COORDINATED FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS, ENDOCRINE, AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

Your nervous system connects all your body parts and transmits signals from one part to another. It is a system of cells, tissues, and organs that
regulates the body’s responses to internal and external stimuli. Each part of the nervous system has a specific role as it functions as an important part
of a system.

The Structure of the Nervous System

Major Divisions and Parts of the Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

The CNS serves as the main processing center for the entire nervous system. It consists of two main components, namely the:

a. Brain

This is an organ located within the skull that functions as organizer and distributor of information for the body.

It has three main parts:

Cerebrum – large, upper part of the brain that controls activity and thought.

Cerebellum – the part under the cerebrum that controls posture, balance, and coordination.

Brain Stem – the part that connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls automatic functions such as breathing, digestion, heart rate, and blood

pressure.

b. Spinal Cord

This serves as a channel for signals between the brain and the rest of the body, and controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes without input from the
brain.

1. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The PNS connects the central nervous system to the organs and limbs. It has two main divisions:

a. Somatic Nervous System

This system is associated with the voluntary control of body movements and has two main parts:

Spinal Nerves – the nerves that carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and the body.

Cranial Nerves – the nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem

b. Autonomic Nervous System

This system is associated with the involuntary control of body movements and has two subdivisions:

Sympathetic - it is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress. (e.g., increased heart rate and breathing, dilation of pupil, sweating, etc.)

Parasympathetic - it maintains body functions and restores the body to normal or relaxed mode.

The Nerve Cell

The basic unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell. Nerve cells are called neurons. There are billions of neurons in the body. Some exist alone.
Others are joined together to form organs like the brain and spinal cord. There are twelve to fourteen billions of neurons in one part of the brain alone. A
neuron has a cell body containing the nucleus. Projecting out from the cell body are root-like structures. These are the dendrites and axons. Dendrites
carry impulses towards the cell body. A cell may have as many as 200 dendrites carrying impulses toward the cell body. A single dendrite can be over
one meter long. Axons carry impulses away from the cell body. Axons pass impulses to the dendrites of other neurons or cell body of muscle cells.
Axons can be grouped together into cable-like bundles called nerves.
Control of Body Processes through the Nervous System

The Nerve Impulse

Neurons are cells with the special ability to carry signals or impulses. Thoughts, emotions, learning, and many body functions are carried by nerve

impulses in the neurons. A nerve impulse is a combination of an electrical charge and a chemical reaction. A nerve impulse is not a flow of electricity,
but an electrochemical signal moving along a neuron.

A nerve impulse cannot jump from one neuron to another. When a nerve impulse comes to the end of an axon, it produces the chemical, called

neurotransmitter, to be released. The chemical crosses the space between neurons called synapse and stimulates the nerve impulse to start in the next
dendrite. The nervous system is assisted by five sense organs - the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin. These sense organs are constantly receiving
information from the environment and sending messages to the brain. These senses aid in the survival of human beings. A stimulus (plural: stimuli) is
any factor in the environment that may trigger a nerve impulse. A response is a reaction to a stimulus. A stimulus is received by the body and a response
is made. An organism must be able to respond to a stimulus in order to survive. Messages do not travel in both directions along the same neuron. Only
the axon of the neuron releases neurotransmitters that cross the space between neurons. Reaction time is the length of time between application of a
stimulus and detection of a response.

KEY CONCEPTS:

Neurons have the special ability to carry signals or impulses. A nerve impulse is an electrochemical signal moving along a neuron.

The space between neurons is called synapse. A stimulus is any factor in the environment that influences behavior. A response is a reaction

to a condition or stimulus. An organism must be able to respond to a

stimulus in order to survive. Reaction time is the length of time between

application of a stimulus and detection of a response.

Function of Endocrine System

The endocrine system is composed of glands that secrete different types of hormones that affect almost every cell, organ, and function of our body. It is
essential in regulating growth and development, metabolism, as well as reproductive processes and mood. Endocrine glands secrete chemicals known
as hormones into the bloodstream, which carries them throughout the body. When a hormone in the blood reaches the target organ, it produces a
notable effect. The endocrine system sends signals all over the body, much like the nervous system, but unlike the instant responses activated by the
nervous system, the effects can take a few hours or even weeks.

Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones

The endocrine system contains a group of glands that release hormones into the body. The following table lists all the major glands in the body, with their
functions, locations, and the hormones they release.

Effects of Hormones in the Body

Several processes in the body are coordinated by hormones which regulate and balance the working of organs, tissues, and cells. The endocrine system
influences how your heart beats, how your bones and tissues develop, and even your capacity to have a baby. It plays an essential role in the occurrence
of disorders such as diabetes, thyroid disease, growth disorders, and/or sexual dysfunction. Both men and women produce hormones in the same areas
with one

exception, the reproductive glands. Additional male hormones are produced in the testes while female hormones are produced in the ovaries. Some
hormones have short-term effects while other hormones have long-term effects such as those that control our growth and the changes at the onset of
puberty. During puberty, there are many hormonal changes that happen in your body. One moment you laugh, and then suddenly you feel like crying.
Sudden mood swings are relatively caused by the increasing amount of hormones in the body at this stage. It is therefore important to maintain a
positive outlook in life and remember that these changes are only temporary
and will stabilize with time. Hormones act in very small amounts. If the organ and hormones do not produce the regulated amount of chemicals to your
body, it may result in an abnormality of your body. This condition is called hormonal imbalance. An increase or decrease in its amount may have a
significant effect in the human body.

KEY CONCEPTS:

The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete chemicals called HORMONES to control various body processes. This control system usually
brings about slow changes in the body because chemical messengers move more slowly than nerve impulses. The major glands in the body are the
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.

KEY CONCEPTS:

Hormones affect various processes in the body as they regulate and balance the functioning of organs, tissues, and cells. Hormones have great impact
on your growth, appearance, emotions, and reproductive functions. These determine whether or not you develop disorders such as diabetes, thyroid
disease, growth disorders, or sexual dysfunction. Hormones act in very small amounts. An increase or decrease in hormonal levels may result in body
disorder due to hormonal imbalance. For most living creatures, reproduction is basically a normal process controlled by hormones. Even though human
reproduction is also controlled by hormones, the process is rather more complicated. Unlike other organisms such as plants and animals, you can make
decisions about reproduction. What influence these decisions are your values, emotions, expectations, and goals.

However, like any other living things, humans depend on reproduction for the survival of the species. If people stop to reproduce, the human species
would become extinct.

The Reproductive System

The system involved in sexual reproduction is called the reproductive system. There is a striking difference between the male and the female
reproductive systems, although they also share a number of similarities. For example, the reproductive organs of the male and female are developed
from the same embryological structures, and some hormones are commonly found in both male and female, in varying quantities and produce different
responses

The Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system has the following functions:

1. Produces female sex cells

2. Receives sperm cells from the male

3. Nurtures the development of and provides nourishment for the new individual

The female reproductive system consists of the ovaries, oviducts (Fallopian tubes), uterus, vagina, and external genitalia.

The internal reproductive organs of the female are located within the pelvis, between the urinary bladder and rectum. The uterus and the vagina are in
the middle part, with an ovary on each side of the uterus
Puberty involves the onset of sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce.

When a female reaches puberty, egg cells start to develop in her ovaries that produce the sex cells. It is also the time when the body develops the
capacity to conceive.

The Role of Hormones in Female and Male

Reproductive Systems

The male reproductive system also has prostate glands. Chemicals from these glands nourish the sperm cells and help them mature. The production of
sperm cells and the release of semen can be regulated by hormones or special chemicals that come from the testis, the brain and the pituitary gland
(refer to Figure 10A). These

hormones keep the reproductive system properly functioning. The female reproductive system, just like the male reproductive system, is also regulated
by hormones. The follicles produce hormones that control the growth and release of eggs from the ovaries.

While other hormones prepare the uterus

so a baby can grow in it, other hormones still control the stretching of the uterus during pregnancy

KEY CONCEPTS:

Hormones play an important role in both male and female reproductive systems. The pituitary gland controls the functions of both

the testes and the ovaries. These hormones keep the reproductive system properly functioning.

Feedback Mechanisms Involved in Regulating

Processes in the Female Reproductive System

The Menstrual Cycle

We have learned that, on average, an ovary releases only one egg every 28 days. Hormones control many of the changes in the reproductive system.
Remember that hormones are chemicals that affect certain body organs. The monthly changes that take place in the female reproductive system are
called menstruation. This cycle occurs every month from the first onset which could happen when a female is between 10 to 13 years old. The monthly
cycle continues for about 40 years.

To summarize, the important events during the menstrual cycle are as follows:

1. The pituitary gland controls and starts the cycle.

2. The pituitary gland releases hormones that cause the egg in the ovary to mature. The luteinizing hormone (LH) initiates the maturation of the follicles,
converts ruptured follicles into corpus luteum and causes the secretion of progesterone. The follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) assists in the maturation
of the follicles and causes the secretion of estrogen from the follicles.

3. Meanwhile, the ovary itself releases a hormone called estrogen, which causes the uterine lining to increase in thickness. The uterine lining becomes
thicker so that the fertilized egg can attach to it.

4. The ovary releases an egg on day 14. Assume that no sperm is present.
5. The egg moves through the oviduct and enters the uterus.

6. Meanwhile the uterine lining continues to thicken.

7. The egg has not been fertilized, therefore, it will not attach to the uterus.

8. The thick uterine lining is no longer necessary, so the cells of the thickened uterine lining break off and leave the vagina. The unfertilized egg is lost
and some blood is lost too. This loss of cells from the uterine lining, blood, and egg is called menstruation.

9. After menstruation, the cycle starts again.

Did you know that menstrual cramps are the results of the strong contractions of the uterine wall that occur before and during menstruation? The

cramps can be caused by excessive secretion of prostaglandins. Shedding of the endometrium of the uterus results in the inflammation in the
endometrial layer of the uterus and prostaglandins are produced as a consequence of the inflammation.

A feedback mechanism is the process through which the level of one substance influences the level of another substance. A negative feedback affects
the production of hormones in the menstrual cycle. High levels of one hormone may inhibit the production of another hormone.

Feedback mechanisms in menstrual cycle:

1. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the ovaries to release estrogen. High levels of estrogen then prevent the further production of FSH.

2. Estrogen also stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland, which in turn controls the production of progesterone.

High levels of progesterone then inhibit the further release of LH.

Nervous System Working Together with Endocrine System to Maintain Homeostasis

Both the nervous system and endocrine system are important in enabling the body to maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis is the state reached when

each part of the body functions in equilibrium with other parts. This is attained through the regulation of the bodily functions by the endocrine and
nervous systems. Most body systems maintain homeostasis by using feedback mechanisms. When the brain receives messages from the body about an
internal change in one of its systems, it works to restore the system to its normal state. The levels of hormones in the body are controlled by feedback. It
is important that the amount of hormones in our body is kept at the right level. The endocrine system plays an important part in homeostasis. To achieve
homeostasis, the nervous and endocrine systems maintain a normal range of the following variables:

• Body temperature

• Amount of water in the body

• Amount of metabolic wastes in the cell

• Blood calcium level

• Hormones in the blood

MODULE 2HEREDITY: INHERITANCE and VARIATION

1. The DNA molecule is composed of three types of component molecule: phosphate group, the sugar deoxyribose, and the bases adenine,

thymine, cytosine, guanine (A, T, C,G).

Nucleotides

2. There are three molecules that form the basic building block of DNA, the nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of one phosphate group,

one sugar molecule, and one of the four bases – in the example. Across the strands of the helix, A always pairs with T, and G with C.

Ribonucleic Acid, like DNA, is a nucleic acid. However, RNA structure differs from DNA structure in three ways. First, RNA is single stranded – whereas
DNA is double stranded. Second, the sugar in RNA is ribose; DNA has deoxyribose. Finally, both DNA and RNA contain four nitrogenous bases, but
instead of thymine, RNA contains a similar base called uracil (U). The uracil pairs with adenine. The major types of RNA include: messenger RNA
(mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA).

KEY CONCEPTS:

• A DNA is a double helix molecule composed of complementary strands of deoxyribonucleotides units. The complementary base pairs of the DNA are
held by hydrogen bonds.

• RNA is single stranded. • Examples of RNA types include: mRNA, rRNA and tRNA. • In DNA, adenine always bonds with thymine, and cytosine bonds
with guanine. In RNA, adenine bonds with uracil, and cytosine bonds with guanine.

Replication

In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick worked out that DNA is double helix like a twisted staircase. The two sugar-phosphate backbones

make up the sides and the base pairs make up the rungs or steps of the twisted staircase. Deoxyribonucleic acid is copied during interphase prior to
mitosis and meiosis. It is important that new copies are exactly like the original molecule. The structure of the DNA provides a mechanism for making
accurate copies of the molecule. The process of making copies of DNA is called replication. When DNA replicates, two identical copies of DNA
molecules are produced, which are exactly the same as the original.

The following are the events while DNA copies itself:

• Step 1. An enzyme called helicase breaks the bond between nitrogenous bases. The two strands of DNA split.

• Step 2. The bases attached to each strand then pair up with the free nucleotides found in the cytoplasm.

• Step 3. The complementary nucleotides are added to each strand by DNA polymerase to form new strands. Two new DNA molecules, each with a
parent strand and each with a new strand are formed. The DNA replication is known as semi-conservative replication, because one of the old strands is
conserved in each new molecule.

KEY CONCEPTS:

• DNA is made up of sugars, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases and its shape is a double helix. The complementary structure the two strands of
DNA allow each strand to serve as a template during replication.

• The specificity of base pairing in DNA, adenine with thymine, and cytosine with guanine, allows DNA to replicate itself with accuracy. You can consider
these RNA molecules to be the workers in the production of protein.

• One type of RNA, messenger RNA (mRNA) brings information from the DNA in the nucleus to the protein manufacturing area, the cytoplasm. In the
cytoplasm, the mRNA becomes the template of information to make proteins.

• Ribosomes, made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and ribosomal proteins hold tightly into the mRNA using its information to assemble the amino acids in
correct order.

• Transfer RNA (tRNA) supplies amino acids to the ribosome to be assembled as protein.

The following events can help you understand the process of transcription:

• Step 1. Ribonucleic Acid polymerase enzyme binds and opens the DNA molecule that will be transcribed.

• Step 2. As the DNA molecule opens, the RNA polymerase slides along the DNA strand and links free RNA nucleotides that pair with the nitrogenous
bases of the complementary DNA strand. Hence, if the sequence of bases on the DNA strand were CCG TTA CAT, the sequence of bases on the RNA
strand would be GGC AAU GUA.

• Step 3. When the process of base-pairing is completed, the RNA molecule breaks away as the DNA strands rejoin. The RNA leaves the nucleus and
goes to the cytoplasm. Figure 6 shows the transcription process.

KEY CONCEPTS:

• The sequence of nucleotides in DNA directs the order of nucleotides in messenger RNA in a process called transcription.

• There are three major types of RNA that help build proteins: mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA.

• The mRNA carries the information in DNA to the ribosomes found in the cytoplasm

TRANSLATION

The DNA directs the production of proteins and determines the formation of mRNA. The order of bases of mRNA determines the protein synthesized.

for one amino acid in a protein. This explains why each set of three nucleotides in the mRNA is called a codon. Each codon specifies a particular

amino acid. For example, the first codon which is, cytosine-guanine-uracil (CGU), instructs the ribosome to put the amino acid arg (arginine) in the

protein. The sequence of codons in the mRNA determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein. But how are the right amino acids added in the
right sequence to match the sequence of codons in the mRNA? The following events in translation can help you understand the process:

• Step 1. As translation begins, mRNA binds to a ribosome. Then, tRNA molecules, each carrying a specific amino acid, approach the ribosome. The

tRNA anticodon pairs with the first mRNA (start) codon argenine-uracil-guanine (AUG), to form the initiation complex. The two molecules

temporarily join together.

• Step 2. Usually, the first codon on mRNA is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine. AUG signals the start of protein synthesis. Then,

the ribosome slides along the mRNA to the next codon.

• Step 3. A new tRNA molecule carrying an amino acid pairs with the second mRNA codon.
• Step 4. When the first and second amino acids are in place, an enzyme joins them by forming a peptide bond between them.

• Step 5. As the process continues, a chain of amino acids is formed until the ribosome reaches a stop codon (e.g., UAA,UAG,UGA) on the mRNA

strand. The polypeptide chain is released. Protein synthesis is complete.

KEY CONCEPTS:

• The process of converting the information in messenger RNA into a sequence of amino acids that make a protein is known as translation.

• The role of transfer RNA (tRNA) is to bring the amino acids in the cytoplasm to the ribosomes to make proteins.

Protein such as enzymes are mostly amino acids chained together in a certain order. Each group of three nucleotide bases represents a codon

in a DNA or mRNA that corresponds to a specific amino acid or a start/ stop signal. This code is picked up by the mRNA and is carried from the

nucleus to the cytoplasm. The codon has its complement anticodon in tRNA. Each amino acid that will form the protein molecule to be synthesized is
determined by the triplet code or codon on the mRNA.

MUTATION: Changes in the Genetic Code

When you copy from the blackboard, sometimes you may make mistakes. In a similar way, mistakes may occur when DNA is replicated. Changes in the
DNA sequence may delete such protein or change its structure. When the code in a gene is changed, a different message may result. Any change in the
sequence of nitrogenous bases in the DNA, any mistake in the transcription of genetic information from DNA to RNA or pairing of the codon and
anticodon, may cause changes in the kind, sequence and number of amino acids of proteins synthesized by cells.

Changes in the protein structure or level of expression may lead to changes in cellular properties and behavior, as a result, the organism is affected.

Changes in the genes can occur for a variety of reasons. Mutation may be induced by factors called mutagens. Mutagens are commonly in the form of
toxic chemicals, and harmful radiation. Sometimes, mistakes occur in DNA replication, mitosis, and meiosis. All of these can alter the DNA sequence

and length.

Mutations can occur in two different types of cells: reproductive cells and body cells. Only mutations in sex cells pass on to offspring. Mutations affect the
reproductive cells of an organism by changing the sequence of nucleotides within a gene in a sperm or an egg cell. If these cells are

fertilized, then the mutated gene becomes a part of the genetic makeup of the offspring. If mutation is severe, the resulting protein may be
nonfunctional, and the embryo may not develop. There are two types of mutations that can occur in gamete cells:

• Gene mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene.

• Chromosomal mutation occurs at the chromosome level resulting in gene deletion, duplication or rearrangement that may occur during the cell cycle
and meiosis. It maybe caused by parts of chromosomes breaking off or rejoining incorrectly.

Most mutations are harmful. Some mutations in a body cell are known to cause cancer, while mutations in sex cells can cause birth defects. A
severe mutation may lead to cell death and may have no effect on the body.

Sometimes mutations may be useful for the species. For example, a mutation

in blood proteins prevents viruses or parasites to thrive in host organisms.

• When is mutation inherited? Why are mutations in sex cells heritable? Many diseases are caused by the effects of inherited genes. In most

cases, there is only a small difference between DNA sequences in the defective gene and a normal one. This difference is enough to cause serious and
often fatal diseases. These disease-causing genes are the result of a mutation. They may be passed from one generation to the next if present in
gametes.

. A recessive gene causes sickle- cell anemia, where most of the red blood cells stiffen and become sickle shape in affected people. These diseased
cells carry less oxygen than normal cells. People affected by the disease eventually die. Abnormalities in chromosomal structure may occur during
meiosis. The normal process of crossing-over and recombination may be affected, such that chromosomes break and reunite the wrong segments. If
there is a loss or gain of chromosomal material, there can be significant clinical consequences. Changes that affect the structure of chromosomes can
cause problems with growth, development, and function of the body’s systems. These changes can affect many genes along the chromosome and
disrupt the proteins made from these genes. Structural changes can occur during the formation of egg or sperm cells in fetal development, or in any cell
after birth. Pieces of DNA can be rearranged within one chromosome or transferred between two or more

chromosomes. The effects of structural changes depend on their size and location, and whether any genetic material is gained or lost. Some changes
cause medical problems, while others may have no effect on a person’s health. The gain or loss of chromosome material can lead to a variety of genetic
disorders.

(a) “Cri du chat” is caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. “Cri du chat” is French, and the condition is so named
because affected babies make high-pitched cries that sound like a cat. Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw, are moderately to
severely mentally retarded, and very short.

(b) Down’s syndrome is usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21(trisomy21). Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier
build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate mental retardation.

(c).Edwards syndrome, which is the second most common trisomy after Down’s syndrome, is a trisomy of chromosome 18. Symptoms include mental
and motor retardation and numerous congenital anomalies causing serious health problems. About 99% die in infancy. However, those who live past their
first birthday, usually are quite healthy thereafter. They have a characteristic hand appearance with clenched hands and overlapping fingers.

d) Jacobsen syndrome is also called terminal 11q deletion disorder. This is a very rare disorder. Those affected have normal intelligence or mild

mental retardation, with poor or excessive language skills. Most have a bleeding disorder called Paris-Trousseau syndrome.

e) Klinefelter’s syndrome (XXY). Men with this condition are usually sterile and tend to have longer arms and legs and to be taller than their peers.
They are often shy and quiet and have a higher incidence of speech delay.

(f) Turner’s syndrome (X instead of XX or XY). Female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped. They often have a short stature, low
hairline, abnormal eye features and bone development and a “caved-in” appearance to the chest

Human Karyotyping

Occasionally, chromosomal material is lost or rearranged during the formation of gametes or during cell division of the early embryo. Such changes,

primarily the result of nondisjunction or translocation, are so severe that the pregnancy ends in miscarriage – meaning loss of an embryo or fetus before
the 20th week of pregnancy or fertilization does not occur at all. It is estimated that one in 156 live births has some kind of chromosomal abnormality.
Some of the abnormalities associated with chromosome structure and number can be detected by a test called a karyotype. A karyotype is an image of
the full set of chromosomes of an individual that displays the normal number, size, and shape. Karyotypes may reveal the gender of a

fetus or test for certain defects through examination of cells from uterine fluid – a procedure called amniocentesis – or through sampling of placental

membranes To produce a karyotype, chromosomes commonly derived from actively dividing white blood cells are stained and photographed. The
homologous pairs of chromosomes are identified and arranged in order by size, with the exception of the sex chromosomes; these appear last.

These tests are typically done on a blood sample, although any body cell could be used. The cell must be undergoing mitosis – preferably in metaphase

– so that the chromosomes are replicated, condensed, and visible under a microscope.

Genetic Engineering

Understanding the gene has led to the remarkable development of methods for changing a cell’s DNA. A modern biotechnology called genetic

engineering produces transgenic or GM crops of organisms. Scientists have developed methods to move genes from one species into another. When
DNA from two different species are joined together, it is called recombinant DNA. This process uses restriction enzymes to cleave one organism’s DNA
into fragments and other enzymes to splice the DNA fragment into a plasmid or viral DNA. Transgenic organisms are able to manufacture genetic
products foreign to them using recombinant DNA. Genetic engineering has already been applied to bacteria, plants, and animals. These organisms are
engineered to be of use to humans.

Today, molecular biologists are finding applications for recombinant DNA technology: from medical applications, including gene therapy and vaccines;

DNA fingerprinting used to identify persons responsible for crimes and provide evidence for identity of dead persons; to the creation of genetically
modified crops that are resistant to pesticides, or that make extra vitamins and minerals; to bacteria that can clean oil spills. While the applications of
recombinant DNA technology are numerous, its limitations are its potential effects on our ecosystem.

KEY CONCEPTS:

• A mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA. Mutations may affect only one gene, or they may affect whole chromosomes.

• Mutations in eggs or sperm affect future generations by transmitting these changes to their offsprings.

• Mutations in body cells affect only the individual and are not passed on to the offspring.

• When DNA from two different species are joined together, it is called recombinant DNA. This process uses restriction enzymes to

cleave one organism’s DNA into fragments and other enzymes to splice the DNA fragment into a plasmid or viral DNA.

BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION

SOURCES OF EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

Organisms inhabiting the earth have changed overtime, their structures, traits, and abilities allowed them to adapt and survive in their environment. Data
from the fossil records, anatomy and morphology, embryonic development and biochemistry could be analyzed to demonstrate if evolution of life on
earth has taken place.

Most fossils were commonly found in sedimentary rocks. They were from the hard parts of the organism like woody stem, bones, or teeth. Another type
of fossil is an imprint or impression. Imprints are shallow external molds left by animal or plant tissues with little or no organic materials present.
Compression is the other side with more organic material. Relative dating is a method used to determine the age of the rocks by comparing them with
the rocks in the other layer. The younger sedimentary rock layer is assumed to be found on top and the older rock is found at the bottom layer.
Fossils found at the bottom layer are assumed to be older than those on the upper layer. The fossils of invertebrates found at the bottom part of the rock
layer suggest that invertebrates are probably one of the first and oldest organisms that lived on earth.

Another method is through the use of radioactive isotopes such as carbon-14. Radiometric dating is a method used to determine the age of rocks

using the decay of radioactive isotopes present in rocks.

All organisms have decaying carbon-14 in it. Plants and animals that are still alive constantly replace the supply of carbon in their body and the amount
of carbon -14 in their body stays the same. When an organism dies, carbon-14 starts to decay. Carbon dating is used to tell the age of organic materials.
Art collectors use carbon dating to determine if a piece of art work is genuine or not.

Out of the examination of layers of rocks and dating fossils, scientists were able to develop the Geologic Time Scale. The Geologic Time Scale shows
the major events in the Earth’s history. It also shows the appearance of various kinds of organisms in a particular period of time on earth.

Hint of Evolution from Comparative Anatomy

Another hint of evolutionary concept is from the comparative anatomy. Structures from different species which have similar internal framework,

position, and embryonic development are considered to be homologous. Homologous structures may perform different functions in the species

living in the different environment, or it may have the same origin but different functions. Here are some example of homologous structures: forelimbs of
dog, bird, lizard, and whale, which are structurally the same, but functionally different. Structures of unrelated species may evolve to look alike, because
the, structure is adapted to similar function. These are called analogous structures. Analogous structures have similar functions but different origin.
Examples are wings of birds, bats, and insects that have the same function but different in origin. of same kinds of bones, they just vary only in size and
function differently. The presence of homologous structures is a strong indicator that the organisms evolved fromcommon ancestors. This type of
evolution is called divergent evolution.

Divergent evolution is the splitting of an ancestral population into two or more subpopulations that are geographically isolated from one another.

Convergence is an increase in similarities among species derived from different ancestors as a result of similar adaptation to similar environment.

In convergent evolution, analogous structures of unrelated organisms from different ancestors develop similar function such as butterfly

wings and bird wings.

Evidence from Embryonic Development

An embryo is an early stage of development in organisms. Embryonic development include stages such as blastula, gastrula, and organogenesis.

The embryo of fishes, salamanders, lizards, birds, cats, and humans are similar during the first stage of their embryonic development; and have several
homologous structures that are not present when the organisms are adults Studies show that species that are closely related exhibit similar

embryonic development. Even when in the adult stage, the organisms are quite different. The greater the similarity in amino acid sequence, the closer
the relationship of the organisms. The organisms which are similar in structure and also possess similarity at the biochemical level could probably have a
common ancestor.

Theories of Evolution

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was the first evolutionist to believe that organisms change over time. Using fossil records as a guide, Lamarck was able

to develop three theories; one is The Theory of Need which states that organisms change in response to their environment. Their ability to survive
helped them develop characteristics necessary for them to adapt in a given environment. Next is The Theory of Use and Disuse; which according to
Lamarck, organs not in use will disappear while organs in use will develop. Lamarck believed that giraffes before have short necks, but because of the
need to survive and in order to reach tall trees for food, they kept stretching their necks until these became longer and able to reach taller trees. These
acquired characteristics were believed to be inherited by their offsprings and propagated by the next generation of giraffes. Lamarck called it as The
Theory of Acquired Characteristics. If you change the color of your hair from black to blond, do you think

your child can inherit the blond color of your hair? A young lady keeps on using whitening soap and becomes fair? Can her child inherit her acquired
fairness? Many scientists rejected the theories of Lamarck. They understood that if there were changes in cell or body structure, there could be changes
in the genetic information of the species

Darwinian Theory

The more popular Theory of Evolution proposed by Charles Darwin based on natural selection is different from the theories of Lamarck. According to
Darwin, giraffe species originally had varying neck lengths but natural selection favored the survival of giraffes with longer necks that could

feed on taller trees that were available. Giraffes with short neck were eliminated due to lack of accessible food supply. Fifty years after Lamarck’s Theory
of Use and Disuse, Charles Darwin suggested the Theory of Natural Selection, after his voyage to the Galapagos Island in HMS Beagle. He was
fascinated by the diversity of organisms he found along the journey. In Galapagos Island, he observed that finch species have different beak

structures for different food types. The abundance of certain finch species in an island was somehow related to the type of available food for these birds.
Darwin suggested that selection also takes place in nature. In selective breeding, farmer identifies and selects the best and desirable trait to propagate.
In natural selection, environmental factors promote the survival of the fittest and eliminates the less fit. Organisms struggle for existence in order to
survive; they compete for food and space. Organisms with favorable and advantageous characteristics survive and reproduce. Fitness refers to the
ability of an organism to survive and produce offsprings. Different individuals in a population possess different characteristics and abilities. This is called
variation. Variation among individuals in the population would likely bring greater chance of survival. An organism that is adapted and has structures
fitted to survive in a given environment would likely produce offsprings. Variation increases the chance of survival of living things. Organisms with the
best and desirable traits would likely adapt to environmental changes and may gradually become better suited to survive in a given environment.
Organisms which are best adapted to the environment will continue to reproduce and perpetuate their own kind. Mating between surviving populations of
the same species may shift the abundance of a new breed of organism because of mutation, gene combination, and natural selection. This then leads to
speciation and may subsequently increase biodiversity.

ECOSYSTEM: BIODIVERSITY

In this module, you will learn how biodiversity can influence the stability of an ecosystem, the relationship between population growth and carrying

capacity of a specific environment. You will become aware of the different human activities that have a negative impact on the environment and propose
projects (e.g., Clean and Green Project, Sagip Ilog, War on Waste, Urban Gardening, Adopt a River, etc.) that will help protect and conserve the
biodiversity you have in your community. Biodiversity describes how varied are life forms in different ecosystems. The Philippines is known for its very
rich biodiversity. According to an article published in the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) 2014 website, “The country has
more than 52,177 described species of which more than half is found nowhere else in the world.” On a per unit area basis, the Philippines probably
harbors more diversity of life than any other country on the planet. But our country is also considered as a biodiversity hotspot. This is because our
country is continuously experiencing an alarming rate of environmental destruction like damage of coral reefs, forests and other similar important
resources.

Biodiversity and Stability

Biodiversity is a term that describes how varied living things are in aspecific area. How many kinds of living things can be found in your community?

Think about a place in your community; try to identify organisms that can be found in your locality and are valuable to your life. Why do you consider
those organisms important to you? Organisms are part of biodiversity and may be economically and ecologically valuable. Their products are source of
food, medicine, clothing, shelter, and energy. These organisms are also important in maintaining balance in the ecosystem as they performing their
specific roles. Some species maintain the quality of natural bodies of water; some prevent soil erosion and floods, cycle minerals in the soil and absorb
pollutants. Others feed on insects and pests which control the population of organisms in a certain environment, thus

making the ecosystem balance and stable.

The value of species can be divided into various categories:

1. Direct economic value

The species is considered to have direct economic value if their products are sources of food, medicine, clothing, shelter, and energy. For example,

some medicines being used nowadays have formulations extracted from plants or animals. Vinblastine and vincristine are two chemicals that have been
extracted from rosy periwinkle (tsitsirika in Tagalog) and are used in chemotherapy for Hodgkin’s disease and some form of cancer, including
lymphocytic leukemia. Another common plant, Vitex negundo (lagundi) is extracted for cough syrup production.

2. Indirect economic value

A species has an indirect economic value if there are benefits produced by the organism without using them. For example, certain species

maintain the chemical quality of natural bodies of water, prevent soil erosion and floods, cycle materials in the soil, and absorb pollutants.

3. Aesthetic value

A lot of species provides visual or artistic enjoyment, like a forested landscape and the calming beauty of a natural park; or they may be used for
spiritual meditation like the Prayer Mountains. Biodiversity is very important because it sustains through flow of energy the food web on earth and
contributes to environmental stability. Stability of an ecosystem can be described as the resilience to withstand changes that may occur in the
environment. There are many changes that occur in the environment which may be a result of natural or human activities. These changes may severely
reduce biodiversity and result to the instability of the ecosystem.

The Ups and Downs of Population Growth

A population is a group of organisms of the same species that live in a certain area. Ecologists regularly monitor the number of organisms in
many populations, but why do they do this? Why should we care if the number of organisms in an area is increasing or decreasing? Well,
populations that are growing or diminishing can be indicators of potential problems in the organisms’ environment, and such conditions alarm
the ecologists if something is going wrong. But it is not enough to simply know if the number of organisms in an area is increasing or
decreasing; ecologists need to know why the number of organisms is decreasing. So, one of the main questions ecologists ask themselves is
this: Why is a population’s size increasing or decreasing?

There are many factors that can cause a population’s size to change. But first, you must understand the basic reasons behind why a population
increases or decreases. Any population, whether it be that of humans, animals, the mold growing on bread, or the bacteria living in your
intestines, will grow if more organisms are being developed (Genetically modified organisms), or born, than are dying. The number of births in a
population is called the birth rate (natality). The number of organisms that are dying in a population is called the death rate (mortality). Thus, if
the birth rate is greater than the death rate, a population will grow. If the death rate is greater than the birth rate, then the population will
decrease.

While populations would probably to continue to grow in size, a population of organisms cannot grow forever—its growth will be limited, or
stopped, at some point, and the death rate will be greater than the birth rate. A population’s growth is limited by two general factors: density-
independent factors and density dependent factors.

To understand why scientists named these factors in the way they did, you must first understand the concept of population density. Population
density refers to the number of organisms per unit area. If a population’s density is very high, that means there are a lot of organisms crowded
into a certain area. If a population’s density is low, that means there are very few organisms in an area. A factor that regulates a population’s
growth and is influenced by population density, is called density-dependent limiting factor. If the population’s density does not directly influence
changes in population’s growth, then it is called a density-independent limiting factor.

Density-independent limiting factors that can stop a population from growing can be such things as natural disasters, temperature, sunlight, and
the activities of humans in the environment. Natural disasters such as tropical cyclones, floods, earthquakes and fires will stop a population
from growing no matter how many organisms are living in a certain area. The same goes for the temperature of an area and the amount of
sunlight it receives. If the temperature increases due to global warming, this will cause a decrease in a population’s numbers, no matter how
large or small the population was to begin with. Human activities that alter the environment will also decrease the number of organisms in a
population, regardless of the size of a population.Density-dependent limiting factors come into play when a population reaches a certain
number of organisms. For example, when a population reaches a certain size, there won’t be enough resources (food, shelter, water) for all of
the organisms. This could cause the population to stop growing when it reaches the maximum number of organisms that can be supported, or
“carried,” by the environment. This number is known as the population’s carrying capacity in a particular environment. Each population of
organisms has a different carrying capacity, depending on the amount of resources available in the area in which it lives. Before a population
reaches its carrying capacity, it experiences a period of rapid growth. This period of growth is called exponential population growth. During this
period, there are plenty of resources available for all organisms, so more births are recorded than deaths in organisms. When resources are
unlimited, populations exhibit exponential growth, resulting in a J-shaped curve. When resources are limited, populations exhibit logistic growth.
In logistic growth, population expansion decreases as resources become scarce, and it levels off when the carrying capacity of the environment
is reached, resulting in a S-shaped curve.

Limiting Factors that depend on population density

1. Diseases and parasites – Infectious diseases and parasites spread faster in densely populated areas.

2. Competition for resources – Organism with better adaptations to obtain (food) resources will be able to reproduce more often, and its
population will grow. The organisms that have limited abilities to compete for the resources will not reproduce as often, may not be fit enough to
live long, and can cause their population to decrease.

3. Predation - plenty of prey are available, predators will be able to eat sufficiently, thus have energy to reproduce much, and increase their
numbers. The population of their prey will begin to decrease as more and more of them are eaten. However, the predator population will
eventually reach carrying capacity—there will not be enough prey for all of the predators in the population, since the predators themselves
compete for their “prey” resource. As the number of prey decreases, so will the number of predators, because there is not enough food to
sustain them.

4. Emigration - Emigration occurs when, as a population approaches its carrying capacity, and individual organisms leave and go to a new
area where they can find enough resources for survival and reproduction. This will obviously cause a decrease in the amount of organisms in a
population.

Environmental Problems and Issues

The Philippines is considered as one of the biologically richest country in the world because of its high biodiversity at various levels. Our
country has both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, and also a high degree of endemism, meaning high numbers of native species of flora
and fauna are found only in tropical communities.

We have all these rich natural biological resources but we have not truly protected them. We are losing this global heritage due to habitat
destruction, overuse and pollution. As our forests are destroyed at a fast rate, the natural habitats which are dwelling places of plant and animal
species are also lost. Our coral reefs, where the fishes lay eggs, are badly damaged by destructive fishing methods such as muro-ami,
dynamite and fine nets in fishing. In addition, people hunt animals, collect plants, and sell corals and exotic animals for livelihood, and other
activities that cause the population of these organisms to decrease at a faster rate. Hence, in view of these harmful human activities, our
country is also noted in the world as a hot spot for conservation and protection of species. The rate of development in some parts of the
country is extraordinary. The natural landscape has been changed by tall buildings, establishments, housing projects, expressways, railway
systems and overpasses. Other reclaimed areas have been converted into industrial structures and techno

parks.