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Catabolism vs Anabolism (Review)
Feature Anabolism Catabolism
Degradation (breaking
Direction of reaction Synthesis (building up)
down)
Energy requirement Requires energy input Releases energy
Growth, repair, Energy production, waste
Purpose
reproduction removal
Protein synthesis, Cellular respiration,
Examples carbohydrate synthesis, fermentation, protein
lipid synthesis degradation
CATABOLIC PROCESSES VIDEO:
Kindly watch the video through the link below
https://youtu.be/DBVl5tsNGMU?si=KUoQQ
ZDrcZ0zgwYZ
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Hydrolysis of Macromolecules
Complete the table below by giving the products of each reaction.
Macromolecule Subunit Hydrolysis Reaction
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides Polysaccharide + H2O → Glucose
(Polysaccharides)
Proteins
Amino Acids Polypeptide + H2O → AA
(Polypeptides)
Fatty Acids (and
Lipids (Triglycerides) Triglyceride + H2O → FFA
Glycerol)
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Oxidized Forms of the Subunits
Complete the table below by giving the oxidized form of each
subunit given the reaction.
Subunit Reaction Oxidized form
Glucose + 6O2 → 2 pyruvate +
Glucose pyruvate
6CO2 + 6H2O
Amino Acid + O2 → Acetyl-CoA
Amino Acid Acetyl-CoA
+ CO2 + H2O
Fatty Acid + O2 → Acetyl-CoA +
Fatty acid Acetyl-CoA
CO2 + H2O
Carbohydrate
Metabolism
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Carbohydrate Metabolism
Glycolysis
Gluconeogenesis
Glycogenesis
Glycogenolysis
Diabetes and the roles of Insulin and Glucagon
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Glucose Metabolism
Glycolysis
Gluconeogenesis
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Glycolysis
• Energy-producing breakdown (series of reactions) of glucose into
pyruvate or lactate
• Occurs in the cytoplasm of all cells; without molecular oxygen
• Also called Embden-Meyerhof pathway
• Generates two ATP molecules
• Two phases
Investment Phase (first 5 steps)
Pay-off Phase (last 5 steps)
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Rate-limiting step
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Gluconeogenesis
• Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate substrates (e.g. amino acids,
lactate, glycerol)
• Occurs primarily in liver cells; also in epithelial cells of kidney, intestine
• Inside cytoplasm, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum
• Starts with glycogenolysis (glycogen breakdown) after glucose depletion
• ‘Like’ backwards glycolysis, with three exceptions:
• Hexokinase
• Phosphofructokinase
• Pyruvate kinase
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Glycogen Metabolism
Glycogenesis
Glycogenolysis
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Glycogenesis
• The conversion of glucose to glycogen
• The body has excess glucose and wants to store it as glycogen
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Glycogenolysis
• Glycogen breakdown
• Glucagon := liver breakdown of glycogen
• Epinephrine/Adrenaline := skeletal muscle breakdown of glycogen
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Krebs Cycle
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The Krebs Cycle
• Citric acid cycle or Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle
• the primary metabolic pathway through which aerobic energy is
released from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in a useable form
• Hans Krebs – 1953 Nobel Prize in Medicine
• eight steps
• Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
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Step 3: Rate-limiting step
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Lipid Metabolism
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Lipid Metabolism
Lipolysis (β-oxidation)
Lipogenesis
Ketogenesis
Ketone Body Oxidation
Diabetes Ketoacidosis
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Fatty Acid Metabolism
Lipolysis
Lipogenesis
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Lipolysis (β-oxidation or fatty acid oxidation)
• Fatty acids are broken down to produce energy
• Takes place in the mitochondria of heart, skeletal muscles, liver cells
• Free fatty acids → acetyl-CoA
glycerol → glycolysis (as DHAP)
• fat molecules yield more energy than carbohydrates and are an important
source of energy for the human body; one triglyceride molecule yields three
fatty acid molecules
• Odd number-Carbon FA: oxidation repeats until three carbons left
• Even number-Carbon FA: oxidation repeats until only acetyl-CoA remains
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CARNITINE SHUTTLE:
• L-Carnitine – amino acid that
helps move more fatty acids
into your cells to be burned
for energy; prevents acetyl-
CoA build-up
-weight loss suplements
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KREBS CYCLE
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Lipogenesis (fatty acid synthesis)
• Creates lipids (fat) from the acetyl-CoA and takes place in the cytoplasm
of adipocytes (fat cells) and hepatocytes (liver cells)
• Initiated when there is excess acetyl-CoA (pyruvate) produced from
glycolysis
• ATP := inhibitor of enzymes in Krebs cycle
• The creation of triglycerides and lipids is an efficient way of storing the
energy available in carbohydrates. Triglycerides and lipids, high-energy
molecules, are stored in adipose tissue until they are needed.
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Ketone Body Metabolism
Ketogenesis
Ketone body Oxidation
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Ketogenesis
• Ketone bodies – contain ketone C=O group (acetoacetate,
β-hydroxybutyrate, acetone)
- produced by liver mitochondria using acetyl-CoA during:
(1) physiological states such as fasting, carbohydrate-
restrictive diets (e.g. Atkins, ketogenic diet), intense
exercise;
(2) pathological states such as Type 1 diabetes mellitus,
alcoholism (lack of glucose to power cells)
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Ketone body Oxidation
• Products of ketogenesis (acetoacetate, β-hydroxybutyrate) in blood
diffuses into peripheral tissue mitochondria
(β-hydroxybutyrate → acetoacetate)
• Produces acetyl-CoA
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Protein Metabolism
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Protein Metabolism
Proteolysis
Transamination
Deamination
Urea cycle
Phenylketonuria
Maple Syrup Urine Disease
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Digestive enzymes and hormones
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In order to avoid breaking down the proteins that make up the pancreas and
small intestine, pancreatic enzymes are released as inactive proenzymes that are
only activated in the small intestine. In the pancreas, vesicles
store trypsin and chymotrypsin as trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen. Once
released into the small intestine, an enzyme found in the wall of the small
intestine, called enterokinase, binds to trypsinogen and converts it into its active
form, trypsin. Trypsin then binds to chymotrypsinogen to convert it into the
active chymotrypsin.
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Proteolysis
• Trypsin and chymotrypsin break down large proteins into smaller peptides
(hydrolysis)
• When protein-rich foods enter the stomach, they are greeted by a mixture of
the enzyme pepsin and hydrochloric acid. The latter produces an
environmental pH of 1.5–3.5 that denatures proteins within food.
• Chyme := food-gastric juice mixture
• Sodium bicarbonate := secreted by pancreas to neutralize HCl (0.5 percent)
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•Glucogenic amino acids: Can be converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis.
•Ketogenic amino acids: Can be converted into ketone bodies, which are then stored as fat
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Why eliminate ammonia?
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Urea cycle
a set of biochemical reactions that produces urea from
ammonium ions in order to prevent a toxic level of ammonium
in the body
occurs primarily in the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the kidney
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Thank You
GLGB on your finals and see you around, future RNs!
-Miss P ☺
Main references used aside from Bettelheim:
(1)https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/
(2)Osmosis.org
