machine for bank
transactional machines etc.

Large Scale/Complex:
 Embedded Systems built around high performance 32- or 64-bit RISC
processors/controllers, RSoC or multi-core processors and PLD.
 It requires complex hardware and software.
 This system may contain multiple processors/controllers and co-units/hardware
accelerators for offloading the processing requirements from the main processor.

 It contains RTOS for scheduling, prioritization and management.

Classification Based on deterministic behavior:
These are classified into two types

Event Triggered: Activities within the system (e.g., task run-times) are dynamic and depend
upon occurrence of different events.

Time triggered: Activities within the system follow a statically computed schedule (i.e., they
are allocated time slots during which they can take place) and thus by nature are predictable.

Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems:

Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras etc.
Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, Fridge,
Microwave Oven etc.
Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, Intruder
detection alarms, Closed Circuit Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.
Automotive Industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), Engine Control,
Ignition Systems, Automatic Navigation Systems etc.
Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset Multimedia
pplications etc
Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.
Computer Networking Systems: Network Routers, Switches, Hubs, Firewalls
etc.
Health Care: Different Kinds of Scanners, EEG, ECG Machines etc.
Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, Digital CROs, Logic
Analyzers PLC systems etc.

63
Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) and Currency counters,
Point of Sales (POS)
Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand held Devices etc.

Purpose of Embedded Systems:

Each Embedded Systems is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks.
 Data Collection/Storage/Representation
 Data Communication
 Data (Signal) Processing
 Monitoring
 Control
 Application Specific User Interface

Data Collection/Storage/Representation
Performs acquisition of data from the external world. The data may be text, audio, video or
any physical quantities. The collected data can be either analog or digital. Data collection is
usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation and transmission. The collected data may be
stored directly in the system or may be transmitted to some other systems or it may be
processed by the system or it may be deleted instantly.

Example: Digital Camera

64
Data Communication:-

Embedded Data communication systems are deployed in applications ranging from complex
satellite communication systems to simple home networking systems. Embedded Data
communication systems are dedicated for data communication. The data communication can
happen through a wired interface (like Ethernet, RS-232C/USB/IEEE1394 etc) or wireless
interface (like Wi-Fi, GSM,/GPRS, Bluetooth, ZigBee etc)

 Network hubs, Routers, switches, Modems etc are typical examples for dedicated data
transmission embedded systems

Data (Signal) Processing

 Embedded systems with Signal processing functionalities are employed in applications
demanding signal processing like Speech coding, synthesis, audio video codec,
transmission applications etc

 Computationally intensive systems Employs Digital Signal Processors (DSPs)

65
4. Monitoring:-

Embedded systems coming under this category are specifically designed for monitoring
purpose. They are used for determining the state of some variables using input sensors.They
cannot impose control over variables. Measuring instruments like Digital CRO, Digital Multi
meter, Logic Analyzer etc used in Control & Instrumentation applications are also examples of
embedded systems for monitoring purpose. Electro Cardiogram (ECG) machine for monitoring
the heartbeat of a patient is a typical example for this. The sensors used in ECG are the different
Electrodes connected to the patient’s body

5. Control:

Embedded systems with control functionalities are used for imposing control over some
variables according to the changes in input variables. Embedded system with control
functionality contains both sensors and actuators. Sensors are connected to the input port for
capturing the changes in environmental variable or measuring variable.The actuators connected
to the output port are controlled according to the changes in input variable to put an impact on
the controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the specified range

 Air conditioner for controlling room temperature is a typical example for embedded
system with „Control‟ functionality

66
Air conditioner contains a room temperature sensing element (sensor) which may be a
thermistor and a handheld unit for setting up (feeding) the desired temperature.The air
compressor unit acts as the actuator. The compressor is controlled according to the current
room temperature and the desired temperature set by the end user.

Embedded systems possess certain specific characteristics and these are unique to each
Embedded system.

Characteristics of Embedded systems:

 Application and domain specific

 Reactive and Real Time

 Operates in harsh environments

 Distributed

 Small Size and weight

 Power concerns

1. Application and Domain Specific:-

Each E. S has certain functions to perform and they are developed in such a manner to do the
intended functions only. They cannot be used for any other purpose.

Ex – The embedded control units of the microwave oven cannot be replaced with AC’s
embedded control unit because the embedded control units of microwave oven and AC are
specifically designed to perform certain specific tasks.

2. Reactive and Real Time: -

E.S are in constant interaction with the real world through sensors and user-defined input
devices which are connected to the input port of the system. Any changes in the real world are
captured by the sensors or input devices in real time and the control algorithm running inside
the unit reacts in a designed manner to bring the controlled output variables to the desired level.
E.S produce changes in output in response to the changes in the input, so they are referred as
reactive systems.

Real Time system operation means the timing behavior of the system should be deterministic
i.e the system should respond to requests in a known amount of time.

67
Example – E.S which are mission critical like flight control systems, Antilock Brake Systems
(ABS) etc are Real Time systems.

3. Operates in Harsh Environment :–

The design of E.S should take care of the operating conditions of the area where the system is
going to implement. Ex – If the system needs to be deployed in a high temperature zone, then
all the components used in the system should be of high temperature grade.Also proper shock
absorption techniques should be provided to systems which are going to be commissioned in
places subject to high shock.

4. Distributed: –

It means that embedded systems may be a part of a larger system. Many numbers of such
distributed embedded systems form a single large embedded control unit.

Ex – Automatic vending machine. It contains a card reader, a vending unit etc. Each of them
are independent embedded units but they work together to perform the overall vending
function.

5. Small Size and Weight:-

Product aesthetics (size, weight, shape, style, etc) is an important factor in choosing a product.

It is convenient to handle a compact device than a bulky product.

6. Power Concerns: -

Power management is another important factor that needs to be considered in designing

embedded systems.

E.S should be designed in such a way as to minimize the heat dissipation by the system.

Quality Attributes of Embedded System:

Quality attributes are the non-functional requirements that need to be documented properly in
any system design

Quality attributes can be classified as

1. Operational quality attributes

2. Non-operational quality attributes.

68
1. Operational quality attributes

The operational quality attributes represent the quality attributes related to the embedded
system when it is in the operational mode or online mode

The Operational Quality Attributes are

 Response

 Throughput

 Reliability

 Maintainability

 Security

 Saftey

1. Response:

It is the measure of quickness of the system.It tells how fast the system is tracking the changes
in input variables. Most of the E.S demands fast response which should be almost real time.

Ex – Flight control application

2. Throughput

It deals with the efficiency of a system. It can be defined as the rate of production or operation
of a defined process over a stated period of time.The rates can be expressed in terms of
products, batches produced or any other meaningful measurements.

Ex – In case of card reader throughput means how many transactions the reader can perform
in a minute or in an hour or in a day.

3. Reliability:

It is a measure of how much we can rely upon the proper functioning of the system.

Mean Time between Failure (MTBF) and Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) are the terms used
in determining system reliability.MTBF gives the frequency of failures in hours/weeks/months.

69
MTTR specifies how long the system is allowed to be out of order following a failure.For
embedded system with critical application need, it should be of the order of minutes.

4. Maintainability:

It deals with support and maintenance to the end user or client in case of technical issues and
product failure or on the basis of a routine system checkup.Reliability and maintainability are
complementary to each other.A more reliable system means a system with less corrective
maintainability requirements and vice versa. Maintainability can be broadly classified into two
categories. Scheduled or Periodic maintenance (Preventive maintenance), Corrective
maintenance to unexpected failures

5. Security:

Confidentiality, Integrity and availability are the three major measures of information security.

Confidentiality deals with protection of data and application from unauthorized disclosure.

Integrity deals with the protection of data and application from unauthorized modification.

Availability deals with protection of data and application from unauthorized users.

6. Saftey:

Safety deals with the possible damages that can happen to the operator, public and the
environment due to the breakdown of an Embedded System. The breakdown of an embedded
system may occur due to a hardware failure or a firmware failure. Safety analysis is a must in
product engineering to evaluate the anticipated damages and determine the best course of action
to bring down the consequences of damage to an acceptable level.

70
Non Operational Quality Attributes:
The quality attributes that needs to be addressed for the product not on the basis of operational
aspects are grouped under this category.

The Non Operational Quality Attributes are

 Testability and Debugability

 Evolvability

 Portability

 Time to Prototype and Market

 Per Unit Cost and Revenue

1. Testability and Debugability:

Testability deals with how easily one can test the design, application and by which means
it can be done.For an E.S testability is applicable to both the embedded hardware and
firmware. Embedded hardware testing ensures that the peripherals and total hardware
functions in the desired manner, whereas firmware testing ensures that the firmware is
functioning in the expected way

Debug-ability is a means of debugging the product from unexpected behavior in the system

Debug-ability is two level process

1. Hardware level 2.software level

1. Hardware level: It is used for finding the issues created by hardware problems.

2. Software level: It is employed for finding the errors created bythe flaws in the software

2. Evolvability:-

 It is a term which is closely related to Biology.

 It is referred as the non-heritable variation.

 For an embedded system evolvability refers to the ease with which the embedded
product can be modified to take advantage of new firmware or hardware technologies.

71
 3. Portability: -

 It is the measure of system independence.

An embedded product is said to be portable if the product is capable of functioning in

various environments, target processors and embedded operating systems

4. Time-to-Prototype and Market:-

 It is the time elapsed between the conceptualization of a product and the time at which
the product is ready for selling.

 The commercial embedded product market is highly competitive and time to market
the product is critical factor in the success of commercial embedded product.

 There may be multiple players in embedded industrywho develop products of the same
category (like mobile phone).

5. Per Unit Cost and Revenue:-

 Cost is a factor which is closely monitored by both end user and product manufacturer.

 Cost is highly sensitive factor for commercial products

 Any failure to position the cost of a commercial product at a nominal rate may lead to
the failure of the product in the market.

 Proper market study and cost benefit analysis should be carried out before taking a
decision on the per-unit cost of the embedded product.

 The ultimate aim of the product is to generate marginal profit so the budget and total
cost should be properly balanced to provide a marginal profit.

72
 MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

UNIT-III
TYPICAL EMBEDDED SYSTEM
ELEMENTS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:
An embedded system is a combination of 3 things, Hardware Software Mechanical
Components and it is supposed to do one specific task only. A typical embedded system contains
a single chip controller which acts as the master brain of the system. Diagrammatically an
embedded system can be represented as follows:

FPGA/ASIC/DSP/SoC
Embedded
Microprocessor/controller
Firmware

Memory

Communication Interface

System
I/p Ports Core O/p Ports
(Sensors) (Actuators)

Other supporting
Integrated Circuits &
subsystems

Embedded System
Real World

Embedded systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable (such Microwave
Oven) or to manipulate the state of some devices by sending some signals to the actuators or
devices connected to the output port system (such as temperature in Air Conditioner), in
response to the input signal provided by the end users or sensors which are connected to the
input ports.

Dept. of ECE 73
MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

The control is achieved by processing the information coming from the sensors and user
interfaces and controlling some actuators that regulate the physical variable.
Keyboards, push button, switches, etc. are Examples of common user interface input devices
and LEDs, LCDs, Piezoelectric buzzers, etc examples for common user interface output
devices for a typical embedded system.The requirement of type of user interface changes from
application to application based on domain.
Some embedded systems do not require any manual intervention for their operation. They
automatically sense the input parameters from real world through sensors which are connected
at input port. The sensor information is passed to the processor after signal conditioning and
digitization. The core of the system performs some predefined operations on input data with
the help of embedded firmware in the system and sends some actuating signals to the actuator
connect connected to the output port of the system.
The memory of the system is responsible for holding the code (control algorithm and
other important configuration details). There are two types of memories are used in any
embedded system. Fixed memory (ROM) is used for storing code or program. The user
cannot change the firmware in this type of memory. The most common types of memories
used in embedded systems for control algorithm storage are
OTP,PROM,UVEPROM,EEPROM and FLASH
An embedded system without code (i.e. the control algorithm) implemented memory has
all the peripherals but is not capable of making decisions depending on the situational as well
as real world changes.
Memory for implementing the code may be present on the processor or may be
implemented as a separate chip interfacing the processor
In a controller based embedded system, the controller may contain internal memory for
storing code such controllers are called Micro-controllers with on-chip ROM, eg. Atmel
AT89C51.
 MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

The Core of the Embedded Systems: The core ofthe embedded system falls into anyone
of the following categories.

General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors

o Microprocessors
o Microcontrollers
o Digital Signal Processors
Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)

 
Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)

 
Commercial off the shelf Components (COTS)

GENERAL PURPOSE AND DOMAIN SPECIFIC PROCESSOR:

Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/ controller based.
The processor may be microprocessor or a microcontroller or digital signal processor,
depending on the domain and application.
Microprocessor:
A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is capable of
performing arithmetic as well as logical operations according to a pre-defined set of
Instructions, which is specific to the manufacturer

In general the CPU contains the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit and
Working registers

Microprocessor is a dependant unit and it requires the combination of other hardware like
Memory, Timer Unit, and Interrupt Controller etc for proper functioning.

Intel claims the credit for developing the first Microprocessor unit Intel 4004, a 4 bit
processor which was released in Nov 1971

· Developers of microprocessors.
Intel – Intel 4004 – November 1971(4-bit)
Intel – Intel 4040.
Intel – Intel 8008 – April 1972.
Intel – Intel 8080 – April 1974(8-bit).
Motorola – Motorola 6800.
Intel– Intel 8085 – 1976.
Zilog - Z80 – July 1976
 MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

Microcontroller:

A highly integrated silicon chip containing a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and General
purpose Register Arrays, On Chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage, Timer and
Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports

Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set of Microprocessors

Microcontroller can be general purpose (like Intel 8051, designed for generic applications
and domains) or application specific (Like Automotive AVR from Atmel Corporation.
Designed specifically for automotive applications)

Since a microcontroller contains all the necessary functional blocks for independent working,
they found greater place in the embedded domain in place of microprocessors

Microcontrollers are cheap, cost effective and are readily available in the market

Texas Instruments TMS 1000 is considered as the world‟s first microcontroller

Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller:

Microprocessor Microcontroller
A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that
(CPU), which is capable of performing arithmetic as contains a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and
well as logical operations according to a pre-defined set General purpose Register Arrays, On Chip
of Instructions ROM/FLASH memory for program storage, Timer
and Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports
It is a dependent unit. It requires the combination of It is a self contained unit and it doesn’t require
other chips like Timers, Program and data memory external Interrupt Controller, Timer, UART etc for
chips, Interrupt controllers etc for functioning its functioning

Most of the time general purpose in design and Mostlyapplication oriented or domain specific
operation
Doesn‟t contain a built in I/O port. The I/O Port Most ofthe processors contain multiple built-in I/O
functionality needs to be implemented with the help of ports which can be operated as a single 8 or 16 or 32
external Programmable Peripheral Interface Chips like bit Port or as individual port pins
8255
Targeted for high end market where performance is Targeted for embedded market where performance is
important not so critical (At present this demarcation is invalid)

Limited power saving options compared to Includes lot ofpower saving features
microcontrollers
 MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

General Purpose Processor (GPP) Vs Application Specific Instruction Set Processor (ASIP)

General Purpose Processor or GPP is a processor designed for general computational tasks

GPPs are produced in large volumes and targeting the general market. Due to the high
volume production, the per unit cost for a chip is low compared to ASIC or other specific
ICs

A typical general purpose processor contains an Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and Control
Unit (CU)

Application Specific Instruction Set processors (ASIPs) are processors with architecture
and instruction set optimized to specific domain/application requirements like Network
processing, Automotive, Telecom, media applications, digital signal processing, control
applications etc.

ASIPs fill the architectural spectrum between General Purpose Processors and Application
Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)

The need for an ASIP arises when the traditional general purpose processor are unable to meet the
increasing application needs

Some Microcontrollers (like Automotive AVR, USB AVR from Atmel), System on Chips,
Digital Signal Processors etc are examples of Application Specific Instruction Set
Processors (ASIPs)

ASIPs incorporate a processor and on-chip peripherals, demanded by the application requirement,
program and data memory

Digital Signal Processors (DSPs):

Powerful special purpose 8/16/32 bit microprocessors designed specifically to meet the
computational demands and power constraints of today's embedded audio, video, and
communications applications

Digital Signal Processors are 2 to 3 times faster than the general-purpose microprocessors
in signal processing applications

DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution whereas general
purpose processors implement the algorithm in firmware and the speed of execution
depends primarily on the clock for the processors

DSP can be viewed as a microchip designed for performing high speed computational
MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes
operations for „addition‟, „subtraction‟, „multiplication‟ and „division‟
 MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

A typical Digital Signal Processor incorporates the following keyunits


Program Memory

Data Memory


Computational Engine

I/O Unit

Audio video signal processing, telecommunication and multimedia applications are

typical examples where DSP is employed

RISC V/s CISC Processors/Controllers:

RISC CISC
Lesser no. of instructions Greater no. of Instructions
Instruction Pipelining and increased execution Generally no instruction pipelining feature
speed
Orthogonal Instruction Set (Allows each instruction Non Orthogonal Instruction Set (All instructions
to operate on anyregister and use anyaddressing are not allowed to operate on anyregister and
mode) use any addressing mode. It is instruction
specific)
Operations are performed on registers only, the Operations are performed on registers or
only memoryoperations are load and store memory depending on the instruction

Large number of registers are available Limited no. of general purpose registers
Programmer needs to write more code to execute a . A programmer can achieve the desired
task since the instructions are simpler ones functionalitywith a single instruction which in
turn provides the effect of using more simpler
single instructions in RISC
Single, Fixed length Instructions Variable length Instructions

Less Silicon usage and pin count More silicon usage since more additional
decoder logic is required to implement the
complex instruction decoding.
With Harvard Architecture Can be Harvard or Von-Neumann Architecture
MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

Harvard V/s Von-Neumann Processor/Controller Architecture

The terms Harvard and Von-Neumann refers to the processor architecture design.

Microprocessors/controllers based on the Von-Neumann architecture shares a single

common bus for fetching both instructions and data. Program instructions and data are
stored in a common main memory

Microprocessors/controllers based on the Harvard architecture will have separate data bus
and instruction bus. This allows the data transfer and program fetching to occur
simultaneously on both buses
With Harvard architecture, the data memory can be read and written while the program
memory is being accessed. These separated data memory and code memory buses allow
one instruction to execute while the next instruction is fetched (“Pre-fetching”)

I/O CPU Memory

Program Data Memory
CPU
Memory

Single shared Bus

Harvard V/s Von-Neumann Processor/Controller Architecture:

Harvard Architecture Von-Neumann Architecture

Separate buses for Instruction and Data fetching Single shared bus for Instruction and Data
fetching
Easier to Pipeline, so high performance can be Low performance Compared to Harvard
achieved Architecture
Comparatively high cost Cheaper
No memoryalignment problems Allows self modifying codes†
Since data memory and program memoryare Since data memory and program memory
stored physically in different locations, no are stored physically in same chip, chances
chances for accidental corruption of program for accidental corruption of program
memory memory
MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC):

A microchip designed to perform a specific or unique application. It is used as replacement
to conventional general purpose logic chips.

ASIC integrates several functions into a single chip and thereby reduces the system
development cost

Most of the ASICs are proprietary products. As a single chip, ASIC consumes very small
area in the total system and thereby helps in the design of smaller systems with high
capabilities/functionalities.

ASICs can be pre-fabricated for a special application or it can be custom fabricated by

using the components from a re-usable „building block‟ library of components for a
particular customer application

Fabrication of ASICs requires a non-refundable initial investment (Non Recurring

Engineering (NRE) charges) for the process technology and configuration expenses

If the Non-Recurring Engineering Charges (NRE) is born by a third party and the
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) is made openly available in the market, the
ASIC is referred as Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP)

The ASSP is marketed to multiple customers just as a general-purpose product , but to a

smaller number of customers since it is for a specific application.
MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

Some ASICs are proprietaryproducts , the developers are not interested in revealing the
internal details.

Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs):


Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-to-device interfacing, data
communication, signal processing, data display, timing and control operations, and almost
every other function a system must perform.

Logic devices can be classified into two broad categories - Fixed and Programmable. The
circuits in a fixed logic device are permanent, they perform one function or set of functions
- once manufactured, they cannot be changed

Programmable logic devices (PLDs) offer customers a wide range of logic capacity,
features, speed, and voltage characteristics - and these devices can be re-configured to
perform any number of functions at any time

Designers can use inexpensive software tools to quickly develop, simulate, and test their
logic designs in PLD based design. The design can be quickly programmed into a device,
and immediately tested in a live circuit

PLDs are based on re-writable memory technology and the device is reprogrammed to
change the design

Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) – CPLDs and FPGA

Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) and Complex Programmable Logic Devices
(CPLDs) are the two major types of programmable logic devices

FPGA:
FPGA is an IC designed to be configured bya designer after manufacturing.

FPGAs offer the highest amount of logic density, the most features, and the highest
performance.

Logic gate is Medium to high densityranging from 1K to 500K system gates

MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

These advanced FPGA devices also offer features such as built-in hardwired processors
(such as the IBM Power PC), substantial amounts of memory, clock management systems,
and support for many of the latest, very fast device-to-device signaling technologies

Figure: FPGA Architecture

These advanced FPGA devices also offer features such as built-in hardwired processors,
substantial amounts of memory, clock management systems, and support for many of the
latest, very fast device-to-device signaling technologies.

FPGAs are used in a wide variety of applications ranging from data processing and
storage, to instrumentation, telecommunications, and digital signal processing

CPLD:

A complex programmable logic device (CPLD) is a programmable logic device with
complexity between that of PALs and FPGAs, and architectural features of both.

CPLDs, by contrast, offer much smaller amounts of logic - up to about 10,000 gates.

CPLDs offer verypredictable timing characteristics and are therefore ideal for critical
control applications.
MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

CPLDs such as the Xilinx CoolRunner series also require extremely low amounts of power
and are very inexpensive, making them ideal for cost-sensitive, battery-operated, portable
applications such as mobile phones and digital handheld assistants.

ADVANTAGES OF PLDs:

• PLDs offer customer much more flexibility during design cycle

• PLDSs do not require long lead times for prototype or production-the PLDs are already
on a distributor‟s self and ready for shipment

• PLDs do not require customers to pay for large NRE costs and purchase expensive mask
sets

• PLDs allow customers to order just the number of parts required when they need them.
allowing them to control inventory.

• PLDs are reprogrammable even after a piece of equipment is shipped to a customer.

• The manufacturers able to add new features or upgrade the PLD based products that are
in the field by uploading new programming file

Commercial off the Shelf Component (COTS):

A Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) product is one which is used „as-is‟

COTS products are designed in such a wayto provide easy integration and
interoperability with existing system components
MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

Typical examples for the COTS hardware unit are Remote Controlled Toy Car control unit
including the RF Circuitry part, High performance, high frequency microwave electronics
(2 to 200 GHz), High bandwidth analog-to-digital converters, Devices and components for
operation at very high temperatures, Electro-optic IR imaging arrays, UV/IR Detectors etc

A COTS component in turn contains a General Purpose Processor (GPP) or Application

Specific Instruction Set Processor (ASIP) or Application Specific Integrated Chip
(ASIC)/Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP) or Programmable Logic Device
(PLD)

The major advantage of using COTS is that they are readily available in the market,
cheap and a developer can cut down his/her development time to a great extend.

There is no need to design the module yourself and write the firmware .

Everything will be readily supplied by the COTs manufacturer.

 MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

Sensors & Actuators:

• Embedded system is in constant interaction with the real world

• Controlling/monitoring functions executed by the embedded system is achieved in

accordance with the changes happening to the Real World.

• The changes in the system environment or variables are detected bythe sensors
connected to the input port of the embedded system.

• If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose, the system will produce
some changes in controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the desired value.

• It is achieved through an actuator connected to the out port of the embedded system.

Sensor:
A transducer device which converts energy from one form to another for any
measurement or control purpose. Sensors acts as input device

Eg. Hall Effect Sensor which measures the distance between the cushion and magnet in
the Smart Running shoes from adidas

Example: IR, humidity , PIR(passive infra red) , ultrasonic , piezoelectric , smoke

sensors
MRCET ECE ES UNIT-3 Notes

Actuator:

A form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical)

which converts signals to corresponding physical action
(motion). Actuator acts as an output device

Eg. Micro motor actuator which adjusts the position of

the cushioning element in the Smart Running shoes
from adidas
MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES
Communication Interface:
• Communication interface is essential for communicating with various subsystems of the
embedded system and with the external world

• The communication interface can be viewed in two different perspectives; namely;

1. Device/board level communication interface (Onboard Communication Interface)

2. Product level communication interface (External Communication Interface)

1. Device/board level communication interface (Onboard Communication Interface):

The communication channel which interconnects the various components within an
embedded product is referred as Device/board level communication interface (Onboard
Communication Interface)

 Examples: Serial interfaces like I2C, SPI, UART, 1-Wire etc and Parallel bus interface

2. Product level communication interface (External Communication Interface):

The „Product level communication interface‟ (External Communication Interface) is

responsible for data transfer between the embedded system and other devices or modules. The
external communication interface can be either wired media or wireless media and it can be a serial
or parallel interface.

 Examples for wireless communication interface: Infrared (IR), Bluetooth (BT), Wireless
LAN (Wi-Fi), Radio Frequency waves (RF), GPRS etc.
 Examples for wired interfaces: RS-232C/RS-422/RS 485, USB, Ethernet (TCP-IP), IEEE
1394 port, Parallel port etc.

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES

1. Device/board level or On board communication interfaces: The

Communication channel which interconnects the various components within an embedded product
is referred as Device/board level communication interface (Onboard Communication Interface)

These are classified into

I2C (Inter Integrated Circuit) Bus

SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) Bus

UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter)

1-Wires Interface
Parallel Interface

1 I2C (Inter Integrated Circuit) Bus:

Inter Integrated Circuit Bus (I2C - Pronounced „I square C‟) is a synchronous bi-directional half
duplex (one-directional communication at a given point of time) two wire serial interface bus.The
concept of I2C bus was developed by „Philips Semiconductors‟ in the early 1980‟s. Theoriginal
intention of I2C was to provide an easy way of connection between a
microprocessor/microcontroller system and the peripheral chips in Television sets.

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES
The I2C bus is comprised of two bus lines, namely; Serial Clock – SCL and Serial Data – SDA.

SCL line is responsible for generating synchronization clock pulses and SDA is responsible
for transmitting the serial data across devices.I2C bus is a shared bus system to which many
number of I2C devices can be connected. Devices connected to the I2C bus can act as either
„Master‟ device or „Slave‟ device.
The „Master‟ device is responsible for controlling the communication by
initiating/terminating data transfer, sending data and generating necessary synchronization clock
pulses.

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES
Slave devices wait for the commands from the master and respond upon receiving the
commands. Master and „Slave‟ devices can act as either transmitter or receiver. Regardless
whether a master is acting as transmitter or receiver, the synchronization clock signal is generated
by the „Master‟ device only.I2C supports multi masters on the same bus.
The sequence of operation for communicating with an I2C slave device is:
1. Master device pulls the clock line (SCL) of the bus to „HIGH‟
2. Master device pulls the data line (SDA) „LOW‟, when the SCL line is at logic
„HIGH‟ (This is the „Start‟ condition for data transfer)

3. Master sends the address (7 bit or 10 bit wide) of the „Slave‟ device to which it wants to
communicate, over the SDA line.
4. Clock pulses are generated at the SCL line for synchronizing the bit reception by the
slave device.
5. The MSB of the data is always transmitted first.
6. The data in the bus is valid during the „HIGH‟ period of the clock signal
7. In normal data transfer, the data line onlychanges state when the clock is low.

8. Master waits for the acknowledgement bit from the slave device whose address is sent on
the bus along with the Read/Write operation command.

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES
9. Slave devices connected to the bus compares the address received with the address
assigned to them
10. The Slave device with the address requested bythe master device responds by sending an
acknowledge bit (Bit value =1) over the SDA line
11. Upon receiving the acknowledge bit, master sends the 8bit data to the slave device over
SDA line, if the requested operation is „Write to device‟.
12. If the requested operation is „Read from device‟, the slave device sends data to the
master over the SDA line.
13. Master waits for the acknowledgement bit from the device upon byte transfer complete for
a write operation and sends an acknowledge bit to the slave device for a read operation
14. Master terminates the transfer bypulling the SDA line „HIGH‟ when the clock line SCL
is at logic „HIGH‟ (Indicating the „STOP‟ condition).

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES

1.2 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) Bus:

The Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) is a synchronous bi-directional full duplex four wire
serial interface bus. The concept of SPI is introduced by Motorola.SPI is a single master multi-
slave system.

It is possible to have a system where more than one SPI device can be master, provided
the condition only one master device is active at any given point of time, is satisfied.

SPI is used to send data between Microcontrollers and small peripherals such as shift
registers, sensors, and SD cards.

SPI requires four signal lines for communication. Theyare:

Master Out Slave In (MOSI): Signal line carrying the data from master to slave device. It is
also known as Slave Input/Slave Data In (SI/SDI)
Master In Slave Out (MISO): Signal line carrying the data from slave to master device. It is
also known as Slave Output (SO/SDO)

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES
Serial Clock (SCLK): Signal line carrying the clock signals
Slave Select (SS): Signal line for slave device select. It is an active low signal.
The master device is responsible for generating the clock signal.
Master device selects the required slave device by asserting the corresponding slave devices
slave select signal „LOW‟.
 The data out line (MISO) of all the slave devices when not selected floats at high impedance
state
 The serial data transmission through SPI Bus is fully configurable.
 SPI devices contain certain set of registers for holding these configurations.
 The Serial Peripheral Control Register holds the various configuration parameters like
master/slave selection for the device, baudrate selection for communication, clock signal
control etc.
 The status register holds the status of various conditions for transmission and reception.SPI
works on the principle of „Shift Register‟.
 The master and slave devices contain a special shift register for the data to transmit or receive.
 The size of the shift register is device dependent. Normally it is a multiple of 8.

 During transmission from the master to slave, the data in the master‟s shift register is
shifted out to the MOSI pin and it enters the shift register of the slave device through the
MOSI pin of the slave device.

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES
 At the same time the shifted out data bit from the slave device’s shift register enters the
shift register of the master device through MISO pin

I2C V/S SPI:

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES

PARALLEL COMMUNICATION:
In data transmission, parallel communication is a method of conveying multiple binary
digits (bits) simultaneously. It contrasts with communication. The communication channel is the
number of electrical conductors used at the physical layer to convey bits.
Parallel communication implies more than one such conductor. For example, an 8-bit
parallel channel will convey eight bits (or a byte) simultaneously, whereas a serial channel would
convey those same bits sequentially, one at a time. Parallel communication is and always has been
widely used within integrated circuits, in peripheral buses, and in memory devices such as RAM.

2. Product level communication interface (External Communication

Interface): The Product level communication interface‟ (External Communication Interface) is

responsible for data transfer between the embedded system and other devices or modules

It is classified into two types

1. Wired communication interface
2. Wireless communication interface:
1. Wired communication interface: Wired communication interface is an interface used to
transfer information over a wired network.

It is classified into following types.

1. RS-232C/RS-422/RS 485

2. USB

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES

RS-232C:
 RS-232 C (Recommended Standard number 232, revision C from the Electronic Industry
Association) is a legacy, full duplex, wired, asynchronous serial communication interface
 RS-232 extends the UART communication signals for external data communication.
 UART uses the standard TTL/CMOS logic (Logic „High‟ corresponds to bit value 1 and
Logic „LOW‟ corresponds to bit value 0) for bit transmission whereas RS232 use the EIA
standard for bit transmission.
 As per EIA standard, a logic „0‟ is represented with voltage between +3 and +25V and a
logic „1‟ is represented with voltage between -3 and -25V.
 In EIA standard, logic „0‟ is known as „Space‟ and logic „1‟ as „Mark‟.

The RS232 interface define various handshaking and control signals for communication
apart from the „Transmit‟ and „Receive‟ signal lines for data communication
RS-232 supports two different types of connectors, namely; DB-9: 9-Pin connector and DB-25:
25-Pin connector.

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES

Fig: DB-25:25-Pin connector.

Fig: DB-9:9-Pin connector.

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES

 RS-232 is a point-to-point communication interface and the devices involved in RS-232

communication are called „Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)‟ and „Data Communication
Equipment (DCE)‟.
 If no data flow control is required, only TXD and RXD signal lines and ground line (GND)
are required for data transmission and reception.
 The RXD pin of DCE should be connected to the TXD pin of DTE and vice versa for proper
data transmission.
 If hardware data flow control is required for serial transmission, various control signal lines of
the RS-232 connection are used appropriately.
 The control signals are implemented mainly for modem communication and some of them may
be irrelevant for other type of devices.
 The Request to Send (RTS) and Clear To Send (CTS) signals co-ordinate the communication
between DTE and DCE.
 Whenever the DTE has a data to send, it activates the RTS line and if the DCE is ready to
accept the data, it activates the CTS line.
 The Data Terminal Ready (DTR) signal is activated by DTE when it is readyto accept data.
 The Data Set Ready (DSR) is activated by DCE when it is ready for establishing a
communication link.
 DTR should be in the activated state before the activation of DSR.
 The Data Carrier Detect (DCD) is used by the DCE to indicate the DTE that a good signal is
being received.

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES
 Ring Indicator (RI) is a modem specific signal line for indicating an incoming call on the
telephone line.
 As per the EIA standard RS-232 C supports baudrates up to 20Kbps (Upper limit 19.2Kbps).
 The commonly used baudrates by devices are 300bps, 1200bps, 2400bps, 9600bps,
11.52Kbps and 19.2Kbps.
 The maximum operating distance supported in RS-232 communication is 50 feet at the
highest supported baudrate.
 Embedded devices contain a UART for serial communication and they generate signal levels
conforming to TTL/CMOS logic.
 A level translator IC like MAX 232 from Maxim Dallas semiconductor is used for converting
the signal lines from the UART to RS-232 signal lines for communication.
 On the receiving side the received data is converted back to digital logic level by a converter
IC.
 Converter chips contain converters for both transmitter and receiver.
 RS-232 uses single ended data transfer and supports only point-to-point communication and
not suitable for multi-drop communication.

USB (UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS):

 External Bus Standard.

 Allows connection of peripheral devices.
 Connects Devices such as keyboards, mice, scanners, printers, joysticks, audio
devices, disks.
 Facilitates transfers of data at 480 (USB 2.0 only), 12 or 1.5 Mb/s (mega-
bits/second).
 Developed by a Special Interest Group including Intel, Microsoft, Compact, DEC,
IBM, Northern Telecom and NEC originally in 1994.
 Low-Speed: 10 – 100 kb/s
 1.5 Mb/s signaling bit rate
 Full-Speed: 500 kb/s – 10 Mb/s 12 Mb/s signaling bit rate
 High-Speed: 400 Mb/s

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES
 480 Mb/s signaling bit rate

 NRZI with bit stuffing used

 SYNC field present for everypacket

 There exist two pre-defined connectors in any USB system - Series “A” and Series “B”
Connectors.

 Series “A” cable: Connects USB devices to a hub port.

 Series “B” cable: Connects detachable devices (hot- swappable)

Bus Topology:

 Connects computer to peripheral devices.

 Ultimately intended to replace parallel and serial ports
 Tiered Star Topology
 Alldevices are linked to a common point referred to as the root hub.
7
 Specification allows for up to 127 (2 -1) different devices.

 Four wire cable serves as interconnect of system - power, ground and two differential
signaling lines.
 USB is a polled bus-all transactions are initiated by host.

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES
USB HOST: Device that controls entire system usually a PC of some form. Processes data arriving
to and from the USB port.

USB HUB: Tests for new devices and maintains status information of child devices.Serve as
repeaters, boosting strength of up and downstream signals. Electrically isolates devices from one
another - allowing an expanded number of devices.
2. Wireless communication interface : Wireless communication interface is an interface used to

transmission of information over a distance without help of wires, cables or any other forms of
electrical conductors.

Theyare basically classified into following types

1. Infrared
2. Bluetooth
3. Wi-Fi
4. Zigbee
5. GPRS

INFRARED:

 Infrared is a certain region in the light spectrum

 Ranges from .7µ to 1000µ or .1mm

 Broken into near, mid, and far infrared

 One step up on the light spectrum from visible light

 Measure of heat

Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared. Infrared
radiation is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using
active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer
being detected.

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES

IR transmission:
The transmitter of an IR LED inside its circuit, which emits infrared light for every electric pulse
given to it. This pulse is generated as a button on the remote is pressed, thus completing the circuit,
providing bias to the LED.

The LED on being biased emits light of the wavelength of 940nm as a series of pulses,
corresponding to the button pressed. However since along with the IR LED many other sources
of infrared light such as us human beings, light bulbs, sun, etc, the transmitted information can be
interfered. A solution to this problem is by modulation. The transmitted signal is modulated using
a carrier frequency of 38 KHz (or any other frequency between 36 to 46 KHz). The IR LED is
made to oscillate at this frequency for the time duration of the pulse. The information or the light
signals are pulse width modulated and are contained in the 38 KHz frequency.

IR supports data rates ranging from 9600bits/second to 16Mbps

Serial infrared: 9600bps to 115.2 kbps

Medium infrared: 0.576Mbps to 1.152 Mbps

Fast infrared: 4Mbps

BLUETOOTH:

Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for short distances (using short-wavelength UHF
band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz)for exchanging data over radio waves in the ISM and mobile
devices, and building personal area networks (PANs).Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in
1994, it was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS- 232 data cables.

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES
Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency- hopping spread spectrum. Bluetooth
divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated Bluetooth
channels. Each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs 800 hops per second, with
Adaptive Frequency-Hopping (AFH) enabled

Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK) modulation was the only modulation
scheme available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2.0+EDR, π/4-DQPSK (Differential
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) and 8DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible
devices. Bluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a master- slave structure. One master may
communicate with up to seven slaves in a piconet. All devices share the master's clock. Packet
exchange is based on the basic clock, defined by the master, which ticks at312.5 µs intervals.

A master BR/EDR Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices
in a piconet (an ad-hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though not all devices
reach this maximum. The devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the slave can become the
master (for example, a headset initiating a connection to a phone necessarily begins as master—
as initiator of the connection—but may subsequently operate as slave).

Wi-Fi:
 Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to
provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections 
 Wi-Fi follows the IEEE 802.11 standard
 Wi-Fi is intended for network communication and it supports Internet Protocol (IP) based
communication
 Wi-Fi based communications require an intermediate agent called Wi-Fi router/Wireless
Access point to manage the communications.
 The Wi-Fi router is responsible for restricting the access to a network, assigning IP address to
devices on the network, routing data packets to the intended devices on the network. 

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 Wi-Fi enabled devices contain a wireless adaptor for transmitting and receiving data in the
form of radio signals through an antenna.
 Wi-Fi operates at 2.4GHZ or 5GHZ of radio spectrum and they co-exist with other ISM
band devices like Bluetooth.
 A Wi-Fi network is identified with a Service Set Identifier (SSID). A Wi-Fi device can
connect to a network by selecting the SSID of the network and by providing the credentials
if the network is security enabled
 Wi-Fi networks implements different security mechanisms for authentication and data
transfer.
 Wireless Equivalency Protocol (WEP), Wireless Protected Access (WPA) etc are some of
the security mechanisms supported by Wi-Fi networks in data communication.

ZIGBEE:
Zigbee is an IEEE 802.15.4-based specification for a suite of high- level communication protocols
used to create personal area networks with small, low-power digital radios, such as for home
automation, medical device data collection, and other low-power low-bandwidth needs, designed
for small scale projects which need wireless connection.Hence, zigbee is a low-power, low data
rate, and close proximity (i.e., personal area) wireless ad hoc network.The technology

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES
defined by the zigbee specification is intended to be simpler and less expensive than other
wireless personal area networks (WPANs), such as Bluetooth or Wi-Fi . Applications include
wireless light switches, electrical meters with in-home-displays, traffic management systems, and
other consumer and industrial equipment that require short-range low- rate wireless data transfer.
Its low power consumption limits transmission distances to 10– 100 meters line-of-sight,
depending on power output and environmental characteristics. Zigbee devices can transmit data
over long distances by passing data through a mesh network of intermediate devices to reach
more distant ones.

Zigbee Coordinator: The zigbee coordinator acts as the root of the zigbee network. The ZC is
responsible for initiating the Zigbee network and it has the capability to store information about
the network.

Zigbee Router: Responsible for passing information from device to another device or to another
ZR.

Zigbee end device:End device containing zigbee functionality for data communication. It can talk
only with a ZR or ZC and doesn’t have the capability to act as a mediator for transferring data
from one device to another.

Zigbee supports an operating distance of up to 100 metres at a data rate of 20 to 250 Kbps.

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MRCET ECE ESD UNIT-3 NOTES

General Packet Radio Service(GPRS):

General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data service on the 2G and
3G cellular communication system's global system for mobile communications (GSM).GPRS was
originally standardized by European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) GPRS usage
is typically charged based on volume of data transferred, contrasting with circuit switched data,
which is usually billed per minute of connection time. Sometimes billing time is broken down to
every third of a minute. Usage above the bundle cap is charged per megabyte, speed limited, or
disallowed.

Services offered:

 GPRS extends the GSM Packet circuit switched data capabilities and makes the
following services possible:
 SMS messaging and broadcasting
 "Always on" internet access
 Multimedia messaging service (MMS)
 Push-to-talk over cellular (PoC)
 Instant messaging and presence-wireless village Internet applications for smart devices
through wireless application protocol (WAP).
 Point-to-point (P2P) service: inter-networking with the Internet (IP).
 Point-to-multipoint (P2M) service]: point-to- multipoint multicast and point-to-multipoint
group calls.

Text Book:-

1. Introduction to Embedded Systems – Shibu K.V Mc Graw Hill

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Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes

Introduction
The control algorithm (Program instructions) and or the configuration settings
that an embedded system developer dumps into the code (Program) memory
of the embedded system
It is an un-avoidable part of an embedded system.
The embedded firmware can be developed in various methods like
o Write the program in high level languages like Embedded C/C++ using
an Integrated Development Environment (The IDE will contain an
editor, compiler, linker, debugger, simulator etc. IDEs are differentfor
different family of processors/controllers.
o Write the program in Assembly Language using the Instructions
Supported by your application’s target processor/controller

Embedded Firmware Design & Development:

The embedded firmware is responsible for controlling the various peripherals

of the embedded hardware and generating response in accordance with the
functional requirements of the product.

The embedded firmware is the master brain of the embedded system.

The embedded firmware imparts intelligence to an Embedded system.

It is a onetime process and it can happen at any stage.

The product starts functioning properly once the intelligence imparted to the
product by embedding the firmware in the hardware.
The product will continue serving the assigned task till hardware breakdown
occurs or a corruption in embedded firmware.

In case of hardware breakdown, the damaged component may need to be

replaced and for firmware corruptions the firmware should be re-loaded, to
bring back the embedded product to the normal functioning.

The embedded firmware is usually stored in a permanent memory (ROM)

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Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes
and it is non alterable by end users.

Designing Embedded firmware requires understanding of the particular

embedded product hardware, like various component interfacing, memory
map details, I/O port details, configuration and register details of various
hardware chips used and some programming language (either low level
Assembly Language or High level language like C/C++ or a combination of
the two)

The embedded firmware development process starts with the conversion of

the firmware requirements into a program model using various modeling
tools.

The firmware design approaches for embedded product is purely dependent

on the complexity of the functions to be performed and speed of operation
required.

There exist two basic approaches for the design and implementation of
embedded firmware, namely;

 The Super loop based approach

 The Embedded Operating System based approach

The decision on which approach needs to be adopted for firmware

development is purely dependent on the complexity and system requirements

1. Embedded firmware Design Approaches – The Super loop:

The Super loop based firmware development approach is Suitable for

applications that are not time critical and where the response time is not so
important (Embedded systems where missing deadlines are acceptable).

It is very similar to a conventional procedural programming where the code

is executed task by task

The tasks are executed in a never ending loop.

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Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes
The task listed on top on the program code is executed first and the tasks just
below the top are executed after completing the first task

A typical super loop implementation will look like:

1. Configure the common parameters and perform initialization for

various hardware components memory, registers etc.
2. Start the first task and execute it
3. Execute the second task
4. Execute the next task
5. :
6. :
7. Execute the last defined task
8. Jump back to the first task and follow the same flow.
The ‘C’ program code for the super loop is given below

void main ()

{
Configurations ();
Initializations ();
while (1)
{
Task 1 ();
Task 2 ();
:

:
Task n ();
}
}

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Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes

Pros:

Doesn’t require an Operating System for task scheduling and monitoring and
free from OS related overheads
Simple and straight forward design
Reduced memory footprint
Cons:

Non Real time in execution behavior (As the number of tasks increases the
frequency at which a task gets CPU time for execution also increases)

Any issues in any task execution may affect the functioning of the product
(This can be effectively tackled by using Watch Dog Timers for task
execution monitoring)

Enhancements:
 Combine Super loop based technique with interrupts

 Execute the tasks (like keyboard handling) which require Real time attention
as Interrupt Service routines.

2. Embedded firmware Design Approaches – Embedded OS based Approach:

The embedded device contains an Embedded Operating System which can

be one of:

 A Real Time Operating System (RTOS)

 A Customized General Purpose Operating System (GPOS)

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Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes

The Embedded OS is responsible for scheduling the execution of user tasks

and the allocation of system resources among multiple tasks

It Involves lot of OS related overheads apart from managing and executing

user defined tasks

Microsoft® Windows XP Embedded is an example of GPOS for embedded

devices

Point of Sale (PoS) terminals, Gaming Stations, Tablet PCs etc are examples
of embedded devices running on embedded GPOSs

‘Windows CE’, ‘Windows Mobile’,‘QNX’, ‘VxWorks’, ‘ThreadX’,

‘MicroC/OS-II’, ‘Embedded Linux’, ‘Symbian’ etc are examples of RTOSs
employed in Embedded Product development

Mobile Phones, PDAs, Flight Control Systems etc are examples of embedded
devices that runs on RTOSs

Embedded firmware Development Languages/Options

Assembly Language

High Level Language

o Subset of C (Embedded C)
o Subset of C++ (Embedded C++)
o Any other high level language with supported Cross-compiler
Mix of Assembly & High level Language
o Mixing High Level Language (Like C) with Assembly Code
o Mixing Assembly code with High Level Language (Like C)
o Inline Assembly

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Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes

1. Embedded firmware Development Languages/Options – Assembly

Language

‘Assembly Language’ is the human readable notation of ‘machine

language’
‘Machine language’ is a processor understandable language
Machine language is a binary representation and it consists of 1s and 0s
Assembly language and machine languages are processor/controller
dependent
An Assembly language program written for one processor/controller family
will not work with others
Assembly language programming is the process of writing processor specific
machine code in mnemonic fo rm, converting the mnemonics into actual
processor instructions (machine language) and associated data using an
assembler

The general format of an assembly language instruction is an Opcode

followed by Operands

The Opcode tells the processor/controller what to do and the Operandsprovide

the data and information required to perform the action specified by the
opcode

It is not necessary that all opcode should have Operands following them.
Some of the Opcode implicitly contains the operand and in such situation no
operand is required. The operand may be a single operand, dual operand or
more

The 8051 Assembly Instruction

MOV A, #30

Moves decimal value 30 to the 8051 Accumulator register. Here MOV A is the
Opcode and 30 is the operand (single operand). The same instruction when written
in machine language will look like

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Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes

01110100 00011110

The first 8 bit binary value 01110100 represents the opcode MOV A and the second
8 bit binary value 00011110 represents the operand 30.

Assembly language instructions are written one per line

A machine code program consists of a sequence of assembly language
instructions, where each statement contains a mnemonic (Opcode + Operand)
Each line of an assembly language program is split into four fields as:

LABEL OPCODE OPERAND COMMENTS

LABEL is an optional field. A ‘ LABEL’ is an identifier used extensively in

programs to reduce the reliance on programmers for remembering where data
or code is located. LABEL is commonly used for representing

 A memory location, address of a program, sub-routine, code portion etc.

 The maximum length of a label differs between assemblers. Assemblers

insist strict formats for labeling. Labels are always suffixed by a colon
and begin with a valid character. Labels can contain number from 0 to
9 and special character _ (underscore).

;###############################################################
; SUBROUTINE FOR GENERATING DELAY
; DELAY PARAMETR PASSED THROUGH REGISTER R1
; RETURN VALUE NONE,REGISTERS USED: R0, R1
;###############################################################
##### DELAY: MOV R0, #255 ; Load Register R0 with 255

DJNZ R1, DELAY; Decrement R1 andloop till R1= 0

RET ; Return to calling program

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Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes

 The symbol ; represents the start of a comment. Assembler ignores the

text in a line after the ; symbol while assembling the program
 DELAY is a label for representing the start address of the memory
location where the piece of code is located in code memory
 The above piece of code can be executed by giving the label DELAY as
part of the instruction. E.g. LCALL DELAY; LMP DELAY
2. Assembly Language – Source File to Hex File Translation:
The Assembly language program written in assembly code is saved as
.asm (Assembly file) file or a .src (source) file or a format supported by
the assembler
Similar to ‘C’ and other high level language programming, it is possible
to have multiple source files called modules in assembly language
programming. Each module is represented by a ‘.asm’ or ‘.src’ file or the
assembler supported file format similar to the ‘.c’ files in C programming
The software utility called ‘Assembler’ performs the translation of
assembly code to machine code
The assemblers for different family of target machines are different. A51
Macro Assembler from Keil software is a popular assembler for the 8051
family micro controller

Figure 5: Assembly Language to machine language conversion process

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Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes

Each source file can be assembled separately to examine the syntax errors
and incorrect assembly instructions

Assembling of each source file generates a corresponding object file. The

object file does not contain the absolute address of where the generated
code needs to be placed (a re-locatable code) on the program memory
The software program called linker/locater is responsible for assigning
absolute address to object files during the linking process
The Absolute object file created from the object files corresponding to
different source code modules contain information about the address where
each instruction needs to be placed in code memory
A software utility called ‘Object to Hex file converter’ translates the
absolute object file to corresponding hex file (binary file)
Advantages:

 1.Efficient Code Memory & Data Memory Usage (Memory Optimization):

 The developer is well aware of the target processor architecture and

me mory organization, so optimized code can be written for performing
operations.
 This leads to less utilization of code memory and efficient utilization
of data memory.
 2.High Performance:
 Optimized code not only improves the code memory usage but also
improves the total system performance.
 Through effective assembly coding, optimum performance can be
achieved for target processor.
 3.Low level Hardware Access:
 Most of the code for low level programming like accessing external
device specific registers from OS kernel ,device drivers, and low level
interrupt routines, etc are making use of direct assembly coding.
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Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes

 4.Code Reverse Engineering:

 It is the process of understanding the technology behind a product by
extracting the information from the finished product.
 It can easily be converted into assembly code using a dis-assembler
program for the target machine.
Drawbacks:

 1.High Development time:

 The developer takes lot of time to study about architecture ,memory
organization, addressing modes and instruction set of target
processor/controller.
 More lines of assembly code is required for performing a simple action.
 2.Developer dependency:
 There is no common written rule for developing assembly language
based applications.

 3.Non portable:
 Target applications written in assembly instructions are valid only for
that particular family of processors and cannot be re-used for another
target processors/controllers.
 If the target processor/controller changes, a complete re-writing of the
application using assembly language for new target
processor/controller is required.
2. Embedded firmware Development Languages/Options – High Level
Language

The embedded firmware is written in any high level language like C, C++

A software utility called ‘cross-compiler’ converts the high level language to

target processor specific machine code

116
Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes

 The cross-compilation of each module generates a corresponding object file.

The object file does not contain the absolute address of where the generated
code needs to be placed (a re-locatable code) on the program memory
 The software program called linker/locater is responsible for assigning
absolute address to object files during the linking process
 The Absolute object file created from the object files corresponding to
different source code modules contain information about the address where
each instruction needs to be placed in code memory
 A software utility called ‘Object to Hex file converter’ translates the absolute
object file to corresponding hex file (binary file)
Embedded firmware Development Languages/Options – High Level
Language – Source File to Hex File Translation

Library Files

Source File 1
Module
(.c /.c++ etc) Object File 1
(Module-1) Cross-compiler

Source File 2
Module
(.c /.c++ etc) Object File 2
Cross-compiler
(Module-2)

Object to Hex File Linker/

Absolute Object File
Converter Locator

Machine Code
(Hex File)

Figure 6: High level language to machine language conversion process

117
Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes

Advantages:

Reduced Development time: Developer requires less or little

knowledge on internal hardware details and architecture of the target
processor/Controller.

Developer independency: The syntax used by most of the high level

languages are universal and a program written high level can easily
understand by a second person knowing the syntax of the language

Portability: An Application written in high level language for

particular target processor /controller can be easily be converted to
another target processor/controller specific application with little or
less effort

Drawbacks:

• The cross compilers may not be efficient in generating the optimized

target processor specific instructions.

• Target images created by such compilers may be messy and non-

optimized in terms of performance as well as code size.

• The investment required for high level language based development

tools (IDE) is high compared to Assembly Language based firmware
development tools.

Embedded firmware Development Languages/Options – Mixing of Assembly

Language with High Level Language
Embedded firmware development may require the mixing of Assembly
Language with high level language or vice versa.

Interrupt handling, Source code is already available in high level

language\Assembly Language etc are examples

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Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes

High Level language and low level language can be mixed in three different
ways

 Mixing Assembly Language with High level language like ‘C’

 Mixing High level language like ‘C’ with Assembly Language

 In line Assembly

The passing of parameters and return values between the high level and low
level language is cross-compiler specific

1. Mixing Assembly Language with High level language like ‘C’

(Assembly Language with ‘C’):
Assembly routines are mixed with ‘C’ in situations where the entire program
is written in ‘C’ and the cross compiler in use do not have built in support for
implementing certain features like ISR.

If the programmer wants to take advantage of the speed and optimized code
offered by the machine code generated by hand written assembly rather than
cross compiler generated machine code.

For accessing certain low level hardware ,the timing specifications may be
very critical and cross compiler generated machine code may not be able to
offer the required time specifications accurately.

Writing the hardware/peripheral access routine in processor/controller

specific assembly language and invoking it from ‘C’ is the most advised
method.

Mixing ‘C’ and assembly is little complicated.

The programmer must be aware of how to pass parameters from the ‘C’
routine to assembly and values returned from assembly routine to ‘C’ and how
Assembly routine is invoked from the ‘C’ code.

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Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes

Passing parameter to the assembly routine and returning values from the
assembly routine to the caller ‘C’ function and the method of invoking the
assembly routine from ‘C’ code is cross compiler dependent.

There is no universal written rule for purpose.

We can get this information from documentation of the cross compiler.

Different cross compilers implement these features in different ways

depending on GPRs and memory supported by target processor/controller

2. Mixing High level language like ‘C’ with Assembly Language

(‘C’ with Assembly Language)

The source code is already available in assembly language and routinewritten

in a high level language needs to be included to the existing code.

The entire source code is planned in Assembly code for various reasons like
optimized code, optimal performance, efficient code memory utilization and
proven expertise in handling the assembly.

The functions written in ‘C’ use parameter passing to the function and returns
values to the calling functions.

The programmer must be aware of how parameters are passed to the function
and how values returned from the function and how function is invoked from
the assembly language environment.

Passing parameter to the function and returning values from the function using
CPU registers , stack memory and fixed memory.

Its implementation is cross compiler dependent and varies across compilers.

120
Embedded Systems Unit-4 Notes

3. In line Assembly:
• Inline assembly is another technique for inserting the target
processor/controller specific assembly instructions at any location of source
code written in high level language ‘C’

• Inline Assembly avoids the delay in calling an assembly routine from a ‘C’
code.

• Special keywords are used to indicate the start and end of Assembly
instructions

• E.g #pragma asm

Mov A,#13H

#pragma ensasm
• Keil C51 uses the keywords #pragma asm and #pragma endasm to indicate
a block of code written in assembly.

Text Books:

1. Introduction to Embedded Systems – Shibu K.V Mc Graw Hill

2. Embedded System Design-Raj Kamal TMH

121
 EMBEDDED PROGRAMMING

Assembly language is introduced for providing mnemonics or symbols for the machine level code
instructions. Assembly language program is consisting of mnemonics that is translated into
machine code. A program that is used for this conversion is known as assembler.

Assembly language is also called as low-level language because it directly works with the internal
structure of CPU. For programming in assembly language, a programmer must have the knowledge
of all the registers in a CPU.

Different programming languages like C, C++, Java and various other languages are called as
high-level languages because they are not dealing with the internal details of CPU.

In contrast, an assembler is used to translate an assembly language program into machine code
(sometimes also called object code or opcode). Similarly, a compiler translates a high-level
language into machine code. For example, to write a program in C language, one must use a C
compiler to translate the program into machine language.

Structure of Assembly Language

An assembly language program is a series of statements, which are either assembly language
instructions such as ADD and MOV, or statements called directives.
An instruction tells the CPU what to do, while a directive (also called pseudo-instructions) gives
instruction to the assembler. For example, ADD and MOV instructions are commands which the
CPU runs, while ORG and END are assembler directives. The assembler places the opcode to the
memory location 0 when the ORG directive is used, while END indicates to the end of the source
code. A program language instruction consists of the following four fields –

[ label: ] mnemonics [ operands ] [;comment ]

1. 0000 ORG 0H ;start (origin) at location 0

2. 0000 7D25 MOV R5,#25H ;load 25H into R5
3. 0002 7F34 MOV R7,#34H ;load 34H into R7
4. 0004 7400 MOV A,#0 ;load 0 into A
5. 0006 2D ADD A,R5 ;add contents of R5 to A
6. 0007 2F ADD A,R7 ;add contents of R7 to A
7. 0008 2412 ADD A,#12H ;add to A value 12 H
8. 000A 80FE HERE: SJMP HERE ;stay in this loop
9. 000C END ;end of asm source
file
A square bracket ( [ ] ) indicates that the field is optional.
 The label field allows the program to refer to a line of code by name. The label fields cannot
exceed a certain number of characters.
 The mnemonics and operands fields together perform the real work of the program and
accomplish the tasks. Statements like ADD A , C & MOV C, #68 where ADD and MOV
are the mnemonics, which produce opcodes ; "A, C" and "C, #68" are operands. These two
fields could contain directives. Directives do not generate machine code and are used only
by the assembler, whereas instructions are translated into machine code for the CPU to
execute.
 The comment field begins with a semicolon which is a comment indicator.
 Notice the Label "HERE" in the program. Any label which refers to an instruction should
be followed by a colon.

Assembling and Running of 8051 Program

Let's see the steps for creating, assembling and running an assembly language program are as
follows:
 o Editor Program : At first, we use an editor for type in a program. Editors like MS-DOS
program that comes with all Microsoft operating systems can be used for creating or edit
a program. The editor produces an ASCII file. The ?asm? extension for a source file is used
by an assembler during next step.
o Assembler Program: The "asm" source file contain the code created in Step 1. It is
transferred to an 8051 assembler. The assembler is used for converting the assembly
language instructions into machine code instructions and it produced the .obj file (object
file) and .lst file (list file). It is also called as source file because some assembler requires
that this file must have "src" extension.
o Linker Program: The linker program is used for generating one or more object files and
produces an absolute object file with an extension "abs".
o OH Program: The OH program fetches the "abs" file and fed it to a program called "OH".
OH is called as object to hex converter it creates a file with an extension "hex" thatis ready
for burn in to the ROM.

Labels in assembly Language

All labels used in assembly language follow the certain rules as given below:

o Each label name should be unique. The name used as label in assembly language
programming consist of alphabetic letters in both lowercase and uppercase, numbers from
0 to 9, and special characters such as at the rate (@), question mark (?), underscore(_), and
dollar ($) etc.
o Reserved words are not allowed to be used as a label in the program. For example, MOV
and ADD words are reserved words.
o The first character must be an alphabetical character, it cannot be a number.

Data Type

The 8051 microcontroller contains a single data type of 8-bits, and each register is also of 8-bits
size. The programmer has to break down data larger than 8-bits (00 to FFH, or to 255 in decimal)
so that it can be processed by the CPU.
DB (Define Byte)
The DB directive is the most widely used data directive in the assembler. It is used to define the
8-bit data. It can also be used to define decimal, binary, hex, or ASCII formats data. For decimal,
the "D" after the decimal number is optional, but it is required for "B" (binary) and "Hl"
(hexadecimal).
To indicate ASCII, simply place the characters in quotation marks ('like this'). The assembler
generates ASCII code for the numbers/characters automatically. The DB directive is the only
directive that can be used to define ASCII strings larger than two characters; therefore, it should
be used for all the ASCII data definitions. Some examples of DB are given below −
ORG 500H
DATA1: DB 28 ;DECIMAL (1C in hex)
DATA2: DB 00110101B ;BINARY (35 in hex)
DATA3: DB 39H ;HEX
ORG 510H
DATA4: DB "2591" ;ASCII NUMBERS
ORG 520H
DATA6: DA "MY NAME IS Michael" ;ASCII CHARACTERS

Either single or double quotes can be used around ASCII strings. DB is also used to allocate
memory in byte-sized chunks.

Assembler Directives

Some of the directives of 8051 are as follows −

 ORG (origin) − The origin directive is used to indicate the beginning of the address. It
takes the numbers in hexa or decimal format. If H is provided after the number, the number
is treated as hexa, otherwise decimal. The assembler converts the decimal numberto hexa.
 EQU (equate) − It is used to define a constant without occupying a memory location. EQU
associates a constant value with a data label so that the label appears in the program,its
constant value will be substituted for the label. While executing the instruction "MOV R3,
#COUNT", the register R3 will be loaded with the value 25 (notice the # sign). The
advantage of using EQU is that the programmer can change it once and the assembler will
change all of its occurrences; the programmer does not have to search the entire program.
 END directive − It indicates the end of the source (asm) file. The END directive is the last
line of the program; anything after the END directive is ignored by the assembler.

Labels in assembly Language

All labels used in assembly language follow the certain rules as given below:

o Each label name should be unique. The name used as label in assembly language
programming consist of alphabetic letters in both lowercase and uppercase, numbers from
0 to 9, and special characters such as at the rate (@), question mark (?), underscore(_), and
dollar ($) etc.
o Reserved words are not allowed to be used as a label in the program. For example, MOV
and ADD words are reserved words.
 o The first character must be an alphabetical character, it cannot be a number.

Embedded Systems - Tools & Peripherals

Compilers and Assemblers

Compiler
A compiler is a computer program (or a set of programs) that transforms the source code written
in a programming language (the source language) into another computer language (normally
binary format). The most common reason for conversion is to create an executable program. The
name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate the source code from a highlevel
programming language to a low-level language (e.g., assembly language or machine code).
Cross-Compiler
If the compiled program can run on a computer having different CPU or operating system than the
computer on which the compiler compiled the program, then that compiler is known as a cross-
compiler.
Decompiler
A program that can translate a program from a low-level language to a high-level language is
called a decompiler.
Language Converter
A program that translates programs written in different high-level languages is normally called a
language translator, source to source translator, or language converter.
A compiler is likely to perform the following operations −

 Preprocessing
 Parsing
 Semantic Analysis (Syntax-directed translation)
 Code generation
 Code optimization
Assemblers
An assembler is a program that takes basic computer instructions (called as assembly language)
and converts them into a pattern of bits that the computer's processor can use to perform its basic
operations. An assembler creates object code by translating assembly instruction mnemonics into
opcodes, resolving symbolic names to memory locations. Assembly language uses a mnemonic
to represent each low-level machine operation (opcode).
Debugging Tools in an Embedded System
Debugging is a methodical process to find and reduce the number of bugs in a computer program
or a piece of electronic hardware, so that it works as expected. Debugging is difficult when
subsystems are tightly coupled, because a small change in one subsystem can create bugs in
another. The debugging tools used in embedded systems differ greatly in terms of their
development time and debugging features. We will discuss here the following debugging tools −

 Simulators
 Microcontroller starter kits
 Emulator

Simulators
Code is tested for the MCU / system by simulating it on the host computer used for code
development. Simulators try to model the behavior of the complete microcontroller in
software.
Functions of Simulators
A simulator performs the following functions −
 Defines the processor or processing device family as well as its various versions for the
target system.
 Monitors the detailed information of a source code part with labels and symbolic
arguments as the execution goes on for each single step.
 Provides the status of RAM and simulated ports of the target system for each single step
execution.
 Monitors system response and determines throughput.
 Provides trace of the output of contents of program counter versus the processor registers.
 Provides the detailed meaning of the present command.
 Monitors the detailed information of the simulator commands as these are entered from
the keyboard or selected from the menu.
 Supports the conditions (up to 8 or 16 or 32 conditions) and unconditional breakpoints.
 Provides breakpoints and the trace which are together the important testing and debugging
tool.
 Facilitates synchronizing the internal peripherals and delays.