COORDINATE GEOMETRY 155

COORDINATE GEOMETRY 7
7.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you have studied that to locate the position of a point on a plane, we
require a pair of coordinate axes. The distance of a point from the y-axis is called its
x-coordinate, or abscissa. The distance of a point from the x-axis is called its
y-coordinate, or ordinate. The coordinates of a point on the x-axis are of the form
(x, 0), and of a point on the y-axis are of the form (0, y).
Here is a play for you. Draw a set of a pair of perpendicular axes on a graph
paper. Now plot the following points and join them as directed: Join the point A(4, 8) to
B(3, 9) to C(3, 8) to D(1, 6) to E(1, 5) to F(3, 3) to G(6, 3) to H(8, 5) to I(8, 6) to
J(6, 8) to K(6, 9) to L(5, 8) to A. Then join the points P(3.5, 7), Q (3, 6) and R(4, 6) to
form a triangle. Also join the points X(5.5, 7), Y(5, 6) and Z(6, 6) to form a triangle.
Now join S(4, 5), T(4.5, 4) and U(5, 5) to form a triangle. Lastly join S to the points
(0, 5) and (0, 6) and join U to the points (9, 5) and (9, 6). What picture have you got?
Also, you have seen that a linear equation in two variables of the form
ax + by + c = 0, (a, b are not simultaneously zero), when represented graphically,
gives a straight line. Further, in Chapter 2, you have seen the graph of
y = ax2 + bx + c (a ≠ 0), is a parabola. In fact, coordinate geometry has been developed
as an algebraic tool for studying geometry of figures. It helps us to study geometry
using algebra, and understand algebra with the help of geometry. Because of this,
coordinate geometry is widely applied in various fields such as physics, engineering,
navigation, seismology and art!
In this chapter, you will learn how to find the distance between the two points
whose coordinates are given, and to find the area of the triangle formed by three given
points. You will also study how to find the coordinates of the point which divides a line
segment joining two given points in a given ratio.

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7.2 Distance Formula

Let us consider the following situation:
A town B is located 36 km east and 15
km north of the town A. How would you find
the distance from town A to town B without
actually measuring it. Let us see. This situation
can be represented graphically as shown in
Fig. 7.1. You may use the Pythagoras Theorem
to calculate this distance.
Now, suppose two points lie on the x-axis. Fig. 7.1
Can we find the distance between them? For
instance, consider two points A(4, 0) and B(6, 0)
in Fig. 7.2. The points A and B lie on the x-axis.
From the figure you can see that OA = 4
units and OB = 6 units.
Therefore, the distance of B from A, i.e.,
AB = OB – OA = 6 – 4 = 2 units.
So, if two points lie on the x-axis, we can
easily find the distance between them.
Now, suppose we take two points lying on
the y-axis. Can you find the distance between
them. If the points C(0, 3) and D(0, 8) lie on the
y-axis, similarly we find that CD = 8 – 3 = 5 units Fig. 7.2
(see Fig. 7.2).
Next, can you find the distance of A from C (in Fig. 7.2)? Since OA = 4 units and
OC = 3 units, the distance of A from C, i.e., AC = 32 + 42 = 5 units. Similarly, you can
find the distance of B from D = BD = 10 units.
Now, if we consider two points not lying on coordinate axis, can we find the
distance between them? Yes! We shall use Pythagoras theorem to do so. Let us see
an example.
In Fig. 7.3, the points P(4, 6) and Q(6, 8) lie in the first quadrant. How do we use
Pythagoras theorem to find the distance between them? Let us draw PR and QS
perpendicular to the x-axis from P and Q respectively. Also, draw a perpendicular
from P on QS to meet QS at T. Then the coordinates of R and S are (4, 0) and (6, 0),
respectively. So, RS = 2 units. Also, QS = 8 units and TS = PR = 6 units.

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Therefore, QT = 2 units and PT = RS = 2 units.

Now, using the Pythagoras theorem, we
have
PQ2 = PT2 + QT2
= 22 + 2 2 = 8
So, PQ = 2 2 units
How will we find the distance between two
points in two different quadrants?
Consider the points P(6, 4) and Q(–5, –3)
(see Fig. 7.4). Draw QS perpendicular to the
x-axis. Also draw a perpendicular PT from the
Fig. 7.3
point P on QS (extended) to meet y-axis at the
point R.

Fig. 7.4

Then PT = 11 units and QT = 7 units. (Why?)

Using the Pythagoras Theorem to the right triangle PTQ, we get
PQ = 112 + 7 2 = 170 units.

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Let us now find the distance between any two

points P(x 1, y 1) and Q(x 2, y 2 ). Draw PR and QS
perpendicular to the x-axis. A perpendicular from the
point P on QS is drawn to meet it at the point
T (see Fig. 7.5).
Then, OR = x1, OS = x2. So, RS = x2 – x1 = PT.
Also, SQ = y2, ST = PR = y1. So, QT = y2 – y1.
Now, applying the Pythagoras theorem in ∆ PTQ, we get
PQ2 = PT2 + QT2
Fig. 7.5
= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2

Therefore, PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2
Note that since distance is always non-negative, we take only the positive square
root. So, the distance between the points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is
2 2
PQ = ( x2 – x1 ) + ( y2 – y1 ) ,

which is called the distance formula.

Remarks :
1. In particular, the distance of a point P(x, y) from the origin O(0, 0) is given by

OP = x2 + y 2 .

2. We can also write, PQ = ( x1 − x2 )2 + ( y1 − y2 )2 . (Why?)

Example 1 : Do the points (3, 2), (–2, –3) and (2, 3) form a triangle? If so, name the
type of triangle formed.
Solution : Let us apply the distance formula to find the distances PQ, QR and PR,
where P(3, 2), Q(–2, –3) and R(2, 3) are the given points. We have

PQ = (3 + 2)2 + (2 + 3) 2 = 52 + 52 = 50 = 7.07 (approx.)

QR = (–2 – 2)2 + (–3 – 3) 2 = (– 4)2 + (– 6)2 = 52 = 7.21 (approx.)

PR = (3 – 2) 2 + (2 – 3) 2 = 12 + (−1)2 = 2 = 1.41 (approx.)

Since the sum of any two of these distances is greater than the third distance, therefore,
the points P, Q and R form a triangle.

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Also, PQ2 + PR2 = QR2, by the converse of Pythagoras theorem, we have ∠ P = 90°.
Therefore, PQR is a right triangle.

Example 2 : Show that the points (1, 7), (4, 2), (–1, –1) and (– 4, 4) are the vertices
of a square.
Solution : Let A(1, 7), B(4, 2), C(–1, –1) and D(– 4, 4) be the given points. One way
of showing that ABCD is a square is to use the property that all its sides should be
equal and both its digonals should also be equal. Now,
AB = (1 – 4) 2 + (7 − 2)2 = 9 + 25 = 34

BC = (4 + 1) 2 + (2 + 1) 2 = 25 + 9 = 34

CD = (–1 + 4)2 + (–1 – 4) 2 = 9 + 25 = 34

DA = (1 + 4) 2 + (7 – 4) 2 = 25 + 9 = 34
AC = (1 + 1) 2 + (7 + 1) 2 = 4 + 64 = 68

BD = (4 + 4) 2 + (2 − 4) 2 = 64 + 4 = 68

Since, AB = BC = CD = DA and AC = BD, all the four sides of the quadrilateral

ABCD are equal and its diagonals AC and BD are also equal. Thereore, ABCD is a
square.
Alternative Solution : We find
the four sides and one diagonal, say,
AC as above. Here AD2 + DC2 =
34 + 34 = 68 = AC2. Therefore, by
the converse of Pythagoras
theorem, ∠ D = 90°. A quadrilateral
with all four sides equal and one
angle 90° is a square. So, ABCD
is a square.

Example 3 : Fig. 7.6 shows the

arrangement of desks in a
classroom. Ashima, Bharti and
Camella are seated at A(3, 1),
B(6, 4) and C(8, 6) respectively.
Do you think they are seated in a
line? Give reasons for your
Fig. 7.6
answer.

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Solution : Using the distance formula, we have

AB = (6 − 3) 2 + (4 − 1) 2 = 9 + 9 = 18 = 3 2

BC = (8 – 6) 2 + (6 – 4) 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2

AC = (8 – 3) 2 + (6 – 1)2 = 25 + 25 = 50 = 5 2

Since, AB + BC = 3 2 + 2 2 = 5 2 = AC, we can say that the points A, B and C

are collinear. Therefore, they are seated in a line.

Example 4 : Find a relation between x and y such that the point (x , y) is equidistant
from the points (7, 1) and (3, 5).
Solution : Let P(x, y) be equidistant from the points A(7, 1) and B(3, 5).
We are given that AP = BP. So, AP2 = BP2
i.e., (x – 7)2 + (y – 1)2 = (x – 3)2 + (y – 5)2
i.e., x2 – 14x + 49 + y2 – 2y + 1 = x2 – 6x + 9 + y2 – 10y + 25
i.e., x–y= 2

which is the required relation.

Remark : Note that the graph of the equation

x – y = 2 is a line. From your earlier studies,
you know that a point which is equidistant
from A and B lies on the perpendicular
bisector of AB. Therefore, the graph of
x – y = 2 is the perpendicular bisector of AB
(see Fig. 7.7).
Example 5 : Find a point on the y-axis which
is equidistant from the points A(6, 5) and
B(– 4, 3).
Solution : We know that a point on the
y-axis is of the form (0, y). So, let the point
P(0, y) be equidistant from A and B. Then Fig. 7.7
(6 – 0)2 + (5 – y)2 = (– 4 – 0)2 + (3 – y)2
i.e., 36 + 25 + y2 – 10y = 16 + 9 + y2 – 6y
i.e., 4y = 36
i.e., y= 9

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So, the required point is (0, 9).

Let us check our solution : AP = (6 – 0) 2 + (5 – 9) 2 = 36 + 16 = 52

BP = (– 4 – 0) 2 + (3 – 9) 2 = 16 + 36 = 52
Note : Using the remark above, we see that (0, 9) is the intersection of the y-axis and
the perpendicular bisector of AB.

EXERCISE 7.1
1. Find the distance between the following pairs of points :
(i) (2, 3), (4, 1) (ii) (– 5, 7), (– 1, 3) (iii) (a, b), (– a, – b)
2. Find the distance between the points (0, 0) and (36, 15). Can you now find the distance
between the two towns A and B discussed in Section 7.2.
3. Determine if the points (1, 5), (2, 3) and (– 2, – 11) are collinear.
4. Check whether (5, – 2), (6, 4) and (7, – 2) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
5. In a classroom, 4 friends are
seated at the points A, B, C and
D as shown in Fig. 7.8. Champa
and Chameli walk into the class
and after observing for a few
minutes Champa asks Chameli,
“Don’t you think ABCD is a
square?” Chameli disagrees.
Using distance formula, find
which of them is correct.
6. Name the type of quadrilateral
formed, if any, by the following
points, and give reasons for
your answer:
(i) (– 1, – 2), (1, 0), (– 1, 2), (– 3, 0)
(ii) (–3, 5), (3, 1), (0, 3), (–1, – 4)
(iii) (4, 5), (7, 6), (4, 3), (1, 2) Fig. 7.8
7. Find the point on the x-axis which is equidistant from (2, –5) and (–2, 9).
8. Find the values of y for which the distance between the points P(2, – 3) and Q(10, y) is
10 units.

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9. If Q(0, 1) is equidistant from P(5, –3) and R(x, 6), find the values of x. Also find the
distances QR and PR.
10. Find a relation between x and y such that the point (x, y) is equidistant from the point
(3, 6) and (– 3, 4).

7.3 Section Formula

Let us recall the situation in Section 7.2.
Suppose a telephone company wants to
position a relay tower at P between A and B
is such a way that the distance of the tower
from B is twice its distance from A. If P lies
on AB, it will divide AB in the ratio 1 : 2
(see Fig. 7.9). If we take A as the origin O,
and 1 km as one unit on both the axis, the
coordinates of B will be (36, 15). In order to
know the position of the tower, we must know Fig. 7.9
the coordinates of P. How do we find these
coordinates?
Let the coordinates of P be (x, y). Draw perpendiculars from P and B to the
x-axis, meeting it in D and E, respectively. Draw PC perpendicular to BE. Then, by
the AA similarity criterion, studied in Chapter 6, ∆ POD and ∆ BPC are similar.
OD OP 1 PD OP 1
Therefore , = = , and = =
PC PB 2 BC PB 2
x 1 y 1
So, = and = ⋅
36 − x 2 15 − y 2
These equations give x = 12 and y = 5.
You can check that P(12, 5) meets the
condition that OP : PB = 1 : 2.
Now let us use the understanding that
you may have developed through this
example to obtain the general formula.
Consider any two points A(x1, y1) and
B(x2, y2) and assume that P (x, y) divides
AB internally in the ratio m 1 : m 2, i.e.,
PA m1
= (see Fig. 7.10). Fig. 7.10
PB m2

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Draw AR, PS and BT perpendicular to the x-axis. Draw AQ and PC parallel to

the x-axis. Then, by the AA similarity criterion,
∆ PAQ ~ ∆ BPC
PA AQ PQ
Therefore, = = (1)
BP PC BC
Now, AQ = RS = OS – OR = x – x1
PC = ST = OT – OS = x2 – x
PQ = PS – QS = PS – AR = y – y1
BC = BT– CT = BT – PS = y2 – y
Substituting these values in (1), we get
m1 x − x1 y − y1
= =
m2 x2 − x y2 − y
m1 x − x1 m1 x2 + m2 x1
Taking = , we get x =
m2 x2 − x m1 + m2
m1 y − y1 m y + m2 y1
Similarly, taking = , we get y = 1 2
m2 y2 − y m1 + m2
So, the coordinates of the point P(x, y) which divides the line segment joining the
points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2), internally, in the ratio m1 : m2 are

 m1 x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y2 + m2 y1 
  (2)
 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 
This is known as the section formula.
This can also be derived by drawing perpendiculars from A, P and B on the
y-axis and proceeding as above.
If the ratio in which P divides AB is k : 1, then the coordinates of the point P will be
 kx2 + x1 , ky2 + y1 
 ⋅
 k+1 k+1 
Special Case : The mid-point of a line segment divides the line segment in the ratio
1 : 1. Therefore, the coordinates of the mid-point P of the join of the points A(x1, y1)
and B(x2, y2) is
 1 ⋅ x1 + 1 ⋅ x2 , 1 ⋅ y1 + 1 ⋅ y2   x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 
 =
 1+1 1+1   2 2  .
Let us solve a few examples based on the section formula.

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Example 6 : Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining
the points (4, – 3) and (8, 5) in the ratio 3 : 1 internally.
Solution : Let P(x, y) be the required point. Using the section formula, we get

3(8) + 1(4) 3(5) + 1(–3)

x= = 7, y = =3
3+1 3+1
Therefore, (7, 3) is the required point.

Example 7 : In what ratio does the point (– 4, 6) divide the line segment joining the
points A(– 6, 10) and B(3, – 8)?
Solution : Let (– 4, 6) divide AB internally in the ratio m1 : m2. Using the section
formula, we get
 3m1 − 6m2 –8m1 + 10m2 
(– 4, 6) =  ,  (1)
 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 

Recall that if (x, y) = (a, b) then x = a and y = b.

3m1 − 6m2 − 8m1 + 10m2

So, –4= and 6 =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

3m1 − 6m2
Now, –4= gives us
m1 + m2
– 4m1 – 4m2 = 3m1 – 6m2
i.e., 7m1 = 2m2
i.e., m1 : m2 = 2 : 7
You should verify that the ratio satisfies the y-coordinate also.
m1
−8 + 10
−8m1 + 10m2 m2
Now, = (Dividing throughout by m2)
m1 + m2 m1
+1
m2

2
−8 × + 10
7 =6
= 2
+1
7

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Therefore, the point (– 4, 6) divides the line segment joining the points A(– 6, 10) and
B(3, – 8) in the ratio 2 : 7.

m1
Alternatively : The ratio m1 : m2 can also be written as :1, or k : 1. Let (– 4, 6)
m2
divide AB internally in the ratio k : 1. Using the section formula, we get

 3k − 6 , −8k + 10 
(– 4, 6) =   (2)
 k +1 k +1 

3k − 6
So, –4=
k +1
i.e., – 4k – 4 = 3k – 6
i.e., 7k = 2
i.e., k:1= 2:7
You can check for the y-coordinate also.
So, the point (– 4, 6) divides the line segment joining the points A(– 6, 10) and
B(3, – 8) in the ratio 2 : 7.
Note : You can also find this ratio by calculating the distances PA and PB and taking
their ratios provided you know that A, P and B are collinear.

Example 8 : Find the coordinates of the points of trisection (i.e., points dividing in
three equal parts) of the line segment joining the points A(2, – 2) and B(– 7, 4).
Solution : Let P and Q be the points of
trisection of AB i.e., AP = PQ = QB
(see Fig. 7.11). Fig. 7.11
Therefore, P divides AB internally in the ratio 1 : 2. Therefore, the coordinates of P, by
applying the section formula, are
 1( −7) + 2(2) , 1(4) + 2( −2) 
  , i.e., (–1, 0)
 1+ 2 1+ 2 
Now, Q also divides AB internally in the ratio 2 : 1. So, the coordinates of Q are

 2(−7) + 1(2) , 2(4) + 1( −2) 

  , i.e., (– 4, 2)
 2+1 2 +1 

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Therefore, the coordinates of the points of trisection of the line segment joining A and
B are (–1, 0) and (– 4, 2).
Note : We could also have obtained Q by noting that it is the mid-point of PB. So, we
could have obtained its coordinates using the mid-point formula.

Example 9 : Find the ratio in which the y-axis divides the line segment joining the
points (5, – 6) and (–1, – 4). Also find the point of intersection.
Solution : Let the ratio be k : 1. Then by the section formula, the coordinates of the
 −k + 5 , −4k − 6 
point which divides AB in the ratio k : 1 are  ⋅
 k +1 k +1 

This point lies on the y-axis, and we know that on the y-axis the abscissa is 0.

−k + 5
Therefore, = 0
k +1
So, k=5
That is, the ratio is 5 : 1. Putting the value of k = 5, we get the point of intersection as
 −13 
 0, .
 3 

Example 10 : If the points A(6, 1), B(8, 2), C(9, 4) and D(p, 3) are the vertices of a
parallelogram, taken in order, find the value of p.
Solution : We know that diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
So, the coordinates of the mid-point of AC = coordinates of the mid-point of BD

6 + 9, 1+ 4  8 + p , 2 + 3
i.e.,   =  
 2 2   2 2 

 15 , 5  8 + p, 5
i.e.,   =  
 2 2  2 2

15 8+ p
so, =
2 2
i.e., p= 7

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EXERCISE 7.2
1. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the join of (–1, 7) and (4, –3) in the
ratio 2 : 3.
2. Find the coordinates of the points of trisection of the line segment joining (4, –1)
and (–2, –3).
3. To conduct Sports Day activities, in
your rectangular shaped school
ground ABCD, lines have been
drawn with chalk powder at a
distance of 1m each. 100 flower pots
have been placed at a distance of 1m
from each other along AD, as shown
1
in Fig. 7.12. Niharika runs th the
4
distance AD on the 2nd line and
1
posts a green flag. Preet runs th
5
the distance AD on the eighth line
and posts a red flag. What is the
distance between both the flags? If
Rashmi has to post a blue flag exactly
halfway between the line segment
joining the two flags, where should
she post her flag? Fig. 7.12
4. Find the ratio in which the line segment joining the points (– 3, 10) and (6, – 8) is divided
by (– 1, 6).
5. Find the ratio in which the line segment joining A(1, – 5) and B(– 4, 5) is divided by the
x-axis. Also find the coordinates of the point of division.
6. If (1, 2), (4, y), (x, 6) and (3, 5) are the vertices of a parallelogram taken in order, find
x and y.
7. Find the coordinates of a point A, where AB is the diameter of a circle whose centre is
(2, – 3) and B is (1, 4).
8. If A and B are (– 2, – 2) and (2, – 4), respectively, find the coordinates of P such that
3
AP = AB and P lies on the line segment AB.
7
9. Find the coordinates of the points which divide the line segment joining A(– 2, 2) and
B(2, 8) into four equal parts.
10. Find the area of a rhombus if its vertices are (3, 0), (4, 5), (– 1, 4) and (– 2, – 1) taken in
1
order. [Hint : Area of a rhombus = (product of its diagonals)]
2

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7.4 Area of a Triangle

In your earlier classes, you have studied how to calculate the area of a triangle when
its base and corresponding height (altitude) are given. You have used the formula :
1
Area of a triangle = × base × altitude
2
In Class IX, you have also studied Heron’s formula to find the area of a triangle.
Now, if the coordinates of the vertices of a triangle are given, can you find its area?
Well, you could find the lengths of the
three sides using the distance formula and
then use Heron’s formula. But this could
be tedious, particularly if the lengths of
the sides are irrational numbers. Let us
see if there is an easier way out.
Let ABC be any triangle whose
vertices are A(x 1, y 1), B(x 2 , y 2 ) and
C(x 3 , y 3 ). Draw AP, BQ and CR
perpendiculars from A, B and C,
respectively, to the x-axis. Clearly ABQP,
APRC and BQRC are all trapezia
(see Fig. 7.13). Fig. 7.13
Now, from Fig. 7.13, it is clear that
area of ∆ ABC = area of trapezium ABQP + area of trapezium APRC
– area of trapezium BQRC.
You also know that the
1
area of a trapezium = (sum of parallel sides)(distance between them)
2
Therefore,
1 1 1
Area of ∆ ABC = (BQ + AP) QP + (AP + CR) PR – (BQ + CR) QR
2 2 2
1 1 1
= ( y2 + y1)( x1 − x2 ) + ( y1 + y3 )(x3 − x1) − ( y2 + y3 )(x3 − x2 )
2 2 2
1
= [ x1 ( y2 – y3 ) + x2 ( y3 – y1 ) + x3 ( y1 – y2 ) ]
2
Thus, the area of ∆ ABC is the numerical value of the expression
1
 x1 ( y2 − y3 ) + x2 ( y3 − y1 ) + x3 ( y1 − y2 
2
Let us consider a few examples in which we make use of this formula.

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Example 11 : Find the area of a triangle whose vertices are (1, –1), (– 4, 6) and
(–3, –5).
Solution : The area of the triangle formed by the vertices A(1, –1), B(– 4, 6) and
C (–3, –5), by using the formula above, is given by
1
[1 (6 + 5) + (−4) (−5 + 1) + (−3) (−1 − 6)]
2
1
= (11 + 16 + 21) = 24
2
So, the area of the triangle is 24 square units.

Example 12 : Find the area of a triangle formed by the points A(5, 2), B(4, 7) and
C (7, – 4).
Solution : The area of the triangle formed by the vertices A(5, 2), B(4, 7) and
C (7, – 4) is given by
1
[5 (7 + 4) + 4 (− 4 − 2) + 7 (2 − 7) ]
2
1 −4
= (55 − 24 − 35) = = −2
2 2
Since area is a measure, which cannot be negative, we will take the numerical value
of – 2, i.e., 2. Therefore, the area of the triangle = 2 square units.

Example 13 : Find the area of the triangle formed by the points P(–1.5, 3), Q(6, –2)
and R(–3, 4).
Solution : The area of the triangle formed by the given points is equal to
1
[ −1.5(−2 − 4) + 6(4 − 3) + (−3)(3 + 2)]
2
1
= (9 + 6 − 15) = 0
2
Can we have a triangle of area 0 square units? What does this mean?
If the area of a triangle is 0 square units, then its vertices will be collinear.

Example 14 : Find the value of k if the points A(2, 3), B(4, k) and C(6, –3) are
collinear.
Solution : Since the given points are collinear, the area of the triangle formed by them
must be 0, i.e.,

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170 MATHEMATICS

1
[ 2(k + 3) + 4(−3 − 3) + 6(3 − k )] = 0
2
1
i.e., ( − 4k ) = 0
2
Therefore, k=0
Let us verify our answer.
1
area of ∆ ABC = [ 2 (0 + 3) + 4(− 3 − 3) + 6 (3 − 0)] = 0
2
Example 15 : If A(–5, 7), B(– 4, –5), C(–1, –6) and D(4, 5) are the vertices of a
quadrilateral, find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD.
Solution : By joining B to D, you will get two triangles ABD and BCD.
1
Now the area of ∆ ABD = [ −5(− 5 − 5) + (−4)(5 − 7) + 4(7 + 5)]
2
1 106
= (50 + 8 + 48) = = 53 square units
2 2
1
Also, the area of ∆ BCD = [ −4(− 6 − 5) – 1(5 + 5) + 4( −5 + 6)]
2
1
= (44 − 10 + 4) = 19 square units
2
So, the area of quadrilateral ABCD = 53 + 19 = 72 square units.
Note : To find the area of a polygon, we divide it into triangular regions, which have
no common area, and add the areas of these regions.

EXERCISE 7.3
1. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are :
(i) (2, 3), (–1, 0), (2, – 4) (ii) (–5, –1), (3, –5), (5, 2)
2. In each of the following find the value of ‘k’, for which the points are collinear.
(i) (7, –2), (5, 1), (3, k) (ii) (8, 1), (k, – 4), (2, –5)
3. Find the area of the triangle formed by joining the mid-points of the sides of the triangle
whose vertices are (0, –1), (2, 1) and (0, 3). Find the ratio of this area to the area of the
given triangle.
4. Find the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices, taken in order, are (– 4, – 2), (– 3, – 5),
(3, – 2) and (2, 3).
5. You have studied in Class IX, (Chapter 9, Example 3), that a median of a triangle divides
it into two triangles of equal areas. Verify this result for ∆ ABC whose vertices are
A(4, – 6), B(3, –2) and C(5, 2).

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EXERCISE 7.4 (Optional)*

1. Determine the ratio in which the line 2x + y – 4 = 0 divides the line segment joining the
points A(2, – 2) and B(3, 7).
2. Find a relation between x and y if the points (x, y), (1, 2) and (7, 0) are collinear.
3. Find the centre of a circle passing through the points (6, – 6), (3, – 7) and (3, 3).
4. The two opposite vertices of a square are (–1, 2) and (3, 2). Find the coordinates of the
other two vertices.
5. The Class X students of a
secondary school in Krishinagar
have been allotted a rectangular
plot of land for their gardening
activity. Sapling of Gulmohar
are planted on the boundary at
a distance of 1m from each
other. There is a triangular
grassy lawn in the plot as
shown in the Fig. 7.14. The
students are to sow seeds of
flowering plants on the
Fig. 7.14
remaining area of the plot.
(i) Taking A as origin, find the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle.
(ii) What will be the coordinates of the vertices of ∆ PQR if C is the origin?
Also calculate the areas of the triangles in these cases. What do you observe?
6. The vertices of a ∆ ABC are A(4, 6), B(1, 5) and C(7, 2). A line is drawn to intersect sides
AD AE 1
AB and AC at D and E respectively, such that = = ⋅ Calculate the area of the
AB AC 4
∆ ADE and compare it with the area of ∆ ABC. (Recall Theorem 6.2 and Theorem 6.6).
7. Let A (4, 2), B(6, 5) and C(1, 4) be the vertices of ∆ ABC.
(i) The median from A meets BC at D. Find the coordinates of the point D.
(ii) Find the coordinates of the point P on AD such that AP : PD = 2 : 1
(iii) Find the coordinates of points Q and R on medians BE and CF respectively such
that BQ : QE = 2 : 1 and CR : RF = 2 : 1.
(iv) What do yo observe?
[Note : The point which is common to all the three medians is called the centroid
and this point divides each median in the ratio 2 : 1.]

* These exercises are not from the examination point of view.

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172 MATHEMATICS

(v) If A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) are the vertices of ∆ ABC, find the coordinates of
the centroid of the triangle.
8. ABCD is a rectangle formed by the points A(–1, –1), B(– 1, 4), C(5, 4) and D(5, – 1). P, Q,
R and S are the mid-points of AB, BC, CD and DA respectively. Is the quadrilateral
PQRS a square? a rectangle? or a rhombus? Justify your answer.

7.5 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :

1. The distance between P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 .

2. The distance of a point P(x, y) from the origin is x2 + y 2 .
3. The coordinates of the point P(x, y) which divides the line segment joining the
points A(x 1 , y 1 ) and B(x 2 , y 2 ) internally in the ratio m 1 : m 2 are
 m1 x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y2 + m2 y1 
 ⋅
 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 
4. The mid-point of the line segment joining the points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is
 x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 
 2 .
 2 
5. The area of the triangle formed by the points (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is the
numerical value of the expression
1
[ x1 ( y2 − y3 ) + x2 ( y3 − y1 ) + x3 ( y1 − y2 )].
2

A NOTE TO THE READER

Section 7.3 discusses the Section Formula for the coordinates (x, y) of a
point P which divides internally the line segment joining the points
A(x1, y 1) and B(x2, y2) in the ratio m1 : m2 as follows :

m1 x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y2 + m2 y1
x= y=
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

Note that, here, PA : PB = m1 : m2.

However, if P does not lie between A and B but lies on the line AB,
outside the line segment AB, and PA : PB = m1 : m2, we say that P divides
externally the line segment joining the points A and B. You will study
Section Formula for such case in higher classes.

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ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 93

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 5
5.1 Introduction
You must have observed that in nature, many things follow a certain pattern, such as
the petals of a sunflower, the holes of a honeycomb, the grains on a maize cob, the
spirals on a pineapple and on a pine cone etc.
We now look for some patterns which occur in our day-to-day life. Some such
examples are :
(i) Reena applied for a job and got selected. She
has been offered a job with a starting monthly
salary of ` 8000, with an annual increment of
` 500 in her salary. Her salary (in `) for the 1st,
2nd, 3rd, . . . years will be, respectively
8000, 8500, 9000, . . . .
(ii) The lengths of the rungs of a ladder decrease
uniformly by 2 cm from bottom to top
(see Fig. 5.1). The bottom rung is 45 cm in
length. The lengths (in cm) of the 1st, 2nd,
3rd, . . ., 8th rung from the bottom to the top
are, respectively
Fig. 5.1
45, 43, 41, 39, 37, 35, 33, 31
5
(iii) In a savings scheme, the amount becomes times of itself after every 3 years.
4
The maturity amount (in `) of an investment of ` 8000 after 3, 6, 9 and 12 years
will be, respectively :
10000, 12500, 15625, 19531.25

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94 MATHEMATICS

(iv) The number of unit squares in squares with side 1, 2, 3, . . . units (see Fig. 5.2)
are, respectively
12, 22, 32, . . . .

Fig. 5.2
(v) Shakila puts ` 100 into her daughter’s money box when she was one year old
and increased the amount by ` 50 every year. The amounts of money (in `) in the
box on the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, . . . birthday were
100, 150, 200, 250, . . ., respectively.
(vi) A pair of rabbits are too young to produce in their first month. In the second, and
every subsequent month, they produce a new pair. Each new pair of rabbits
produce a new pair in their second month and in every subsequent month (see
Fig. 5.3). Assuming no rabbit dies, the number of pairs of rabbits at the start of
the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., 6th month, respectively are :
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8

Fig. 5.3

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ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 95

In the examples above, we observe some patterns. In some, we find that the
succeeding terms are obtained by adding a fixed number, in other by multiplying
with a fixed number, in another we find that they are squares of consecutive
numbers, and so on.
In this chapter, we shall discuss one of these patterns in which succeeding terms
are obtained by adding a fixed number to the preceding terms. We shall also see how
to find their nth terms and the sum of n consecutive terms, and use this knowledge in
solving some daily life problems.

5.2 Arithmetic Progressions

Consider the following lists of numbers :
(i) 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
(ii) 100, 70, 40, 10, . . .
(iii) – 3, –2, –1, 0, . . .
(iv) 3, 3, 3, 3, . . .
(v) –1.0, –1.5, –2.0, –2.5, . . .
Each of the numbers in the list is called a term.
Given a term, can you write the next term in each of the lists above? If so, how
will you write it? Perhaps by following a pattern or rule. Let us observe and write the
rule.
In (i), each term is 1 more than the term preceding it.
In (ii), each term is 30 less than the term preceding it.
In (iii), each term is obtained by adding 1 to the term preceding it.
In (iv), all the terms in the list are 3 , i.e., each term is obtained by adding
(or subtracting) 0 to the term preceding it.
In (v), each term is obtained by adding – 0.5 to (i.e., subtracting 0.5 from) the
term preceding it.
In all the lists above, we see that successive terms are obtained by adding a fixed
number to the preceding terms. Such list of numbers is said to form an Arithmetic
Progression ( AP ).
So, an arithmetic progression is a list of numbers in which each term is
obtained by adding a fixed number to the preceding term except the first
term.
This fixed number is called the common difference of the AP. Remember that
it can be positive, negative or zero.

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96 MATHEMATICS

Let us denote the first term of an AP by a1, second term by a2, . . ., nth term by
an and the common difference by d. Then the AP becomes a1, a2, a3, . . ., an.
So, a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 = . . . = an – an – 1 = d.
Some more examples of AP are:
(a) The heights ( in cm ) of some students of a school standing in a queue in the
morning assembly are 147 , 148, 149, . . ., 157.
(b) The minimum temperatures ( in degree celsius ) recorded for a week in the
month of January in a city, arranged in ascending order are
– 3.1, – 3.0, – 2.9, – 2.8, – 2.7, – 2.6, – 2.5
(c) The balance money ( in ` ) after paying 5 % of the total loan of ` 1000 every
month is 950, 900, 850, 800, . . ., 50.
(d) The cash prizes ( in ` ) given by a school to the toppers of Classes I to XII are,
respectively, 200, 250, 300, 350, . . ., 750.
(e) The total savings (in `) after every month for 10 months when ` 50 are saved
each month are 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500.
It is left as an exercise for you to explain why each of the lists above is an AP.
You can see that
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .
represents an arithmetic progression where a is the first term and d the common
difference. This is called the general form of an AP.
Note that in examples (a) to (e) above, there are only a finite number of terms.
Such an AP is called a finite AP. Also note that each of these Arithmetic Progressions
(APs) has a last term. The APs in examples (i) to (v) in this section, are not finite APs
and so they are called infinite Arithmetic Progressions. Such APs do not have a
last term.
Now, to know about an AP, what is the minimum information that you need? Is it
enough to know the first term? Or, is it enough to know only the common difference?
You will find that you will need to know both – the first term a and the common
difference d.
For instance if the first term a is 6 and the common difference d is 3, then
the AP is
6, 9,12, 15, . . .
and if a is 6 and d is – 3, then the AP is
6, 3, 0, –3, . . .

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ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 97

Similarly, when
a = – 7, d = – 2, the AP is – 7, – 9, – 11, – 13, . . .
a = 1.0, d = 0.1, the AP is 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, . . .

1 1 1
a = 0, d=1 , the AP is 0, 1 , 3, 4 , 6, . . .
2 2 2
a = 2, d = 0, the AP is 2, 2, 2, 2, . . .
So, if you know what a and d are, you can list the AP. What about the other way
round? That is, if you are given a list of numbers can you say that it is an AP and then
find a and d? Since a is the first term, it can easily be written. We know that in an AP,
every succeeding term is obtained by adding d to the preceding term. So, d found by
subtracting any term from its succeeding term, i.e., the term which immediately follows
it should be same for an AP.
For example, for the list of numbers :
6, 9, 12, 15, . . . ,
We have a2 – a1 = 9 – 6 = 3,
a3 – a2 = 12 – 9 = 3,
a4 – a3 = 15 – 12 = 3
Here the difference of any two consecutive terms in each case is 3. So, the
given list is an AP whose first term a is 6 and common difference d is 3.
For the list of numbers : 6, 3, 0, – 3, . . .,
a2 – a1 = 3 – 6 = – 3
a3 – a2 = 0 – 3 = – 3
a4 – a3 = –3 – 0 = –3
Similarly this is also an AP whose first term is 6 and the common difference
is –3.
In general, for an AP a1, a2, . . ., an, we have
d = ak + 1 – ak
where ak + 1 and ak are the ( k + 1)th and the kth terms respectively.
To obtain d in a given AP, we need not find all of a2 – a1, a3 – a2, a4 – a3, . . . .
It is enough to find only one of them.
Consider the list of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, . . . . By looking at it, you can tell that the
difference between any two consecutive terms is not the same. So, this is not an AP.

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98 MATHEMATICS

Note that to find d in the AP : 6, 3, 0, – 3, . . ., we have subtracted 6 from 3

and not 3 from 6, i.e., we should subtract the kth term from the (k + 1) th term
even if the (k + 1) th term is smaller.
Let us make the concept more clear through some examples.

3 1 1 3
Example 1 : For the AP : , ,– ,– , . . ., write the first term a and the
2 2 2 2
common difference d.

3 1 3
Solution : Here, a= ,d= – = – 1.
2 2 2
Remember that we can find d using any two consecutive terms, once we know that
the numbers are in AP.

Example 2 : Which of the following list of numbers form an AP? If they form an AP,
write the next two terms :
(i) 4, 10, 16, 22, . . . (ii) 1, – 1, – 3, – 5, . . .
(iii) – 2, 2, – 2, 2, – 2, . . . (iv) 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, . . .
Solution : (i) We have a2 – a1 = 10 – 4 = 6
a3 – a2 = 16 – 10 = 6
a4 – a3 = 22 – 16 = 6
i.e., ak + 1 – ak is the same every time.
So, the given list of numbers forms an AP with the common difference d = 6.
The next two terms are: 22 + 6 = 28 and 28 + 6 = 34.
(ii) a2 – a1 = – 1 – 1 = – 2
a3 – a2 = – 3 – ( –1 ) = – 3 + 1 = – 2
a4 – a3 = – 5 – ( –3 ) = – 5 + 3 = – 2
i.e., ak + 1 – ak is the same every time.
So, the given list of numbers forms an AP with the common difference d = – 2.
The next two terms are:
– 5 + (– 2 ) = – 7 and – 7 + (– 2 ) = – 9
(iii) a2 – a1 = 2 – (– 2) = 2 + 2 = 4
a3 – a2 = – 2 – 2 = – 4
As a2 – a1 ≠ a3 – a2 , the given list of numbers does not form an AP.

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ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 99

(iv) a2 – a1 = 1 – 1 = 0
a3 – a2 = 1 – 1 = 0
a4 – a3 = 2 – 1 = 1
Here, a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 ≠ a4 – a3.
So, the given list of numbers does not form an AP.

EXERCISE 5.1
1. In which of the following situations, does the list of numbers involved make an arithmetic
progression, and why?
(i) The taxi fare after each km when the fare is ` 15 for the first km and ` 8 for each
additional km.
1
(ii) The amount of air present in a cylinder when a vacuum pump removes of the
air remaining in the cylinder at a time. 4

(iii) The cost of digging a well after every metre of digging, when it costs ` 150 for the
first metre and rises by ` 50 for each subsequent metre.
(iv) The amount of money in the account every year, when ` 10000 is deposited at
compound interest at 8 % per annum.
2. Write first four terms of the AP, when the first term a and the common difference d are
given as follows:
(i) a = 10, d = 10 (ii) a = –2, d = 0
1
(iii) a = 4, d=–3 (iv) a = – 1, d =
2
(v) a = – 1.25, d = – 0.25
3. For the following APs, write the first term and the common difference:
(i) 3, 1, – 1, – 3, . . . (ii) – 5, – 1, 3, 7, . . .
1 , 5 , 9 , 13 ,
(iii) ... (iv) 0.6, 1.7, 2.8, 3.9, . . .
3 3 3 3
4. Which of the following are APs ? If they form an AP, find the common difference d and
write three more terms.

5 7
(i) 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . (ii) 2, , 3, , . . .
2 2
(iii) – 1.2, – 3.2, – 5.2, – 7.2, . . . (iv) – 10, – 6, – 2, 2, . . .

(v) 3, 3 + 2 , 3 + 2 2 , 3 + 3 2, ... (vi) 0.2, 0.22, 0.222, 0.2222, . . .

1 1 1 1
(vii) 0, – 4, – 8, –12, . . . (viii) – ,– ,– ,– ,...
2 2 2 2

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(ix) 1, 3, 9, 27, . . . (x) a, 2a, 3a, 4a, . . .

(xi) a, a2, a3, a4, . . . (xii) 2, 8, 18 , 32, . . .
(xiii) 3, 6, 9 , 12 , . . . (xiv) 12, 32, 52, 72, . . .
(xv) 12, 52, 72, 73, . . .

5.3 nth Term of an AP

Let us consider the situation again, given in Section 5.1 in which Reena applied for a
job and got selected. She has been offered the job with a starting monthly salary of
` 8000, with an annual increment of ` 500. What would be her monthly salary for the
fifth year?
To answer this, let us first see what her monthly salary for the second year
would be.
It would be ` (8000 + 500) = ` 8500. In the same way, we can find the monthly
salary for the 3rd, 4th and 5th year by adding ` 500 to the salary of the previous year.
So, the salary for the 3rd year = ` (8500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 2 × 500)
= ` [8000 + (3 – 1) × 500] (for the 3rd year)
= ` 9000
Salary for the 4th year = ` (9000 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 500 + 500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 3 × 500)
= ` [8000 + (4 – 1) × 500] (for the 4th year)
= ` 9500
Salary for the 5th year = ` (9500 + 500)
= ` (8000+500+500+500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 4 × 500)
= ` [8000 + (5 – 1) × 500] (for the 5th year)
= ` 10000
Observe that we are getting a list of numbers
8000, 8500, 9000, 9500, 10000, . . .
These numbers are in AP. (Why?)

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Now, looking at the pattern formed above, can you find her monthly salary for
the 6th year? The 15th year? And, assuming that she will still be working in the job,
what about the monthly salary for the 25th year? You would calculate this by adding
` 500 each time to the salary of the previous year to give the answer. Can we make
this process shorter? Let us see. You may have already got some idea from the way
we have obtained the salaries above.
Salary for the 15th year
= Salary for the 14th year + ` 500

=


= ` [8000 + 14 × 500]
= ` [8000 + (15 – 1) × 500] = ` 15000
i.e., First salary + (15 – 1) × Annual increment.
In the same way, her monthly salary for the 25th year would be
` [8000 + (25 – 1) × 500] = ` 20000

= First salary + (25 – 1) × Annual increment

This example would have given you some idea about how to write the 15th term,
or the 25th term, and more generally, the nth term of the AP.
Let a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . be an AP whose first term a 1 is a and the common
difference is d.
Then,
the second term a2 = a + d = a + (2 – 1) d
the third term a3 = a2 + d = (a + d) + d = a + 2d = a + (3 – 1) d
the fourth term a4 = a3 + d = (a + 2d) + d = a + 3d = a + (4 – 1) d
........
........
Looking at the pattern, we can say that the nth term an = a + (n – 1) d.
So, the nth term an of the AP with first term a and common difference d is
given by an = a + (n – 1) d.

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102 MATHEMATICS

an is also called the general term of the AP. If there are m terms in the AP, then
am represents the last term which is sometimes also denoted by l.
Let us consider some examples.

Example 3 : Find the 10th term of the AP : 2, 7, 12, . . .

Solution : Here, a = 2, d=7–2=5 and n = 10.
We have an = a + (n – 1) d
So, a10 = 2 + (10 – 1) × 5 = 2 + 45 = 47
Therefore, the 10th term of the given AP is 47.

Example 4 : Which term of the AP : 21, 18, 15, . . . is – 81? Also, is any term 0? Give
reason for your answer.
Solution : Here, a = 21, d = 18 – 21 = – 3 and an = – 81, and we have to find n.
As an = a + ( n – 1) d,
we have – 81 = 21 + (n – 1)(– 3)
– 81 = 24 – 3n
– 105 = – 3n
So, n = 35
Therefore, the 35th term of the given AP is – 81.
Next, we want to know if there is any n for which an = 0. If such an n is there, then
21 + (n – 1) (–3) = 0,
i.e., 3(n – 1) = 21
i.e., n= 8
So, the eighth term is 0.

Example 5 : Determine the AP whose 3rd term is 5 and the 7th term is 9.
Solution : We have
a3 = a + (3 – 1) d = a + 2d = 5 (1)
and a7 = a + (7 – 1) d = a + 6d = 9 (2)
Solving the pair of linear equations (1) and (2), we get
a = 3, d = 1
Hence, the required AP is 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, . . .

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ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 103

Example 6 : Check whether 301 is a term of the list of numbers 5, 11, 17, 23, . . .
Solution : We have :
a2 – a1 = 11 – 5 = 6, a3 – a2 = 17 – 11 = 6, a4 – a3 = 23 – 17 = 6
As ak + 1 – ak is the same for k = 1, 2, 3, etc., the given list of numbers is an AP.
Now, a=5 and d = 6.
Let 301 be a term, say, the nth term of this AP.
We know that
an = a + (n – 1) d
So, 301 = 5 + (n – 1) × 6
i.e., 301 = 6n – 1

302 151
So, n= =
6 3
But n should be a positive integer (Why?). So, 301 is not a term of the given list of
numbers.

Example 7 : How many two-digit numbers are divisible by 3?

Solution : The list of two-digit numbers divisible by 3 is :
12, 15, 18, . . . , 99
Is this an AP? Yes it is. Here, a = 12, d = 3, an = 99.
As an = a + (n – 1) d,
we have 99 = 12 + (n – 1) × 3
i.e., 87 = (n – 1) × 3

87
i.e., n–1= = 29
3
i.e., n = 29 + 1 = 30
So, there are 30 two-digit numbers divisible by 3.

Example 8 : Find the 11th term from the last term (towards the first term) of the
AP : 10, 7, 4, . . ., – 62.
Solution : Here, a = 10, d = 7 – 10 = – 3, l = – 62,
where l = a + (n – 1) d

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To find the 11th term from the last term, we will find the total number of terms in
the AP.
So, – 62 = 10 + (n – 1)(–3)
i.e., – 72 = (n – 1)(–3)
i.e., n – 1 = 24
or n = 25
So, there are 25 terms in the given AP.
The 11th term from the last term will be the 15th term. (Note that it will not be
the 14th term. Why?)
So, a15 = 10 + (15 – 1)(–3) = 10 – 42 = – 32
i.e., the 11th term from the last term is – 32.
Alternative Solution :
If we write the given AP in the reverse order, then a = – 62 and d = 3 (Why?)
So, the question now becomes finding the 11th term with these a and d.
So, a11 = – 62 + (11 – 1) × 3 = – 62 + 30 = – 32
So, the 11th term, which is now the required term, is – 32.

Example 9 : A sum of ` 1000 is invested at 8% simple interest per year. Calculate the
interest at the end of each year. Do these interests form an AP? If so, find the interest
at the end of 30 years making use of this fact.
Solution : We know that the formula to calculate simple interest is given by

P× R × T
Simple Interest =
100
1000 × 8 ×1
So, the interest at the end of the 1st year = ` = ` 80
100
1000 × 8 × 2
The interest at the end of the 2nd year = ` = ` 160
100
1000 × 8 × 3
The interest at the end of the 3rd year = ` = ` 240
100
Similarly, we can obtain the interest at the end of the 4th year, 5th year, and so on.
So, the interest (in `) at the end of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . . years, respectively are
80, 160, 240, . . .

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ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 105

It is an AP as the difference between the consecutive terms in the list is 80, i.e.,
d = 80. Also, a = 80.
So, to find the interest at the end of 30 years, we shall find a30.
Now, a30 = a + (30 – 1) d = 80 + 29 × 80 = 2400
So, the interest at the end of 30 years will be ` 2400.

Example 10 : In a flower bed, there are 23 rose plants in the first row, 21 in the
second, 19 in the third, and so on. There are 5 rose plants in the last row. How many
rows are there in the flower bed?
Solution : The number of rose plants in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., rows are :
23, 21, 19, . . ., 5
It forms an AP (Why?). Let the number of rows in the flower bed be n.
Then a = 23, d = 21 – 23 = – 2, an = 5
As, an = a + (n – 1) d
We have, 5 = 23 + (n – 1)(– 2)
i.e., – 18 = (n – 1)(– 2)
i.e., n = 10
So, there are 10 rows in the flower bed.

EXERCISE 5.2
1. Fill in the blanks in the following table, given that a is the first term, d the common
difference and an the nth term of the AP:

a d n an
(i) 7 3 8 ...
(ii) – 18 ... 10 0
(iii) ... –3 18 –5
(iv) – 18.9 2.5 ... 3.6
(v) 3.5 0 105 ...

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106 MATHEMATICS

2. Choose the correct choice in the following and justify :

(i) 30th term of the AP: 10, 7, 4, . . . , is
(A) 97 (B) 77 (C) –77 (D) – 87
1
(ii) 11th term of the AP: – 3, − , 2, . . ., is
2
1
(A) 28 (B) 22 (C) –38 (D) – 48
2
3. In the following APs, find the missing terms in the boxes :

(i) 2, , 26

(ii) , 13, , 3

1
(iii) 5, , , 9
2

(iv) – 4, , , , , 6

(v) , 38, , , , – 22
4. Which term of the AP : 3, 8, 13, 18, . . . ,is 78?
5. Find the number of terms in each of the following APs :
1
(i) 7, 13, 19, . . . , 205 (ii) 18, 15
, 13, . . . , – 47
2
6. Check whether – 150 is a term of the AP : 11, 8, 5, 2 . . .
7. Find the 31st term of an AP whose 11th term is 38 and the 16th term is 73.
8. An AP consists of 50 terms of which 3rd term is 12 and the last term is 106. Find the 29th
term.
9. If the 3rd and the 9th terms of an AP are 4 and – 8 respectively, which term of this AP is
zero?
10. The 17th term of an AP exceeds its 10th term by 7. Find the common difference.
11. Which term of the AP : 3, 15, 27, 39, . . . will be 132 more than its 54th term?
12. Two APs have the same common difference. The difference between their 100th terms is
100, what is the difference between their 1000th terms?
13. How many three-digit numbers are divisible by 7?
14. How many multiples of 4 lie between 10 and 250?
15. For what value of n, are the nth terms of two APs: 63, 65, 67, . . . and 3, 10, 17, . . . equal?
16. Determine the AP whose third term is 16 and the 7th term exceeds the 5th term by 12.

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ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 107

17. Find the 20th term from the last term of the AP : 3, 8, 13, . . ., 253.
18. The sum of the 4th and 8th terms of an AP is 24 and the sum of the 6th and 10th terms is
44. Find the first three terms of the AP.
19. Subba Rao started work in 1995 at an annual salary of ` 5000 and received an increment
of ` 200 each year. In which year did his income reach ` 7000?
20. Ramkali saved ` 5 in the first week of a year and then increased her weekly savings by
` 1.75. If in the nth week, her weekly savings become ` 20.75, find n.

5.4 Sum of First n Terms of an AP

Let us consider the situation again
given in Section 5.1 in which Shakila
put ` 100 into her daughter’s money
box when she was one year old,
` 150 on her second birthday,
` 200 on her third birthday and will
continue in the same way. How much
money will be collected in the money
box by the time her daughter is 21
years old?
Here, the amount of money (in `) put in the money box on her first, second, third,
fourth . . . birthday were respectively 100, 150, 200, 250, . . . till her 21st birthday. To
find the total amount in the money box on her 21st birthday, we will have to write each
of the 21 numbers in the list above and then add them up. Don’t you think it would be
a tedious and time consuming process? Can we make the process shorter? This would
be possible if we can find a method for getting this sum. Let us see.
We consider the problem given to Gauss (about whom you read in
Chapter 1), to solve when he was just 10 years old. He was asked to find the sum of
the positive integers from 1 to 100. He immediately replied that the sum is 5050. Can
you guess how did he do? He wrote :
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 99 + 100
And then, reversed the numbers to write
S = 100 + 99 + . . . + 3 + 2 + 1
Adding these two, he got
2S = (100 + 1) + (99 + 2) + . . . + (3 + 98) + (2 + 99) + (1 + 100)
= 101 + 101 + . . . + 101 + 101 (100 times)
100 × 101
So, S= = 5050 , i.e., the sum = 5050.
2

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108 MATHEMATICS

We will now use the same technique to find the sum of the first n terms of an AP :
a, a + d, a + 2d, . . .
The nth term of this AP is a + (n – 1) d. Let S denote the sum of the first n terms
of the AP. We have
S = a + (a + d ) + (a + 2d ) + . . . + [a + (n – 1) d ] (1)
Rewriting the terms in reverse order, we have
S = [a + (n – 1) d ] + [a + (n – 2) d ] + . . . + (a + d ) + a (2)
On adding (1) and (2), term-wise. we get

[2a + (n − 1)d ] + [2a + (n − 1)d ] + ... + [2a + ( n − 1)d ] + [2a + (n − 1)d ]

2S =

n times
or, 2S = n [2a + (n – 1) d ] (Since, there are n terms)

n
or, S= [2a + (n – 1) d ]
2
So, the sum of the first n terms of an AP is given by
n
S= [2a + (n – 1) d ]
2
n
We can also write this as S= [a + a + (n – 1) d ]
2
n
i.e., S= (a + an ) (3)
2
Now, if there are only n terms in an AP, then an = l, the last term.
From (3), we see that
n
S= (a + l ) (4)
2
This form of the result is useful when the first and the last terms of an AP are
given and the common difference is not given.
Now we return to the question that was posed to us in the beginning. The amount
of money (in Rs) in the money box of Shakila’s daughter on 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th birthday,
. . ., were 100, 150, 200, 250, . . ., respectively.
This is an AP. We have to find the total money collected on her 21st birthday, i.e.,
the sum of the first 21 terms of this AP.

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ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 109

Here, a = 100, d = 50 and n = 21. Using the formula :

n
S= [ 2a + (n − 1) d ] ,
2

21 21
we have S= [ 2 × 100 + (21 − 1) × 50] = [ 200 + 1000]
2 2

21
= × 1200 = 12600
2
So, the amount of money collected on her 21st birthday is ` 12600.
Hasn’t the use of the formula made it much easier to solve the problem?
We also use Sn in place of S to denote the sum of first n terms of the AP. We
write S20 to denote the sum of the first 20 terms of an AP. The formula for the sum of
the first n terms involves four quantities S, a, d and n. If we know any three of them,
we can find the fourth.
Remark : The nth term of an AP is the difference of the sum to first n terms and the
sum to first (n – 1) terms of it, i.e., an = Sn – Sn – 1.
Let us consider some examples.

Example 11 : Find the sum of the first 22 terms of the AP : 8, 3, –2, . . .

Solution : Here, a = 8, d = 3 – 8 = –5, n = 22.
We know that
n
S = [ 2a + (n − 1) d ]
2
22
Therefore, S = [16 + 21 (−5)] = 11(16 – 105) = 11(–89) = – 979
2
So, the sum of the first 22 terms of the AP is – 979.

Example 12 : If the sum of the first 14 terms of an AP is 1050 and its first term is 10,
find the 20th term.
Solution : Here, S14 = 1050, n = 14, a = 10.
n
As Sn = [ 2a + (n − 1)d ] ,
2
14
so, 1050 = [ 20 + 13d ] = 140 + 91d
2

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110 MATHEMATICS

i.e., 910 = 91d

or, d = 10
Therefore, a20 = 10 + (20 – 1) × 10 = 200, i.e. 20th term is 200.

Example 13 : How many terms of the AP : 24, 21, 18, . . . must be taken so that their
sum is 78?
Solution : Here, a = 24, d = 21 – 24 = –3, Sn = 78. We need to find n.
n
We know that Sn = [ 2a + ( n − 1) d ]
2
n n
So, 78 = [ 48 + (n − 1)( −3) ] = [51 − 3n ]
2 2
or 3n2 – 51n + 156 = 0
or n2 – 17n + 52 = 0
or (n – 4)(n – 13) = 0
or n = 4 or 13
Both values of n are admissible. So, the number of terms is either 4 or 13.
Remarks :
1. In this case, the sum of the first 4 terms = the sum of the first 13 terms = 78.
2. Two answers are possible because the sum of the terms from 5th to 13th will be
zero. This is because a is positive and d is negative, so that some terms will be
positive and some others negative, and will cancel out each other.

Example 14 : Find the sum of :

(i) the first 1000 positive integers (ii) the first n positive integers
Solution :
(i) Let S = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 1000
n
Using the formula Sn = (a + l ) for the sum of the first n terms of an AP, we
2
have
1000
S1000 = (1 + 1000) = 500 × 1001 = 500500
2
So, the sum of the first 1000 positive integers is 500500.
(ii) Let Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n
Here a = 1 and the last term l is n.

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ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 111

n (1 + n) n (n + 1)
Therefore, Sn = or Sn =
2 2
So, the sum of first n positive integers is given by

n( n + 1)
Sn =
2
Example 15 : Find the sum of first 24 terms of the list of numbers whose nth term is
given by
an = 3 + 2n
Solution :
As an = 3 + 2n,
so, a1 = 3 + 2 = 5
a2 = 3 + 2 × 2 = 7
a3 = 3 + 2 × 3 = 9


List of numbers becomes 5, 7, 9, 11, . . .
Here, 7 – 5 = 9 – 7 = 11 – 9 = 2 and so on.
So, it forms an AP with common difference d = 2.
To find S24, we have n = 24, a = 5, d = 2.

24
Therefore, S24 = [ 2 × 5 + (24 − 1) × 2] = 12 [10 + 46] = 672
2
So, sum of first 24 terms of the list of numbers is 672.

Example 16 : A manufacturer of TV sets produced 600 sets in the third year and 700
sets in the seventh year. Assuming that the production increases uniformly by a fixed
number every year, find :
(i) the production in the 1st year (ii) the production in the 10th year
(iii) the total production in first 7 years
Solution : (i) Since the production increases uniformly by a fixed number every year,
the number of TV sets manufactured in 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., years will form an AP.
Let us denote the number of TV sets manufactured in the nth year by an.
Then, a3 = 600 and a7 = 700

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112 MATHEMATICS

or, a + 2d = 600
and a + 6d = 700
Solving these equations, we get d = 25 and a = 550.
Therefore, production of TV sets in the first year is 550.
(ii) Now a10 = a + 9d = 550 + 9 × 25 = 775
So, production of TV sets in the 10th year is 775.

7
(iii) Also, S7 = [ 2 × 550 + (7 − 1) × 25]
2

7
= [1100 + 150] = 4375
2
Thus, the total production of TV sets in first 7 years is 4375.

EXERCISE 5.3
1. Find the sum of the following APs:
(i) 2, 7, 12, . . ., to 10 terms. (ii) –37, –33, –29, . . ., to 12 terms.
1 , 1 , 1
(iii) 0.6, 1.7, 2.8, . . ., to 100 terms. (iv) , . . ., to 11 terms.
15 12 10
2. Find the sums given below :
1
(i) 7 + 10 + 14 + . . . + 84 (ii) 34 + 32 + 30 + . . . + 10
2
(iii) –5 + (–8) + (–11) + . . . + (–230)
3. In an AP:
(i) given a = 5, d = 3, an = 50, find n and Sn.
(ii) given a = 7, a13 = 35, find d and S13.
(iii) given a12 = 37, d = 3, find a and S12.
(iv) given a3 = 15, S10 = 125, find d and a10.
(v) given d = 5, S9 = 75, find a and a9.
(vi) given a = 2, d = 8, Sn = 90, find n and an.
(vii) given a = 8, an = 62, Sn = 210, find n and d.
(viii) given an = 4, d = 2, Sn = –14, find n and a.
(ix) given a = 3, n = 8, S = 192, find d.
(x) given l = 28, S = 144, and there are total 9 terms. Find a.

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ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 113

4. How many terms of the AP : 9, 17, 25, . . . must be taken to give a sum of 636?
5. The first term of an AP is 5, the last term is 45 and the sum is 400. Find the number of terms
and the common difference.
6. The first and the last terms of an AP are 17 and 350 respectively. If the common difference
is 9, how many terms are there and what is their sum?
7. Find the sum of first 22 terms of an AP in which d = 7 and 22nd term is 149.
8. Find the sum of first 51 terms of an AP whose second and third terms are 14 and 18
respectively.
9. If the sum of first 7 terms of an AP is 49 and that of 17 terms is 289, find the sum of
first n terms.
10. Show that a1, a2, . . ., an, . . . form an AP where an is defined as below :
(i) an = 3 + 4n (ii) an = 9 – 5n
Also find the sum of the first 15 terms in each case.
11. If the sum of the first n terms of an AP is 4n – n2, what is the first term (that is S1)? What
is the sum of first two terms? What is the second term? Similarly, find the 3rd, the 10th and
the nth terms.
12. Find the sum of the first 40 positive integers divisible by 6.
13. Find the sum of the first 15 multiples of 8.
14. Find the sum of the odd numbers between 0 and 50.
15. A contract on construction job specifies a penalty for delay of completion beyond a
certain date as follows: ` 200 for the first day, ` 250 for the second day, ` 300 for the third
day, etc., the penalty for each succeeding day being ` 50 more than for the preceding day.
How much money the contractor has to pay as penalty, if he has delayed the work by 30
days?
16. A sum of ` 700 is to be used to give seven cash prizes to students of a school for their
overall academic performance. If each prize is ` 20 less than its preceding prize, find the
value of each of the prizes.
17. In a school, students thought of planting trees in and around the school to reduce air
pollution. It was decided that the number of trees, that each section of each class will
plant, will be the same as the class, in which they are studying, e.g., a section of Class I
will plant 1 tree, a section of Class II will plant 2 trees and so on till Class XII. There are
three sections of each class. How many trees will be planted by the students?
18. A spiral is made up of successive semicircles, with centres alternately at A and B,
starting with centre at A, of radii 0.5 cm, 1.0 cm, 1.5 cm, 2.0 cm, . . . as shown in
Fig. 5.4. What is the total length of such a spiral made up of thirteen consecutive
22
semicircles? (Take π = )
7

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114 MATHEMATICS

Fig. 5.4
[Hint : Length of successive semicircles is l1, l2, l3, l4, . . . with centres at A, B, A, B, . . .,
respectively.]
19. 200 logs are stacked in the following manner: 20 logs in the bottom row, 19 in the next row,
18 in the row next to it and so on (see Fig. 5.5). In how many rows are the 200 logs placed
and how many logs are in the top row?

Fig. 5.5
20. In a potato race, a bucket is placed at the starting point, which is 5 m from the first potato,
and the other potatoes are placed 3 m apart in a straight line. There are ten potatoes in the
line (see Fig. 5.6).

Fig. 5.6
A competitor starts from the bucket, picks up the nearest potato, runs back with it, drops
it in the bucket, runs back to pick up the next potato, runs to the bucket to drop it in, and
she continues in the same way until all the potatoes are in the bucket. What is the total
distance the competitor has to run?
[Hint : To pick up the first potato and the second potato, the total distance (in metres)
run by a competitor is 2 × 5 + 2 × (5 + 3)]

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ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 115

EXERCISE 5.4 (Optional)*

1. Which term of the AP : 121, 117, 113, . . ., is
its first negative term?
[Hint : Find n for an < 0]
2. The sum of the third and the seventh terms
of an AP is 6 and their product is 8. Find
the sum of first sixteen terms of the AP.
3. A ladder has rungs 25 cm apart.
(see Fig. 5.7). The rungs decrease
uniformly in length from 45 cm at the
bottom to 25 cm at the top. If the top and
1
the bottom rungs are 2 m apart, what is
2
the length of the wood required for the
rungs?

250 Fig. 5.7

[Hint : Number of rungs = + 1]
25
4. The houses of a row are numbered consecutively from 1 to 49. Show that there is a value
of x such that the sum of the numbers of the houses preceding the house numbered x is
equal to the sum of the numbers of the houses following it. Find this value of x.
[Hint : Sx – 1 = S49 – Sx]
5. A small terrace at a football ground comprises of 15 steps each of which is 50 m long and
built of solid concrete.
1 1
Each step has a rise of m and a tread of m. (see Fig. 5.8). Calculate the total volume
4 2
of concrete required to build the terrace.
1 1 3
[Hint : Volume of concrete required to build the first step = × × 50 m ]
4 2

Fig. 5.8
* These exercises are not from the examination point of view.

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116 MATHEMATICS

5.5 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. An arithmetic progression (AP) is a list of numbers in which each term is obtained by
adding a fixed number d to the preceding term, except the first term. The fixed number d
is called the common difference.
The general form of an AP is a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .
2. A given list of numbers a1, a2, a3, . . . is an AP, if the differences a2 – a1, a3 – a2,
a4 – a3, . . ., give the same value, i.e., if ak + 1 – ak is the same for different values of k.
3. In an AP with first term a and common difference d, the nth term (or the general term) is
given by an = a + (n – 1) d.
4. The sum of the first n terms of an AP is given by :

n
S= [ 2a + (n − 1) d ]
2
5. If l is the last term of the finite AP, say the nth term, then the sum of all terms of the AP
is given by :

n
S= (a + l )
2

A NOTE TO THE READER

a+c
If a, b, c are in AP, then b = and b is called the arithmetic
2
mean of a and c.

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38 MATHEMATICS

PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

IN TWO VARIABLES 3
3.1 Introduction
You must have come across situations like the one given below :
Akhila went to a fair in her village. She wanted to enjoy rides on the Giant Wheel
and play Hoopla (a game in which you throw a ring on the items kept in a stall, and if
the ring covers any object completely, you get it). The number of times she played
Hoopla is half the number of rides she had on the Giant Wheel. If each ride costs
` 3, and a game of Hoopla costs ` 4, how would you find out the number of rides she
had and how many times she played Hoopla, provided she spent ` 20.
May be you will try it by considering different cases. If she has one ride, is it
possible? Is it possible to have two rides? And so on. Or you may use the knowledge
of Class IX, to represent such situations as linear equations in two variables.

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 39

Let us try this approach.

Denote the number of rides that Akhila had by x, and the number of times she
played Hoopla by y. Now the situation can be represented by the two equations:
1
y= x (1)
2
3x + 4y = 20 (2)
Can we find the solutions of this pair of equations? There are several ways of
finding these, which we will study in this chapter.

3.2 Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables

Recall, from Class IX, that the following are examples of linear equations in two
variables:
2x + 3y = 5
x – 2y – 3 = 0
and x – 0y = 2, i.e., x = 2
You also know that an equation which can be put in the form ax + by + c = 0,
where a, b and c are real numbers, and a and b are not both zero, is called a linear
equation in two variables x and y. (We often denote the condition a and b are not both
zero by a2 + b2 ≠ 0). You have also studied that a solution of such an equation is a
pair of values, one for x and the other for y, which makes the two sides of the
equation equal.
For example, let us substitute x = 1 and y = 1 in the left hand side (LHS) of the
equation 2x + 3y = 5. Then
LHS = 2(1) + 3(1) = 2 + 3 = 5,
which is equal to the right hand side (RHS) of the equation.
Therefore, x = 1 and y = 1 is a solution of the equation 2x + 3y = 5.
Now let us substitute x = 1 and y = 7 in the equation 2x + 3y = 5. Then,
LHS = 2(1) + 3(7) = 2 + 21 = 23
which is not equal to the RHS.
Therefore, x = 1 and y = 7 is not a solution of the equation.
Geometrically, what does this mean? It means that the point (1, 1) lies on the line
representing the equation 2x + 3y = 5, and the point (1, 7) does not lie on it. So, every
solution of the equation is a point on the line representing it.

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40 MATHEMATICS

In fact, this is true for any linear equation, that is, each solution (x, y) of a
linear equation in two variables, ax + by + c = 0, corresponds to a point on the
line representing the equation, and vice versa.
Now, consider Equations (1) and (2) given above. These equations, taken
together, represent the information we have about Akhila at the fair.
These two linear equations are in the same two variables x and y. Equations
like these are called a pair of linear equations in two variables.
Let us see what such pairs look like algebraically.
The general form for a pair of linear equations in two variables x and y is
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0
and a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0,
where a1, b1, c1, a2, b2, c2 are all real numbers and a12 + b12 ≠ 0, a22 + b22 ≠ 0.
Some examples of pair of linear equations in two variables are:
2x + 3y – 7 = 0 and 9x – 2y + 8 = 0
5x = y and –7x + 2y + 3 = 0
x + y = 7 and 17 = y
Do you know, what do they look like geometrically?
Recall, that you have studied in Class IX that the geometrical (i.e., graphical)
representation of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line. Can you now
suggest what a pair of linear equations in two variables will look like, geometrically?
There will be two straight lines, both to be considered together.
You have also studied in Class IX that given two lines in a plane, only one of the
following three possibilities can happen:
(i) The two lines will intersect at one point.
(ii) The two lines will not intersect, i.e., they are parallel.
(iii) The two lines will be coincident.

We show all these possibilities in Fig. 3.1:

In Fig. 3.1 (a), they intersect.
In Fig. 3.1 (b), they are parallel.
In Fig. 3.1 (c), they are coincident.

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 41

Fig. 3.1
Both ways of representing a pair of linear equations go hand-in-hand — the
algebraic and the geometric ways. Let us consider some examples.

Example 1 : Let us take the example given in Section 3.1. Akhila goes to a fair with
` 20 and wants to have rides on the Giant Wheel and play Hoopla. Represent this
situation algebraically and graphically (geometrically).
Solution : The pair of equations formed is :
1
y= x
2
i.e., x – 2y = 0 (1)
3x + 4y = 20 (2)
Let us represent these equations graphically. For this, we need at least two
solutions for each equation. We give these solutions in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1

20
x 0 2 x 0 4
3

x 20 − 3x
y= 0 1 y= 5 0 2
2 4

(i) (ii)
Recall from Class IX that there are infinitely many solutions of each linear
equation. So each of you can choose any two values, which may not be the ones we
have chosen. Can you guess why we have chosen x = 0 in the first equation and in the
second equation? When one of the variables is zero, the equation reduces to a linear

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42 MATHEMATICS

equation in one variable, which can be solved easily. For instance, putting x = 0 in
Equation (2), we get 4y = 20, i.e., y = 5. Similarly, putting y = 0 in Equation (2), we get
20 20
3x = 20, i.e., x = . But as is
3 3
not an integer, it will not be easy to
plot exactly on the graph paper. So,
we choose y = 2 which gives x = 4,
an integral value.

Plot the points A(0, 0), B(2, 1)

and P(0, 5), Q(4, 2), corresponding
to the solutions in Table 3.1. Now
draw the lines AB and PQ,
representing the equations
x – 2y = 0 and 3x + 4y = 20, as
shown in Fig. 3.2.
Fig. 3.2
In Fig. 3.2, observe that the two lines representing the two equations are
intersecting at the point (4, 2). We shall discuss what this means in the next section.

Example 2 : Romila went to a stationery shop and purchased 2 pencils and 3 erasers
for ` 9. Her friend Sonali saw the new variety of pencils and erasers with Romila, and
she also bought 4 pencils and 6 erasers of the same kind for ` 18. Represent this
situation algebraically and graphically.

Solution : Let us denote the cost of 1 pencil by ` x and one eraser by ` y. Then the
algebraic representation is given by the following equations:

2x + 3y = 9 (1)

4x + 6y = 18 (2)

To obtain the equivalent geometric representation, we find two points on the line
representing each equation. That is, we find two solutions of each equation.

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 43

These solutions are given below in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2
x 0 4.5 x 0 3

9 − 2x 18 − 4 x
y= 3 0 y= 3 1
3 6
(i) (ii)
We plot these points in a graph
paper and draw the lines. We find that
both the lines coincide (see Fig. 3.3).
This is so, because, both the
equations are equivalent, i.e., one can
be derived from the other.

Example 3 : Two rails are

represented by the equations
x + 2y – 4 = 0 and 2x + 4y – 12 = 0.
Represent this situation geometrically.

Solution : Two solutions of each of

the equations :
Fig. 3.3
x + 2y – 4 = 0 (1)
2x + 4y – 12 = 0 (2)
are given in Table 3.3
Table 3.3

x 0 4 x 0 6

4−x 12 − 2 x
y= 2 0 y= 3 0
2 4

(i) (ii)
To represent the equations graphically, we plot the points R(0, 2) and S(4, 0), to
get the line RS and the points P(0, 3) and Q(6, 0) to get the line PQ.

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44 MATHEMATICS

We observe in Fig. 3.4, that the

lines do not intersect anywhere, i.e.,
they are parallel.
So, we have seen several
situations which can be represented
by a pair of linear equations. We
have seen their algebraic and
geometric representations. In the
next few sections, we will discuss
how these representations can be
used to look for solutions of the pair
of linear equations.
Fig. 3.4
EXERCISE 3.1
1. Aftab tells his daughter, “Seven years ago, I was seven times as old as you were then.
Also, three years from now, I shall be three times as old as you will be.” (Isn’t this
interesting?) Represent this situation algebraically and graphically.
2. The coach of a cricket team buys 3 bats and 6 balls for ` 3900. Later, she buys another
bat and 3 more balls of the same kind for ` 1300. Represent this situation algebraically
and geometrically.
3. The cost of 2 kg of apples and 1kg of grapes on a day was found to be ` 160. After a
month, the cost of 4 kg of apples and 2 kg of grapes is ` 300. Represent the situation
algebraically and geometrically.

3.3 Graphical Method of Solution of a Pair of Linear Equations

In the previous section, you have seen how we can graphically represent a pair of
linear equations as two lines. You have also seen that the lines may intersect, or may
be parallel, or may coincide. Can we solve them in each case? And if so, how? We
shall try and answer these questions from the geometrical point of view in this section.
Let us look at the earlier examples one by one.

l In the situation of Example 1, find out how many rides on the Giant Wheel
Akhila had, and how many times she played Hoopla.
In Fig. 3.2, you noted that the equations representing the situation are
geometrically shown by two lines intersecting at the point (4, 2). Therefore, the

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 45

point (4, 2) lies on the lines represented by both the equations x – 2y = 0 and
3x + 4y = 20. And this is the only common point.
Let us verify algebraically that x = 4, y = 2 is a solution of the given
pair of equations. Substituting the values of x and y in each equation, we get
4 – 2 × 2 = 0 and 3(4) + 4(2) = 20. So, we have verified that x = 4, y = 2 is a
solution of both the equations. Since (4, 2) is the only common point on both
the lines, there is one and only one solution for this pair of linear equations
in two variables.
Thus, the number of rides Akhila had on Giant Wheel is 4 and the number
of times she played Hoopla is 2.

l In the situation of Example 2, can you find the cost of each pencil and each
eraser?
In Fig. 3.3, the situation is geometrically shown by a pair of coincident
lines. The solutions of the equations are given by the common points.
Are there any common points on these lines? From the graph, we observe
that every point on the line is a common solution to both the equations. So, the
equations 2x + 3y = 9 and 4x + 6y = 18 have infinitely many solutions. This
should not surprise us, because if we divide the equation 4x + 6y = 18 by 2 , we
get 2x + 3y = 9, which is the same as Equation (1). That is, both the equations are
equivalent. From the graph, we see that any point on the line gives us a possible
cost of each pencil and eraser. For instance, each pencil and eraser can cost
` 3 and ` 1 respectively. Or, each pencil can cost ` 3.75 and eraser can cost
` 0.50, and so on.
l In the situation of Example 3, can the two rails cross each other?
In Fig. 3.4, the situation is represented geometrically by two parallel lines.
Since the lines do not intersect at all, the rails do not cross. This also means that
the equations have no common solution.
A pair of linear equations which has no solution, is called an inconsistent pair of
linear equations. A pair of linear equations in two variables, which has a solution, is
called a consistent pair of linear equations. A pair of linear equations which are
equivalent has infinitely many distinct common solutions. Such a pair is called a
dependent pair of linear equations in two variables. Note that a dependent pair of
linear equations is always consistent.
We can now summarise the behaviour of lines representing a pair of linear equations
in two variables and the existence of solutions as follows:

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46 MATHEMATICS

(i) the lines may intersect in a single point. In this case, the pair of equations
has a unique solution (consistent pair of equations).
(ii) the lines may be parallel. In this case, the equations have no solution
(inconsistent pair of equations).
(iii) the lines may be coincident. In this case, the equations have infinitely many
solutions [dependent (consistent) pair of equations].
Let us now go back to the pairs of linear equations formed in Examples 1, 2, and
3, and note down what kind of pair they are geometrically.
(i) x – 2y = 0 and 3x + 4y – 20 = 0 (The lines intersect)
(ii) 2x + 3y – 9 = 0 and 4x + 6y – 18 = 0 (The lines coincide)
(iii) x + 2y – 4 = 0 and 2x + 4y – 12 = 0 (The lines are parallel)
a1 , b1 c
Let us now write down, and compare, the values of and 1 in all the
a2 b2 c2
three examples. Here, a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 denote the coefficents of equations
given in the general form in Section 3.2.
Table 3.4
a1 b1 c1
Sl Pair of lines Compare the Graphical Algebraic
a2 b2 c2
No. ratios representation interpretation

1 −2 0 a1 b
1. x – 2y = 0 ≠ 1 Intersecting Exactly one
3 4 −20 a2 b2
3x + 4y – 20 = 0 lines solution
(unique)

2 3 −9 a1 b1 c
2. 2x + 3y – 9 = 0 = = 1 Coincident Infinitely
4 6 −18 a2 b2 c2
lines many solutions
4x + 6y – 18 = 0

1 2 −4 a1 b1 c
3. x + 2y – 4 = 0 = ≠ 1 Parallel lines No solution
2 4 −12 a2 b2 c2
2x + 4y – 12 = 0

From the table above, you can observe that if the lines represented by the equation
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 47

a1 b1
are (i) intersecting, then ≠ ⋅
a2 b2
a b c
(ii) coincident, then 1 = 1 = 1 ⋅
a2 b2 c2
a b c
(iii) parallel, then 1 = 1 ≠ 1 ⋅
a2 b2 c2
In fact, the converse is also true for any pair of lines. You can verify them by
considering some more examples by yourself.
Let us now consider some more examples to illustrate it.

Example 4 : Check graphically whether the pair of equations

x + 3y = 6 (1)
and 2x – 3y = 12 (2)
is consistent. If so, solve them graphically.
Solution : Let us draw the graphs of the Equations (1) and (2). For this, we find two
solutions of each of the equations, which are given in Table 3.5

Table 3.5

x 0 6 x 0 3

6−x 2 x − 12
y= 2 0 y= –4 –2
3 3

Plot the points A(0, 2), B(6, 0),

P(0, – 4) and Q(3, – 2) on graph
paper, and join the points to form the
lines AB and PQ as shown in
Fig. 3.5.
We observe that there is a point
B (6, 0) common to both the lines
AB and PQ. So, the solution of the
pair of linear equations is x = 6 and
y = 0, i.e., the given pair of equations
is consistent.
Fig. 3.5

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48 MATHEMATICS

Example 5 : Graphically, find whether the following pair of equations has no solution,
unique solution or infinitely many solutions:
5x – 8y + 1 = 0 (1)
24 3
3x – y + = 0 (2)
5 5
5
Solution : Multiplying Equation (2) by , we get
3
5x – 8y + 1 = 0
But, this is the same as Equation (1). Hence the lines represented by Equations (1)
and (2) are coincident. Therefore, Equations (1) and (2) have infinitely many solutions.
Plot few points on the graph and verify it yourself.

Example 6 : Champa went to a ‘Sale’ to purchase some pants and skirts. When her
friends asked her how many of each she had bought, she answered, “The number of
skirts is two less than twice the number of pants purchased. Also, the number of skirts
is four less than four times the number of pants purchased”. Help her friends to find
how many pants and skirts Champa bought.
Solution : Let us denote the number of pants by x and the number of skirts by y. Then
the equations formed are :
y = 2x – 2 (1)
and y = 4x – 4 (2)

Let us draw the graphs of

Equations (1) and (2) by finding two
solutions for each of the equations.
They are given in Table 3.6.

Table 3.6

x 2 0

y = 2x – 2 2 –2

x 0 1

y = 4x – 4 –4 0

Fig. 3.6

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 49

Plot the points and draw the lines passing through them to represent the equations,
as shown in Fig. 3.6.
The two lines intersect at the point (1, 0). So, x = 1, y = 0 is the required solution
of the pair of linear equations, i.e., the number of pants she purchased is 1 and she did
not buy any skirt.

Verify the answer by checking whether it satisfies the conditions of the given
problem.

EXERCISE 3.2
1. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems, and find their solutions
graphically.
(i) 10 students of Class X took part in a Mathematics quiz. If the number of girls is 4
more than the number of boys, find the number of boys and girls who took part in
the quiz.
(ii) 5 pencils and 7 pens together cost ` 50, whereas 7 pencils and 5 pens together
cost ` 46. Find the cost of one pencil and that of one pen.
a1 , b1 c
2. On comparing the ratios and 1 , find out whether the lines representing the
a2 b2 c2
following pairs of linear equations intersect at a point, are parallel or coincident:
(i) 5x – 4y + 8 = 0 (ii) 9x + 3y + 12 = 0
7x + 6y – 9 = 0 18x + 6y + 24 = 0
(iii) 6x – 3y + 10 = 0
2x – y + 9 = 0
a1 , b1 c
3. On comparing the ratios and 1 , find out whether the following pair of linear
a2 b 2 c2
equations are consistent, or inconsistent.
(i) 3x + 2y = 5 ; 2x – 3y = 7 (ii) 2x – 3y = 8 ; 4x – 6y = 9
3 5
(iii) x + y = 7 ; 9x – 10y = 14 (iv) 5x – 3y = 11 ; – 10x + 6y = –22
2 3

4
(v) x + 2 y = 8 ; 2x + 3y = 12
3
4. Which of the following pairs of linear equations are consistent/inconsistent? If
consistent, obtain the solution graphically:

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50 MATHEMATICS

(i) x + y = 5, 2x + 2y = 10
(ii) x – y = 8, 3x – 3y = 16
(iii) 2x + y – 6 = 0, 4x – 2y – 4 = 0
(iv) 2x – 2y – 2 = 0, 4x – 4y – 5 = 0
5. Half the perimeter of a rectangular garden, whose length is 4 m more than its width, is
36 m. Find the dimensions of the garden.
6. Given the linear equation 2x + 3y – 8 = 0, write another linear equation in two variables
such that the geometrical representation of the pair so formed is:
(i) intersecting lines (ii) parallel lines
(iii) coincident lines
7. Draw the graphs of the equations x – y + 1 = 0 and 3x + 2y – 12 = 0. Determine the
coordinates of the vertices of the triangle formed by these lines and the x-axis, and
shade the triangular region.

3.4 Algebraic Methods of Solving a Pair of Linear Equations

In the previous section, we discussed how to solve a pair of linear equations graphically.
The graphical method is not convenient in cases when the point representing the
solution of the linear equations has non-integral coordinates like ( )
3, 2 7 ,

 4, 1 
(–1.75, 3.3),   , etc. There is every possibility of making mistakes while reading
 13 19 
such coordinates. Is there any alternative method of finding the solution? There are
several algebraic methods, which we shall now discuss.

3.4.1 Substitution Method : We shall explain the method of substitution by taking

some examples.

Example 7 : Solve the following pair of equations by substitution method:

7x – 15y = 2 (1)
x + 2y = 3 (2)
Solution :
Step 1 : We pick either of the equations and write one variable in terms of the other.
Let us consider the Equation (2) :
x + 2y = 3
and write it as x = 3 – 2y (3)

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 51

Step 2 : Substitute the value of x in Equation (1). We get

7(3 – 2y) – 15y = 2
i.e., 21 – 14y – 15y = 2
i.e., – 29y = –19
19
Therefore, y=
29
Step 3 : Substituting this value of y in Equation (3), we get

 19  49
x = 3 – 2  =
 29  29
49 19
Therefore, the solution is x = ,y= .
29 29
49 19
Verification : Substituting x = and y = , you can verify that both the Equations
29 29
(1) and (2) are satisfied.
To understand the substitution method more clearly, let us consider it stepwise:
Step 1 : Find the value of one variable, say y in terms of the other variable, i.e., x from
either equation, whichever is convenient.
Step 2 : Substitute this value of y in the other equation, and reduce it to an equation in
one variable, i.e., in terms of x, which can be solved. Sometimes, as in Examples 9 and
10 below, you can get statements with no variable. If this statement is true, you can
conclude that the pair of linear equations has infinitely many solutions. If the statement
is false, then the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.
Step 3 : Substitute the value of x (or y) obtained in Step 2 in the equation used in
Step 1 to obtain the value of the other variable.

Remark : We have substituted the value of one variable by expressing it in terms of

the other variable to solve the pair of linear equations. That is why the method is
known as the substitution method.

Example 8 : Solve Q.1 of Exercise 3.1 by the method of substitution.

Solution : Let s and t be the ages (in years) of Aftab and his daughter, respectively.
Then, the pair of linear equations that represent the situation is
s – 7 = 7 (t – 7), i.e., s – 7t + 42 = 0 (1)
and s + 3 = 3 (t + 3), i.e., s – 3t = 6 (2)

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52 MATHEMATICS

Using Equation (2), we get s = 3t + 6.

Putting this value of s in Equation (1), we get
(3t + 6) – 7t + 42 = 0,
i.e., 4t = 48, which gives t = 12.
Putting this value of t in Equation (2), we get
s = 3 (12) + 6 = 42
So, Aftab and his daughter are 42 and 12 years old, respectively.
Verify this answer by checking if it satisfies the conditions of the given problems.

Example 9 : Let us consider Example 2 in Section 3.3, i.e., the cost of 2 pencils and
3 erasers is ` 9 and the cost of 4 pencils and 6 erasers is ` 18. Find the cost of each
pencil and each eraser.
Solution : The pair of linear equations formed were:
2x + 3y = 9 (1)
4x + 6y = 18 (2)
We first express the value of x in terms of y from the equation 2x + 3y = 9, to get
9 − 3y
x= (3)
2
Now we substitute this value of x in Equation (2), to get

4(9 − 3 y )
+ 6y = 18
2
i.e., 18 – 6y + 6y = 18
i.e., 18 = 18

This statement is true for all values of y. However, we do not get a specific value
of y as a solution. Therefore, we cannot obtain a specific value of x. This situation has
arisen because both the given equations are the same. Therefore, Equations (1) and (2)
have infinitely many solutions. Observe that we have obtained the same solution
graphically also. (Refer to Fig. 3.3, Section 3.2.) We cannot find a unique cost of a
pencil and an eraser, because there are many common solutions, to the given situation.
Example 10 : Let us consider the Example 3 of Section 3.2. Will the rails cross each
other?

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 53

Solution : The pair of linear equations formed were:

x + 2y – 4 = 0 (1)
2x + 4y – 12 = 0 (2)
We express x in terms of y from Equation (1) to get
x = 4 – 2y
Now, we substitute this value of x in Equation (2) to get
2(4 – 2y) + 4y – 12 = 0
i.e., 8 – 12 = 0
i.e., –4= 0
which is a false statement.
Therefore, the equations do not have a common solution. So, the two rails will not
cross each other.

EXERCISE 3.3
1. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the substitution method.
(i) x + y = 14 (ii) s – t = 3
s t
x–y=4 + =6
3 2
(iii) 3x – y = 3 (iv) 0.2x + 0.3y = 1.3
9x – 3y = 9 0.4x + 0.5y = 2.3

3x 5 y
(v) 2 x+ 3 y= 0 (vi) − = −2
2 3
x y 13
3x − 8y = 0 + =
3 2 6
2. Solve 2x + 3y = 11 and 2x – 4y = – 24 and hence find the value of ‘m’ for which
y = mx + 3.
3. Form the pair of linear equations for the following problems and find their solution by
substitution method.
(i) The difference between two numbers is 26 and one number is three times the other.
Find them.
(ii) The larger of two supplementary angles exceeds the smaller by 18 degrees. Find
them.
(iii) The coach of a cricket team buys 7 bats and 6 balls for ` 3800. Later, she buys 3
bats and 5 balls for ` 1750. Find the cost of each bat and each ball.

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54 MATHEMATICS

(iv) The taxi charges in a city consist of a fixed charge together with the charge for the
distance covered. For a distance of 10 km, the charge paid is ` 105 and for a
journey of 15 km, the charge paid is ` 155. What are the fixed charges and the
charge per km? How much does a person have to pay for travelling a distance of
25 km?
9
(v) A fraction becomes , if 2 is added to both the numerator and the denominator.
11 5
If, 3 is added to both the numerator and the denominator it becomes . Find the
6
fraction.
(vi) Five years hence, the age of Jacob will be three times that of his son. Five years
ago, Jacob’s age was seven times that of his son. What are their present ages?

3.4.2 Elimination Method

Now let us consider another method of eliminating (i.e., removing) one variable. This
is sometimes more convenient than the substitution method. Let us see how this method
works.

Example 11 : The ratio of incomes of two persons is 9 : 7 and the ratio of their
expenditures is 4 : 3. If each of them manages to save ` 2000 per month, find their
monthly incomes.
Solution : Let us denote the incomes of the two person by ` 9x and ` 7x and their
expenditures by ` 4y and ` 3y respectively. Then the equations formed in the situation
is given by :
9x – 4y = 2000 (1)
and 7x – 3y = 2000 (2)
Step 1 : Multiply Equation (1) by 3 and Equation (2) by 4 to make the coefficients of
y equal. Then we get the equations:
27x – 12y = 6000 (3)
28x – 12y = 8000 (4)
Step 2 : Subtract Equation (3) from Equation (4) to eliminate y, because the coefficients
of y are the same. So, we get
(28x – 27x) – (12y – 12y) = 8000 – 6000
i.e., x = 2000
Step 3 : Substituting this value of x in (1), we get
9(2000) – 4y = 2000
i.e., y = 4000

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 55

So, the solution of the equations is x = 2000, y = 4000. Therefore, the monthly incomes
of the persons are ` 18,000 and ` 14,000, respectively.

Verification : 18000 : 14000 = 9 : 7. Also, the ratio of their expenditures =

18000 – 2000 : 14000 – 2000 = 16000 : 12000 = 4 : 3

Remarks :
1. The method used in solving the example above is called the elimination method,
because we eliminate one variable first, to get a linear equation in one variable.
In the example above, we eliminated y. We could also have eliminated x. Try
doing it that way.
2. You could also have used the substitution, or graphical method, to solve this
problem. Try doing so, and see which method is more convenient.
Let us now note down these steps in the elimination method :
Step 1 : First multiply both the equations by some suitable non-zero constants to make
the coefficients of one variable (either x or y) numerically equal.
Step 2 : Then add or subtract one equation from the other so that one variable gets
eliminated. If you get an equation in one variable, go to Step 3.
If in Step 2, we obtain a true statement involving no variable, then the original
pair of equations has infinitely many solutions.
If in Step 2, we obtain a false statement involving no variable, then the original
pair of equations has no solution, i.e., it is inconsistent.
Step 3 : Solve the equation in one variable (x or y) so obtained to get its value.
Step 4 : Substitute this value of x (or y) in either of the original equations to get the
value of the other variable.
Now to illustrate it, we shall solve few more examples.

Example 12 : Use elimination method to find all possible solutions of the following
pair of linear equations :
2x + 3y = 8 (1)
4x + 6y = 7 (2)
Solution :

Step 1 : Multiply Equation (1) by 2 and Equation (2) by 1 to make the

coefficients of x equal. Then we get the equations as :
4x + 6y = 16 (3)
4x + 6y = 7 (4)

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56 MATHEMATICS

Step 2 : Subtracting Equation (4) from Equation (3),

(4x – 4x) + (6y – 6y) = 16 – 7
i.e., 0 = 9, which is a false statement.
Therefore, the pair of equations has no solution.

Example 13 : The sum of a two-digit number and the number obtained by reversing
the digits is 66. If the digits of the number differ by 2, find the number. How many such
numbers are there?
Solution : Let the ten’s and the unit’s digits in the first number be x and y, respectively.
So, the first number may be written as 10 x + y in the expanded form (for example,
56 = 10(5) + 6).
When the digits are reversed, x becomes the unit’s digit and y becomes the ten’s
digit. This number, in the expanded notation is 10y + x (for example, when 56 is
reversed, we get 65 = 10(6) + 5).
According to the given condition.
(10x + y) + (10y + x) = 66
i.e., 11(x + y) = 66
i.e., x+y= 6 (1)
We are also given that the digits differ by 2, therefore,
either x–y= 2 (2)
or y–x= 2 (3)
If x – y = 2, then solving (1) and (2) by elimination, we get x = 4 and y = 2.
In this case, we get the number 42.
If y – x = 2, then solving (1) and (3) by elimination, we get x = 2 and y = 4.
In this case, we get the number 24.
Thus, there are two such numbers 42 and 24.
Verification : Here 42 + 24 = 66 and 4 – 2 = 2. Also 24 + 42 = 66 and 4 – 2 = 2.

EXERCISE 3.4
1. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the elimination method and the substitution
method :
(i) x + y = 5 and 2x – 3y = 4 (ii) 3x + 4y = 10 and 2x – 2y = 2
x 2y y
(iii) 3x – 5y – 4 = 0 and 9x = 2y + 7 (iv) + = − 1 and x − = 3
2 3 3

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 57

2. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems, and find their solutions
(if they exist) by the elimination method :
(i) If we add 1 to the numerator and subtract 1 from the denominator, a fraction reduces
1
to 1. It becomes if we only add 1 to the denominator. What is the fraction?
2
(ii) Five years ago, Nuri was thrice as old as Sonu. Ten years later, Nuri will be twice as
old as Sonu. How old are Nuri and Sonu?
(iii) The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 9. Also, nine times this number is
twice the number obtained by reversing the order of the digits. Find the number.
(iv) Meena went to a bank to withdraw ` 2000. She asked the cashier to give her
` 50 and ` 100 notes only. Meena got 25 notes in all. Find how many notes of
` 50 and ` 100 she received.
(v) A lending library has a fixed charge for the first three days and an additional charge
for each day thereafter. Saritha paid ` 27 for a book kept for seven days, while Susy
paid ` 21 for the book she kept for five days. Find the fixed charge and the charge
for each extra day.

3.4.3 Cross - Multiplication Method

So far, you have learnt how to solve a pair of linear equations in two variables by
graphical, substitution and elimination methods. Here, we introduce one more algebraic
method to solve a pair of linear equations which for many reasons is a very useful
method of solving these equations. Before we proceed further, let us consider the
following situation.

The cost of 5 oranges and 3 apples is ` 35 and the cost of 2 oranges and 4 apples
is ` 28. Let us find the cost of an orange and an apple.
Let us denote the cost of an orange by ` x and the cost of an apple by ` y. Then,
the equations formed are :
5x + 3y = 35, i.e., 5x + 3y – 35 = 0 (1)
2x + 4y = 28, i.e., 2x + 4y – 28 = 0 (2)
Let us use the elimination method to solve these equations.
Multiply Equation (1) by 4 and Equation (2) by 3. We get
(4)(5)x + (4)(3)y + (4)(–35) = 0 (3)
(3)(2)x + (3)(4)y + (3)(–28) = 0 (4)
Subtracting Equation (4) from Equation (3), we get
[(5)(4) – (3)(2)]x + [(4)(3) – (3)(4)]y + [4(–35) – (3)(–28)] = 0

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58 MATHEMATICS

– [ (4)(–35) − (3)(−28) ]
Therefore, x=
(5)(4) − (3)(2)

(3)(– 28) − (4) (−35)

i.e., x= (5)
(5)(4) − (2)(3)
If Equations (1) and (2) are written as a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0,
then we have
a1 = 5, b1 = 3, c1 = –35, a2 = 2, b2 = 4, c2 = –28.
b1c2 − b2 c1
Then Equation (5) can be written as x = ,
a1b2 − a2 b1

c1a2 − c2 a1
Similarly, you can get y=
a1b2 − a2 b1
By simplyfing Equation (5), we get
−84 + 140
x= =4
20 − 6
(−35)(2) − (5)(−28) −70 + 140
Similarly, y= = =5
20 − 6 14
Therefore, x = 4, y = 5 is the solution of the given pair of equations.
Then, the cost of an orange is ` 4 and that of an apple is ` 5.

Verification : Cost of 5 oranges + Cost of 3 apples = ` 20 + ` 15 = ` 35. Cost of

2 oranges + Cost of 4 apples = ` 8 + ` 20 = ` 28.
Let us now see how this method works for any pair of linear equations in two
variables of the form
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 (1)
and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 (2)
To obtain the values of x and y as shown above, we follow the following steps:

Step 1 : Multiply Equation (1) by b2 and Equation (2) by b1, to get

b2a1x + b2b1 y + b2c1 = 0 (3)
b1a2x + b1b2 y + b1c2 = 0 (4)
Step 2 : Subtracting Equation (4) from (3), we get:
(b2a1 – b1a2) x + (b2b1 – b1b2 ) y + (b2c1– b1c2) = 0

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 59

i.e., (b2a1 – b1a2) x = b1c2 – b2c1

b1c2 − b2 c1
So, x= , provided a1b2 – a2b1 ≠ 0 (5)
a1b2 − a2b1
Step 3 : Substituting this value of x in (1) or (2), we get

c1a2 − c2 a1
y= (6)
a1b2 − a2 b1
Now, two cases arise :
a b
Case 1 : a1b2 – a2b1 ≠ 0. In this case 1 ≠ 1 . Then the pair of linear equations has
a2 b2
a unique solution.
a b
Case 2 : a1b2 – a2b1 = 0. If we write 1 = 1 = k , then a1 = k a2, b1 = k b2.
a2 b2
Substituting the values of a1 and b1 in the Equation (1), we get
k (a2 x + b2 y) + c1 = 0. (7)
It can be observed that the Equations (7) and (2) can both be satisfied only if
c1
c1 = k c2, i.e., = k.
c2

If c1 = k c2, any solution of Equation (2) will satisfy the Equation (1), and vice
a1 b1 c1
versa. So, if = = = k , then there are infinitely many solutions to the pair of
a2 b2 c2
linear equations given by (1) and (2).
If c1 ≠ k c2, then any solution of Equation (1) will not satisfy Equation (2) and vice
versa. Therefore the pair has no solution.
We can summarise the discussion above for the pair of linear equations given by
(1) and (2) as follows:
a1 b1
(i) When ≠ , we get a unique solution.
a2 b2
a1 b1 c1
(ii) When = = , there are infinitely many solutions.
a2 b2 c2

a1 b1 c1
(iii) When = ≠ , there is no solution.
a2 b2 c2

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60 MATHEMATICS

Note that you can write the solution given by Equations (5) and (6) in the
following form :
x y 1
= = (8)
b1c2 − b2c1 c1a2 − c2 a1 a1b2 − a2b1
In remembering the above result, the following diagram may be helpful to
you :
x y 1
b1 c1 a1 b1

b2 c2 a2 b2
The arrows between the two numbers indicate that they are to be multiplied and
the second product is to be subtracted from the first.
For solving a pair of linear equations by this method, we will follow the following
steps :
Step 1 : Write the given equations in the form (1) and (2).
Step 2 : Taking the help of the diagram above, write Equations as given in (8).
Step 3 : Find x and y, provided a1b2 – a2b1 ≠ 0
Step 2 above gives you an indication of why this method is called the
cross-multiplication method.

Example 14 : From a bus stand in Bangalore , if we buy 2 tickets to Malleswaram and

3 tickets to Yeshwanthpur, the total cost is ` 46; but if we buy 3 tickets to Malleswaram
and 5 tickets to Yeshwanthpur the total cost is ` 74. Find the fares from the bus stand
to Malleswaram, and to Yeshwanthpur.
Solution : Let ` x be the fare from the bus stand in Bangalore to Malleswaram, and
` y to Yeshwanthpur. From the given information, we have
2x + 3y = 46, i.e., 2x + 3y – 46 = 0 (1)
3x + 5y = 74, i.e., 3x + 5y – 74 = 0 (2)
To solve the equations by the cross-multiplication method, we draw the diagram as
given below. y 1
x
3 – 46 2 3

5 – 74 3 5

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 61

x y 1
Then = =
(3)(−74) − (5)(−46) (−46)(3) − ( −74)(2) (2)(5) − (3)(3)
x y 1
i.e., = =
−222 + 230 −138 + 148 10 − 9
x y 1
i.e., = =
8 10 1
x 1 y 1
i.e., = and =
8 1 10 1
i.e., x= 8 and y = 10
Hence, the fare from the bus stand in Bangalore to Malleswaram is ` 8 and the fare to
Yeshwanthpur is ` 10.
Verification : You can check from the problem that the solution we have got is correct.

Example 15 : For which values of p does the pair of equations given below has unique
solution?
4x + py + 8 = 0
2x + 2y + 2 = 0
Solution : Here a1 = 4, a2 = 2, b1 = p, b2 = 2.
a1 b
Now for the given pair to have a unique solution : ≠ 1
a2 b2
4 p
i.e., ≠
2 2
i.e., p≠ 4
Therefore, for all values of p, except 4, the given pair of equations will have a unique
solution.

Example 16 : For what values of k will the following pair of linear equations have
infinitely many solutions?
kx + 3y – (k – 3) = 0
12x + ky – k = 0

a1 k b 3 c k −3
Solution : Here, = , 1 = , 1 =
a2 12 b2 k c2 k
a1 b1 c1
For a pair of linear equations to have infinitely many solutions : = =
a2 b2 c2

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k 3 k− 3
So, we need = =
12 k k
k 3
or, =
12 k
which gives k2 = 36, i.e., k = ± 6.
3 k − 3
Also, =
k k
gives 3k = k – 3k, i.e., 6k = k , which means k = 0 or k = 6.
2 2

Therefore, the value of k, that satisfies both the conditions, is k = 6. For this value, the
pair of linear equations has infinitely many solutions.

EXERCISE 3.5
1. Which of the following pairs of linear equations has unique solution, no solution, or
infinitely many solutions. In case there is a unique solution, find it by using cross
multiplication method.
(i) x – 3y – 3 = 0 (ii) 2x + y = 5
3x – 9y – 2 = 0 3x + 2y = 8
(iii) 3x – 5y = 20 (iv) x – 3y – 7 = 0
6x – 10y = 40 3x – 3y – 15 = 0
2. (i) For which values of a and b does the following pair of linear equations have an
infinite number of solutions?
2x + 3y = 7
(a – b) x + (a + b) y = 3a + b – 2
(ii) For which value of k will the following pair of linear equations have no solution?
3x + y = 1
(2k – 1) x + (k – 1) y = 2k + 1
3. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the substitution and cross-multiplication
methods :
8x + 5y = 9
3x + 2y = 4
4. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems and find their solutions (if
they exist) by any algebraic method :

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 63

(i) A part of monthly hostel charges is fixed and the remaining depends on the
number of days one has taken food in the mess. When a student A takes food for
20 days she has to pay ` 1000 as hostel charges whereas a student B, who takes
food for 26 days, pays ` 1180 as hostel charges. Find the fixed charges and the
cost of food per day.

1 1
(ii) A fraction becomes when 1 is subtracted from the numerator and it becomes
3 4
when 8 is added to its denominator. Find the fraction.
(iii) Yash scored 40 marks in a test, getting 3 marks for each right answer and losing 1
mark for each wrong answer. Had 4 marks been awarded for each correct answer
and 2 marks been deducted for each incorrect answer, then Yash would have
scored 50 marks. How many questions were there in the test?
(iv) Places A and B are 100 km apart on a highway. One car starts from A and another
from B at the same time. If the cars travel in the same direction at different speeds,
they meet in 5 hours. If they travel towards each other, they meet in 1 hour. What
are the speeds of the two cars?
(v) The area of a rectangle gets reduced by 9 square units, if its length is reduced by
5 units and breadth is increased by 3 units. If we increase the length by 3 units and
the breadth by 2 units, the area increases by 67 square units. Find the dimensions
of the rectangle.

3.5 Equations Reducible to a Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables

In this section, we shall discuss the solution of such pairs of equations which are not
linear but can be reduced to linear form by making some suitable substitutions. We
now explain this process through some examples.

Example 17 : Solve the pair of equations:

2 3
+ = 13
x y
5 4
− = –2
x y
Solution : Let us write the given pair of equations as
1 1
2   + 3   = 13 (1)
 x  y

1 1
5  – 4   = – 2 (2)
 x y

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These equations are not in the form ax + by + c = 0. However, if we substitute

1 1
= p and = q in Equations (1) and (2), we get
x y
2p + 3q = 13 (3)
5p – 4q = – 2 (4)
So, we have expressed the equations as a pair of linear equations. Now, you can use
any method to solve these equations, and get p = 2, q = 3.

1 1
You know that p = and q = ⋅
x y
Substitute the values of p and q to get
1 1 1 1
= 2, i.e., x = and = 3, i.e., y = .
x 2 y 3
1 1
Verification : By substituting x = and y = in the given equations, we find that
2 3
both the equations are satisfied.

Example 18 : Solve the following pair of equations by reducing them to a pair of

linear equations :
5 1
+ = 2
x −1 y − 2
6 3
− = 1
x −1 y − 2

1 1
Solution : Let us put x − 1 = p and y − 2 = q . Then the given equations

 1  1
5 + = 2 (1)
 x −1  y − 2

 1   1 
6 −3 = 1 (2)
 x −1  y −2
can be written as : 5p + q = 2 (3)
6p – 3q = 1 (4)

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 65

Equations (3) and (4) form a pair of linear equations in the general form. Now,
1 1
you can use any method to solve these equations. We get p = and q = ⋅
3 3
1
Now, substituting for p, we have
x −1
1 1
= ,
x −1 3
i.e., x – 1 = 3, i.e., x = 4.
1
Similarly, substituting for q, we get
y−2
1 1
=
y −2 3
i.e., 3 = y – 2, i.e., y = 5
Hence, x = 4, y = 5 is the required solution of the given pair of equations.
Verification : Substitute x = 4 and y = 5 in (1) and (2) to check whether they are
satisfied.

Example 19 : A boat goes 30 km

upstream and 44 km downstream in
10 hours. In 13 hours, it can go
40 km upstream and 55 km
down-stream. Determine the speed
of the stream and that of the boat in
still water.
Solution : Let the speed of the boat
in still water be x km/h and speed of
the stream be y km/h. Then the
speed of the boat downstream
= (x + y) km/h,
and the speed of the boat upstream = (x – y) km/h
distance
Also, time =
speed
In the first case, when the boat goes 30 km upstream, let the time taken, in hour,
be t1. Then
30
t1 =
x− y

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66 MATHEMATICS

Let t2 be the time, in hours, taken by the boat to go 44 km downstream. Then

44 .
t2 = The total time taken, t1 + t2, is 10 hours. Therefore, we get the equation
x+ y
30 44
+ = 10 (1)
x−y x+y
In the second case, in 13 hours it can go 40 km upstream and 55 km downstream. We
get the equation
40 55
+ = 13 (2)
x− y x+ y
1 1
Put = u and =v (3)
x− y x+ y
On substituting these values in Equations (1) and (2), we get the pair of linear
equations:
30u + 44v = 10 or 30u + 44v – 10 = 0 (4)
40u + 55v = 13 or 40u + 55v – 13 = 0 (5)
Using Cross-multiplication method, we get
u v 1
= =
44( −13) − 55( −10) 40( −10) − 30(−13) 30(55) − 44(40)
u v 1
i.e., = =
−22 −10 −110
1 1
i.e., u= , v=
5 11
Now put these values of u and v in Equations (3), we get
1 1 1 1
= and =
x− y 5 x + y 11
i.e., x – y = 5 and x + y = 11 (6)
Adding these equations, we get
2x = 16
i.e., x= 8
Subtracting the equations in (6), we get
2y = 6
i.e., y= 3

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 67

Hence, the speed of the boat in still water is 8 km/h and the speed of the stream
is 3 km/h.
Verification : Verify that the solution satisfies the conditions of the problem.

EXERCISE 3.6
1. Solve the following pairs of equations by reducing them to a pair of linear equations:
1 1 2 3
(i) 2 x + 3 y = 2 (ii) + =2
x y
1 1 13 4 9
+ = − = −1
3x 2 y 6 x y
4 5 1
(iii) + 3 y = 14 (iv) x − 1 + y − 2 = 2
x
3 6 3
− 4 y = 23 − =1
x x− 1 y − 2
7x − 2y
(v) =5 (vi) 6x + 3y = 6xy
xy

8x + 7 y
= 15 2x + 4y = 5xy
xy
10 2 1 1 3
(vii) + =4 (viii) + =
x+ y x− y 3x + y 3x − y 4

15 5 1 1 −1
− = −2 − =
x+ y x− y 2(3x + y ) 2(3x − y ) 8

2. Formulate the following problems as a pair of equations, and hence find their solutions:
(i) Ritu can row downstream 20 km in 2 hours, and upstream 4 km in 2 hours. Find her
speed of rowing in still water and the speed of the current.
(ii) 2 women and 5 men can together finish an embroidery work in 4 days, while 3
women and 6 men can finish it in 3 days. Find the time taken by 1 woman alone to
finish the work, and also that taken by 1 man alone.
(iii) Roohi travels 300 km to her home partly by train and partly by bus. She takes 4
hours if she travels 60 km by train and the remaining by bus. If she travels 100 km
by train and the remaining by bus, she takes 10 minutes longer. Find the speed of
the train and the bus separately.

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EXERCISE 3.7 (Optional)*

1. The ages of two friends Ani and Biju differ by 3 years. Ani’s father Dharam is twice as old
as Ani and Biju is twice as old as his sister Cathy. The ages of Cathy and Dharam differ
by 30 years. Find the ages of Ani and Biju.
2. One says, “Give me a hundred, friend! I shall then become twice as rich as you”. The
other replies, “If you give me ten, I shall be six times as rich as you”. Tell me what is the
amount of their (respective) capital? [From the Bijaganita of Bhaskara II]
[Hint : x + 100 = 2(y – 100), y + 10 = 6(x – 10)].
3. A train covered a certain distance at a uniform speed. If the train would have been
10 km/h faster, it would have taken 2 hours less than the scheduled time. And, if the train
were slower by 10 km/h; it would have taken 3 hours more than the scheduled time. Find
the distance covered by the train.
4. The students of a class are made to stand in rows. If 3 students are extra in a row, there
would be 1 row less. If 3 students are less in a row, there would be 2 rows more. Find the
number of students in the class.
5. In a ∆ ABC, ∠ C = 3 ∠ B = 2 (∠ A + ∠ B). Find the three angles.
6. Draw the graphs of the equations 5x – y = 5 and 3x – y = 3. Determine the co-ordinates of
the vertices of the triangle formed by these lines and the y axis.
7. Solve the following pair of linear equations:
(i) px + qy = p – q (ii) ax + by = c
qx – py = p + q bx + ay = 1 + c

x y
(iii) − =0 (iv) (a – b)x + (a + b) y = a2 – 2ab – b2
a b
ax + by = a2 + b2. (a + b)(x + y) = a2 + b2
(v) 152x – 378y = – 74
–378x + 152y = – 604
8. ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral (see Fig. 3.7).
Find the angles of the cyclic quadrilateral.

Fig. 3.7
* These exercises are not from the examination point of view.

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 69

3.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. Two linear equations in the same two variables are called a pair of linear equations in two
variables. The most general form of a pair of linear equations is
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
where a1, a2, b1, b2, c1, c2 are real numbers, such that a12 + b12 ≠ 0, a22 + b22 ≠ 0.
2. A pair of linear equations in two variables can be represented, and solved, by the:
(i) graphical method
(ii) algebraic method
3. Graphical Method :
The graph of a pair of linear equations in two variables is represented by two lines.
(i) If the lines intersect at a point, then that point gives the unique solution of the two
equations. In this case, the pair of equations is consistent.
(ii) If the lines coincide, then there are infinitely many solutions — each point on the
line being a solution. In this case, the pair of equations is dependent (consistent).
(iii) If the lines are parallel, then the pair of equations has no solution. In this case, the
pair of equations is inconsistent.
4. Algebraic Methods : We have discussed the following methods for finding the solution(s)
of a pair of linear equations :
(i) Substitution Method
(ii) Elimination Method
(iii) Cross-multiplication Method
5. If a pair of linear equations is given by a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0, then the
following situations can arise :
a1 b1
(i) ≠ : In this case, the pair of linear equations is consistent.
a2 b1
a1 b1 c1
(ii) = ≠ : In this case, the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
(iii) = = : In this case, the pair of linear equations is dependent and consistent.
a2 b2 c2
6. There are several situations which can be mathematically represented by two equations
that are not linear to start with. But we alter them so that they are reduced to a pair of
linear equations.

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STATISTICS 14
14.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you have studied the classification of given data into ungrouped as well as
grouped frequency distributions. You have also learnt to represent the data pictorially
in the form of various graphs such as bar graphs, histograms (including those of varying
widths) and frequency polygons. In fact, you went a step further by studying certain
numerical representatives of the ungrouped data, also called measures of central
tendency, namely, mean, median and mode. In this chapter, we shall extend the study
of these three measures, i.e., mean, median and mode from ungrouped data to that of
grouped data. We shall also discuss the concept of cumulative frequency, the
cumulative frequency distribution and how to draw cumulative frequency curves, called
ogives.

14.2 Mean of Grouped Data

The mean (or average) of observations, as we know, is the sum of the values of all the
observations divided by the total number of observations. From Class IX, recall that if
x1, x2,. . ., xn are observations with respective frequencies f1, f2, . . ., fn, then this
means observation x1 occurs f1 times, x2 occurs f2 times, and so on.
Now, the sum of the values of all the observations = f1x1 + f2x2 + . . . + fnxn, and
the number of observations = f1 + f2 + . . . + fn.
So, the mean x of the data is given by
f x + f 2 x2 +
+ f n xn
x = 1 1
f1 + f 2 +
+ f n
Recall that we can write this in short form by using the Greek letter Σ (capital
sigma) which means summation. That is,

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STATISTICS 261

∑fx
i =1
i i
x = n

∑f
i =1
i

Σ fi xi
which, more briefly, is written as x = , if it is understood that i varies from
Σ fi
1 to n.
Let us apply this formula to find the mean in the following example.

Example 1 : The marks obtained by 30 students of Class X of a certain school in a

Mathematics paper consisting of 100 marks are presented in table below. Find the
mean of the marks obtained by the students.

Marks obtained 10 20 36 40 50 56 60 70 72 80 88 92 95
(x i )

Number of 1 1 3 4 3 2 4 4 1 1 2 3 1
students ( fi)

Solution: Recall that to find the mean marks, we require the product of each xi with
the corresponding frequency fi. So, let us put them in a column as shown in Table 14.1.

Table 14.1

Marks obtained (xi ) Number of students ( fi ) f ix i

10 1 10
20 1 20
. 36 3 108
40 4 160
50 3 150
56 2 112
60 4 240
70 4 280
72 1 72
80 1 80
88 2 176
92 3 276
95 1 95

Total Σfi = 30 Σfi xi = 1779

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262 MATHEMATICS

Σ fi xi 1779
Now, x= = = 59.3
Σ fi 30

Therefore, the mean marks obtained is 59.3.

In most of our real life situations, data is usually so large that to make a meaningful
study it needs to be condensed as grouped data. So, we need to convert given ungrouped
data into grouped data and devise some method to find its mean.
Let us convert the ungrouped data of Example 1 into grouped data by forming
class-intervals of width, say 15. Remember that, while allocating frequencies to each
class-interval, students falling in any upper class-limit would be considered in the next
class, e.g., 4 students who have obtained 40 marks would be considered in the class-
interval 40-55 and not in 25-40. With this convention in our mind, let us form a grouped
frequency distribution table (see Table 14.2).

Table 14.2

Class interval 10 - 25 25 - 40 40 - 55 55 - 70 70 - 85 85 - 100

Number of students 2 3 7 6 6 6

Now, for each class-interval, we require a point which would serve as the
representative of the whole class. It is assumed that the frequency of each class-
interval is centred around its mid-point. So the mid-point (or class mark) of each
class can be chosen to represent the observations falling in the class. Recall that we
find the mid-point of a class (or its class mark) by finding the average of its upper and
lower limits. That is,
Upper class limit + Lower class limit
Class mark =
2
10 + 25
With reference to Table 14.2, for the class 10-25, the class mark is , i.e.,
2
17.5. Similarly, we can find the class marks of the remaining class intervals. We put
them in Table 14.3. These class marks serve as our xi’s. Now, in general, for the ith
class interval, we have the frequency fi corresponding to the class mark xi. We can
now proceed to compute the mean in the same manner as in Example 1.

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STATISTICS 263

Table 14.3

Class interval Number of students ( fi ) Class mark (xi ) fi xi

10 - 25 2 17.5 35.0
25 - 40 3 32.5 97.5
40 - 55 7 47.5 332.5
55 - 70 6 62.5 375.0
70 - 85 6 77.5 465.0
85 - 100 6 92.5 555.0
Total Σ fi = 30 Σ fi xi = 1860.0

The sum of the values in the last column gives us Σ fi xi. So, the mean x of the
given data is given by
Σfi xi 1860.0
x = = = 62
Σ fi 30
This new method of finding the mean is known as the Direct Method.
We observe that Tables 14.1 and 14.3 are using the same data and employing the
same formula for the calculation of the mean but the results obtained are different.
Can you think why this is so, and which one is more accurate? The difference in the
two values is because of the mid-point assumption in Table 14.3, 59.3 being the exact
mean, while 62 an approximate mean.
Sometimes when the numerical values of xi and fi are large, finding the product
of xi and fi becomes tedious and time consuming. So, for such situations, let us think of
a method of reducing these calculations.
We can do nothing with the fi’s, but we can change each xi to a smaller number
so that our calculations become easy. How do we do this? What about subtracting a
fixed number from each of these xi’s? Let us try this method.
The first step is to choose one among the xi’s as the assumed mean, and denote
it by ‘a’. Also, to further reduce our calculation work, we may take ‘a’ to be that xi
which lies in the centre of x1, x2, . . ., xn. So, we can choose a = 47.5 or a = 62.5. Let
us choose a = 47.5.
The next step is to find the difference di between a and each of the xi’s, that is,
the deviation of ‘a’ from each of the xi’s.
i.e., di = xi – a = xi – 47.5

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The third step is to find the product of di with the corresponding fi, and take the sum
of all the fi di’s. The calculations are shown in Table 14.4.

Table 14.4

Class interval Number of Class mark di = xi – 47.5 fid i

students ( fi ) (xi )
10 - 25 2 17.5 –30 –60
25 - 40 3 32.5 –15 –45
40 - 55 7 47.5 0 0
55 - 70 6 62.5 15 90
70 - 85 6 77.5 30 180
85 - 100 6 92.5 45 270
Total Σfi = 30 Σfidi = 435

Σfi di
So, from Table 14.4, the mean of the deviations, d = .
Σfi

Now, let us find the relation between d and x .

Since in obtaining di, we subtracted ‘a’ from each xi, so, in order to get the mean
x , we need to add ‘a’ to d . This can be explained mathematically as:

Σfi di
Mean of deviations, d =
Σfi
Σfi ( xi − a )
So, d =
Σfi
Σfi xi Σf i a
= −
Σf i Σfi
Σfi
= x −a
Σfi
= x−a
So, x = a+ d
Σfi di
i.e., x = a+
Σfi

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Substituting the values of a, Σfidi and Σfi from Table 14.4, we get

435
x = 47.5 + = 47.5 + 14.5 = 62 .
30
Therefore, the mean of the marks obtained by the students is 62.
The method discussed above is called the Assumed Mean Method.

Activity 1 : From the Table 14.3 find the mean by taking each of xi (i.e., 17.5, 32.5,
and so on) as ‘a’. What do you observe? You will find that the mean determined in
each case is the same, i.e., 62. (Why ?)
So, we can say that the value of the mean obtained does not depend on the
choice of ‘a’.
Observe that in Table 14.4, the values in Column 4 are all multiples of 15. So, if
we divide the values in the entire Column 4 by 15, we would get smaller numbers to
multiply with fi. (Here, 15 is the class size of each class interval.)

xi − a
So, let ui = , where a is the assumed mean and h is the class size.
h
Now, we calculate ui in this way and continue as before (i.e., find fi ui and
then Σ fi ui). Taking h = 15, let us form Table 14.5.

Table 14.5
xi – a
Class interval fi xi di = xi – a ui = fi ui
h

10 - 25 2 17.5 –30 –2 –4
25 - 40 3 32.5 –15 –1 –3
40 - 55 7 47.5 0 0 0
55 - 70 6 62.5 15 1 6
70 - 85 6 77.5 30 2 12
85 - 100 6 92.5 45 3 18

Total Σfi = 30 Σfiui = 29

Σfi ui
Let u =
Σf i
Here, again let us find the relation between u and x .

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xi − a
We have, ui =
h

( xi − a )
Σfi  Σfi xi − a Σfi 
u = h 1
Therefore, =  
Σf i h  Σfi 

1  Σfi xi Σf 
=  −a i
h  Σf i Σfi 
1
= [ x − a]
h
So, hu = x − a
i.e., x = a + hu

 Σf u 
So, x = a + h i i 
 Σfi 
Now, substituting the values of a, h, Σfiui and Σfi from Table 14.5, we get

 29 
x = 47.5 + 15 ×  
 30 
= 47.5 + 14.5 = 62
So, the mean marks obtained by a student is 62.
The method discussed above is called the Step-deviation method.
We note that :
l the step-deviation method will be convenient to apply if all the di’s have a
common factor.
l The mean obtained by all the three methods is the same.
l The assumed mean method and step-deviation method are just simplified
forms of the direct method.
l The formula x = a + h u still holds if a and h are not as given above, but are
xi − a
any non-zero numbers such that ui = .
h
Let us apply these methods in another example.

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Example 2 : The table below gives the percentage distribution of female teachers in
the primary schools of rural areas of various states and union territories (U.T.) of
India. Find the mean percentage of female teachers by all the three methods discussed
in this section.

Percentage of 15 - 25 25 - 35 35 - 45 45 - 55 55 - 65 65 - 75 75 - 85
female teachers

Number of 6 11 7 4 4 2 1
States/U.T.

Source : Seventh All India School Education Survey conducted by NCERT

Solution : Let us find the class marks, xi, of each class, and put them in a column
(see Table 14.6):

Table 14.6

Percentage of female Number of xi

teachers States /U.T. ( f i )

15 - 25 6 20

25 - 35 11 30

35 - 45 7 40

45 - 55 4 50

55 - 65 4 60

65 - 75 2 70

75 - 85 1 80

xi − 50
Here we take a = 50, h = 10, then di = xi – 50 and ui = .
10

We now find di and ui and put them in Table 14.7.

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Table 14.7

Percentage of Number of xi di = xi – 50 xi −50 fi xi fi di fi ui

ui =
female states/U.T. 10
teachers ( fi )

15 - 25 6 20 –30 –3 120 –180 –18

25 - 35 11 30 –20 –2 330 –220 –22
35 - 45 7 40 –10 –1 280 –70 –7
45 - 55 4 50 0 0 200 0 0
55 - 65 4 60 10 1 240 40 4
65 - 75 2 70 20 2 140 40 4
75 - 85 1 80 30 3 80 30 3
Total 35 1390 –360 –36

From the table above, we obtain Σfi = 35, Σfixi = 1390,

Σfi di = – 360, Σfiui = –36.

Σf i xi 1390
Using the direct method, x = = = 39.71
Σfi 35
Using the assumed mean method,

Σfi di ( −360)
x = a+ = 50 + = 39.71
Σfi 35
Using the step-deviation method,

 Σf u   – 36 
x = a +  i i  × h = 50 +   × 10 = 39.71
 Σf i   35 
Therefore, the mean percentage of female teachers in the primary schools of
rural areas is 39.71.
Remark : The result obtained by all the three methods is the same. So the choice of
method to be used depends on the numerical values of xi and fi. If xi and fi are
sufficiently small, then the direct method is an appropriate choice. If xi and fi are
numerically large numbers, then we can go for the assumed mean method or
step-deviation method. If the class sizes are unequal, and xi are large numerically, we
can still apply the step-deviation method by taking h to be a suitable divisor of all the di’s.

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Example 3 : The distribution below shows the number of wickets taken by bowlers in
one-day cricket matches. Find the mean number of wickets by choosing a suitable
method. What does the mean signify?

Number of 20 - 60 60 - 100 100 - 150 150 - 250 250 - 350 350 - 450
wickets

Number of 7 5 16 12 2 3
bowlers

Solution : Here, the class size varies, and the xi,s are large. Let us still apply the step-
deviation method with a = 200 and h = 20. Then, we obtain the data as in Table 14.8.

Table 14.8

di
Number of Number of xi di = xi – 200 ui = u i fi
20
wickets bowlers
taken ( fi )

20 - 60 7 40 –160 –8 –56
60 - 100 5 80 –120 –6 –30
100 - 150 16 125 –75 –3.75 –60
150 - 250 12 200 0 0 0
250 - 350 2 300 100 5 10
350 - 450 3 400 200 10 30

Total 45 –106

−106  −106 
So, u = ⋅ Therefore, x = 200 + 20   = 200 – 47.11 = 152.89.
45  45 

This tells us that, on an average, the number of wickets taken by these 45 bowlers
in one-day cricket is 152.89.

Now, let us see how well you can apply the concepts discussed in this section!

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Activity 2 :
Divide the students of your class into three groups and ask each group to do one of the
following activities.
1. Collect the marks obtained by all the students of your class in Mathematics in the
latest examination conducted by your school. Form a grouped frequency distribution
of the data obtained.
2. Collect the daily maximum temperatures recorded for a period of 30 days in your
city. Present this data as a grouped frequency table.
3. Measure the heights of all the students of your class (in cm) and form a grouped
frequency distribution table of this data.
After all the groups have collected the data and formed grouped frequency
distribution tables, the groups should find the mean in each case by the method which
they find appropriate.

EXERCISE 14.1
1. A survey was conducted by a group of students as a part of their environment awareness
programme, in which they collected the following data regarding the number of plants in
20 houses in a locality. Find the mean number of plants per house.

Number of plants 0-2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 14

Number of houses 1 2 1 5 6 2 3

Which method did you use for finding the mean, and why?
2. Consider the following distribution of daily wages of 50 workers of a factory.

Daily wages (in `) 500 - 520 520 -540 540 - 560 560 - 580 580 -600

Number of workers 12 14 8 6 10

Find the mean daily wages of the workers of the factory by using an appropriate method.
3. The following distribution shows the daily pocket allowance of children of a locality.
The mean pocket allowance is Rs 18. Find the missing frequency f.

Daily pocket 11 - 13 13 - 15 15 - 17 17 - 19 19 - 21 21 - 23 23 - 25
allowance (in `)

Number of children 7 6 9 13 f 5 4

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4. Thirty women were examined in a hospital by a doctor and the number of heartbeats per
minute were recorded and summarised as follows. Find the mean heartbeats per minute
for these women, choosing a suitable method.

Number of heartbeats 65 - 68 68 - 71 71 - 74 74 - 77 77 - 80 80 - 83 83 - 86
per minute

Number of women 2 4 3 8 7 4 2

5. In a retail market, fruit vendors were selling mangoes kept in packing boxes. These
boxes contained varying number of mangoes. The following was the distribution of
mangoes according to the number of boxes.

Number of mangoes 50 - 52 53 - 55 56 - 58 59 - 61 62 - 64

Number of boxes 15 110 135 115 25

Find the mean number of mangoes kept in a packing box. Which method of finding
the mean did you choose?

6. The table below shows the daily expenditure on food of 25 households in a locality.

Daily expenditure 100 - 150 150 - 200 200 - 250 250 - 300 300 - 350
(in `)

Number of 4 5 12 2 2
households

Find the mean daily expenditure on food by a suitable method.

7. To find out the concentration of SO2 in the air (in parts per million, i.e., ppm), the data
was collected for 30 localities in a certain city and is presented below:

Concentration of SO2 (in ppm) Frequency

0.00 - 0.04 4
0.04 - 0.08 9
0.08 - 0.12 9
0.12 - 0.16 2
0.16 - 0.20 4
0.20 - 0.24 2

Find the mean concentration of SO2 in the air.

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8. A class teacher has the following absentee record of 40 students of a class for the whole
term. Find the mean number of days a student was absent.

Number of 0-6 6 - 10 10 - 14 14 - 20 20 - 28 28 - 38 38 - 40
days

Number of 11 10 7 4 4 3 1
students

9. The following table gives the literacy rate (in percentage) of 35 cities. Find the mean
literacy rate.

Literacy rate (in %) 45 - 55 55 - 65 65 - 75 75 - 85 85 - 95

Number of cities 3 10 11 8 3

14.3 Mode of Grouped Data

Recall from Class IX, a mode is that value among the observations which occurs most
often, that is, the value of the observation having the maximum frequency. Further, we
discussed finding the mode of ungrouped data. Here, we shall discuss ways of obtaining
a mode of grouped data. It is possible that more than one value may have the same
maximum frequency. In such situations, the data is said to be multimodal. Though
grouped data can also be multimodal, we shall restrict ourselves to problems having a
single mode only.
Let us first recall how we found the mode for ungrouped data through the following
example.

Example 4 : The wickets taken by a bowler in 10 cricket matches are as follows:

2 6 4 5 0 2 1 3 2 3
Find the mode of the data.
Solution : Let us form the frequency distribution table of the given data as follows:

Number of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
wickets

Number of 1 1 3 2 1 1 1
matches

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Clearly, 2 is the number of wickets taken by the bowler in the maximum number
(i.e., 3) of matches. So, the mode of this data is 2.
In a grouped frequency distribution, it is not possible to determine the mode by
looking at the frequencies. Here, we can only locate a class with the maximum
frequency, called the modal class. The mode is a value inside the modal class, and is
given by the formula:
 f1 − f0 
Mode = l +  ×h
 2 f1 − f 0 − f 2 
where l = lower limit of the modal class,
h = size of the class interval (assuming all class sizes to be equal),
f1 = frequency of the modal class,
f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class,
f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class.
Let us consider the following examples to illustrate the use of this formula.

Example 5 : A survey conducted on 20 households in a locality by a group of students

resulted in the following frequency table for the number of family members in a
household:

Family size 1-3 3-5 5-7 7-9 9 - 11

Number of 7 8 2 2 1
families

Find the mode of this data.

Solution : Here the maximum class frequency is 8, and the class corresponding to this
frequency is 3 – 5. So, the modal class is 3 – 5.
Now
modal class = 3 – 5, lower limit (l ) of modal class = 3, class size (h) = 2
frequency ( f1 ) of the modal class = 8,
frequency ( f0 ) of class preceding the modal class = 7,
frequency ( f2 ) of class succeeding the modal class = 2.
Now, let us substitute these values in the formula :

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 f1 − f0 
Mode = l +  ×h
 2 f1 − f 0 − f 2 

 8−7  2
= 3+  × 2 = 3 + = 3.286
2×8 − 7 − 2 7

Therefore, the mode of the data above is 3.286.

Example 6 : The marks distribution of 30 students in a mathematics examination are

given in Table 14.3 of Example 1. Find the mode of this data. Also compare and
interpret the mode and the mean.
Solution : Refer to Table 14.3 of Example 1. Since the maximum number of students
(i.e., 7) have got marks in the interval 40 - 55, the modal class is 40 - 55. Therefore,
the lower limit ( l ) of the modal class = 40,
the class size ( h) = 15,
the frequency ( f1 ) of modal class = 7,
the frequency ( f0 ) of the class preceding the modal class = 3,
the frequency ( f2 ) of the class succeeding the modal class = 6.
Now, using the formula:
 f1 − f0 
Mode = l +   × h,
 2 f1 − f 0 − f 2 
 7−3 
we get Mode = 40 +   × 15 = 52
 14 − 6 − 3 
So, the mode marks is 52.
Now, from Example 1, you know that the mean marks is 62.
So, the maximum number of students obtained 52 marks, while on an average a
student obtained 62 marks.
Remarks :
1. In Example 6, the mode is less than the mean. But for some other problems it may
be equal or more than the mean also.
2. It depends upon the demand of the situation whether we are interested in finding the
average marks obtained by the students or the average of the marks obtained by most

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of the students. In the first situation, the mean is required and in the second situation,
the mode is required.

Activity 3 : Continuing with the same groups as formed in Activity 2 and the situations
assigned to the groups. Ask each group to find the mode of the data. They should also
compare this with the mean, and interpret the meaning of both.
Remark : The mode can also be calculated for grouped data with unequal class sizes.
However, we shall not be discussing it.

EXERCISE 14.2
1. The following table shows the ages of the patients admitted in a hospital during a year:

Age (in years) 5 - 15 15 - 25 25 - 35 35 - 45 45 - 55 55 - 65

Number of patients 6 11 21 23 14 5

Find the mode and the mean of the data given above. Compare and interpret the two
measures of central tendency.
2. The following data gives the information on the observed lifetimes (in hours) of 225
electrical components :

Lifetimes (in hours) 0 - 20 20 - 40 40 - 60 60 - 80 80 - 100 100 - 120

Frequency 10 35 52 61 38 29

Determine the modal lifetimes of the components.

3. The following data gives the distribution of total monthly household expenditure of 200
families of a village. Find the modal monthly expenditure of the families. Also, find the
mean monthly expenditure :

Expenditure (in `) Number of families

1000 - 1500 24
1500 - 2000 40
2000 - 2500 33
2500 - 3000 28
3000 - 3500 30
3500 - 4000 22
4000 - 4500 16
4500 - 5000 7

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4. The following distribution gives the state-wise teacher-student ratio in higher

secondary schools of India. Find the mode and mean of this data. Interpret the two
measures.

Number of students per teacher Number of states / U .T.

15 - 20 3
20 - 25 8
25 - 30 9
30 - 35 10
35 - 40 3
40 - 45 0
45 - 50 0
50 - 55 2

5. The given distribution shows the number of runs scored by some top batsmen of the
world in one-day international cricket matches.

Runs scored Number of batsmen

3000 - 4000 4
4000 - 5000 18
5000 - 6000 9
6000 - 7000 7
7000 - 8000 6
8000 - 9000 3
9000 - 10000 1
10000 - 11000 1
Find the mode of the data.

6. A student noted the number of cars passing through a spot on a road for 100
periods each of 3 minutes and summarised it in the table given below. Find the mode
of the data :

Number of cars 0 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50 50 - 60 60 - 70 70 - 80

Frequency 7 14 13 12 20 11 15 8

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14.4 Median of Grouped Data

As you have studied in Class IX, the median is a measure of central tendency which
gives the value of the middle-most observation in the data. Recall that for finding the
median of ungrouped data, we first arrange the data values of the observations in
 n + 1
ascending order. Then, if n is odd, the median is the   th observation. And, if n
 2 
n n 
is even, then the median will be the average of the th and the  + 1 th observations.
2 2 

Suppose, we have to find the median of the following data, which gives the
marks, out of 50, obtained by 100 students in a test :

Marks obtained 20 29 28 33 42 38 43 25

Number of students 6 28 24 15 2 4 1 20

First, we arrange the marks in ascending order and prepare a frequency table as
follows :
Table 14.9

Marks obtained Number of students

(Frequency)

20 6
25 20
28 24
29 28
33 15
38 4
42 2
43 1

Total 100

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Here n = 100, which is even. The median will be the average of the
n th and the
2
n 
 + 1  th observations, i.e., the 50th and 51st observations. To find these
2 
observations, we proceed as follows:
Table 14.10

Marks obtained Number of students

20 6
upto 25 6 + 20 = 26
upto 28 26 + 24 = 50
upto 29 50 + 28 = 78
upto 33 78 + 15 = 93
upto 38 93 + 4 = 97
upto 42 97 + 2 = 99
upto 43 99 + 1 = 100

Now we add another column depicting this information to the frequency table
above and name it as cumulative frequency column.

Table 14.11
Marks obtained Number of students Cumulative frequency

20 6 6
25 20 26
28 24 50
29 28 78
33 15 93
38 4 97
42 2 99
43 1 100

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From the table above, we see that:

50th observaton is 28 (Why?)
51st observation is 29

28 + 29
So, Median = = 28.5
2
Remark : The part of Table 14.11 consisting Column 1 and Column 3 is known as
Cumulative Frequency Table. The median marks 28.5 conveys the information that
about 50% students obtained marks less than 28.5 and another 50% students obtained
marks more than 28.5.
Now, let us see how to obtain the median of grouped data, through the following
situation.
Consider a grouped frequency distribution of marks obtained, out of 100, by 53
students, in a certain examination, as follows:

Table 14.12

Marks Number of students

0 - 10 5
10 - 20 3
20 - 30 4
30 - 40 3
40 - 50 3
50 - 60 4
60 - 70 7
70 - 80 9
80 - 90 7
90 - 100 8

From the table above, try to answer the following questions:

How many students have scored marks less than 10? The answer is clearly 5.

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How many students have scored less than 20 marks? Observe that the number
of students who have scored less than 20 include the number of students who have
scored marks from 0 - 10 as well as the number of students who have scored marks
from 10 - 20. So, the total number of students with marks less than 20 is 5 + 3, i.e., 8.
We say that the cumulative frequency of the class 10 -20 is 8.
Similarly, we can compute the cumulative frequencies of the other classes, i.e.,
the number of students with marks less than 30, less than 40, . . ., less than 100. We
give them in Table 14.13 given below:

Table 14.13

Marks obtained Number of students

(Cumulative frequency)

Less than 10 5
Less than 20 5+3=8
Less than 30 8 + 4 = 12
Less than 40 12 + 3 = 15
Less than 50 15 + 3 = 18
Less than 60 18 + 4 = 22
Less than 70 22 + 7 = 29
Less than 80 29 + 9 = 38
Less than 90 38 + 7 = 45
Less than 100 45 + 8 = 53

The distribution given above is called the cumulative frequency distribution of

the less than type. Here 10, 20, 30, . . . 100, are the upper limits of the respective
class intervals.
We can similarly make the table for the number of students with scores, more
than or equal to 0, more than or equal to 10, more than or equal to 20, and so on. From
Table 14.12, we observe that all 53 students have scored marks more than or equal to
0. Since there are 5 students scoring marks in the interval 0 - 10, this means that there
are 53 – 5 = 48 students getting more than or equal to 10 marks. Continuing in the
same manner, we get the number of students scoring 20 or above as 48 – 3 = 45, 30 or
above as 45 – 4 = 41, and so on, as shown in Table 14.14.

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Table 14.14

Marks obtained Number of students

(Cumulative frequency)

More than or equal to 0 53

More than or equal to 10 53 – 5 = 48
More than or equal to 20 48 – 3 = 45
More than or equal to 30 45 – 4 = 41
More than or equal to 40 41 – 3 = 38
More than or equal to 50 38 – 3 = 35
More than or equal to 60 35 – 4 = 31
More than or equal to 70 31 – 7 = 24
More than or equal to 80 24 – 9 = 15
More than or equal to 90 15 – 7 = 8

The table above is called a cumulative frequency distribution of the more

than type. Here 0, 10, 20, . . ., 90 give the lower limits of the respective class intervals.
Now, to find the median of grouped data, we can make use of any of these
cumulative frequency distributions.
Let us combine Tables 14.12 and 14.13 to get Table 14.15 given below:

Table 14.15

Marks Number of students ( f ) Cumulative frequency (cf )

0 - 10 5 5
10 - 20 3 8
20 - 30 4 12
30 - 40 3 15
40 - 50 3 18
50 - 60 4 22
60 - 70 7 29
70 - 80 9 38
80 - 90 7 45
90 - 100 8 53

Now in a grouped data, we may not be able to find the middle observation by
looking at the cumulative frequencies as the middle observation will be some value in

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a class interval. It is, therefore, necessary to find the value inside a class that divides
the whole distribution into two halves. But which class should this be?
n
To find this class, we find the cumulative frequencies of all the classes and .
2
We now locate the class whose cumulative frequency is greater than (and nearest to)
n n
⋅ This is called the median class. In the distribution above, n = 53. So, = 26.5.
2 2
Now 60 – 70 is the class whose cumulative frequency 29 is greater than (and nearest
n
to) , i.e., 26.5.
2
Therefore, 60 – 70 is the median class.
After finding the median class, we use the following formula for calculating the
median.

n 
 2 − cf 
Median = l +   × h,
 f 
 
where l = lower limit of median class,
n = number of observations,
cf = cumulative frequency of class preceding the median class,
f = frequency of median class,
h = class size (assuming class size to be equal).
n
Substituting the values = 26.5, l = 60, cf = 22, f = 7, h = 10
2
in the formula above, we get
 26.5 − 22 
Median = 60 +   × 10
 7 

45
= 60 +
7
= 66.4
So, about half the students have scored marks less than 66.4, and the other half have
scored marks more than 66.4.

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Example 7 : A survey regarding the heights (in cm) of 51 girls of Class X of a school
was conducted and the following data was obtained:

Height (in cm) Number of girls

Less than 140 4

Less than 145 11
Less than 150 29
Less than 155 40
Less than 160 46
Less than 165 51

Find the median height.

Solution : To calculate the median height, we need to find the class intervals and their
corresponding frequencies.
The given distribution being of the less than type, 140, 145, 150, . . ., 165 give the
upper limits of the corresponding class intervals. So, the classes should be below 140,
140 - 145, 145 - 150, . . ., 160 - 165. Observe that from the given distribution, we find
that there are 4 girls with height less than 140, i.e., the frequency of class interval
below 140 is 4. Now, there are 11 girls with heights less than 145 and 4 girls with
height less than 140. Therefore, the number of girls with height in the interval
140 - 145 is 11 – 4 = 7. Similarly, the frequency of 145 - 150 is 29 – 11 = 18, for
150 - 155, it is 40 – 29 = 11, and so on. So, our frequency distribution table with the
given cumulative frequencies becomes:

Table 14.16

Class intervals Frequency Cumulative frequency

Below 140 4 4
140 - 145 7 11
145 - 150 18 29
150 - 155 11 40
155 - 160 6 46
160 - 165 5 51

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n 51
Now n = 51. So, = = 25.5 . This observation lies in the class 145 - 150. Then,
2 2
l (the lower limit) = 145,
cf (the cumulative frequency of the class preceding 145 - 150) = 11,
f (the frequency of the median class 145 - 150) = 18,
h (the class size) = 5.

n 
 2 − cf 
Using the formula, Median = l +   × h , we have
 f 
 

 25.5 − 11 
Median = 145 +  ×5
 18 
72.5
= 145 + = 149.03.
18
So, the median height of the girls is 149.03 cm.
This means that the height of about 50% of the girls is less than this height, and
50% are taller than this height.
Example 8 : The median of the following data is 525. Find the values of x and y, if the
total frequency is 100.

Class interval Frequency

0 - 100 2
100 - 200 5
200 - 300 x
300 - 400 12
400 - 500 17
500 - 600 20
600 - 700 y
700 - 800 9
800 - 900 7
900 - 1000 4

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Solution :

Class intervals Frequency Cumulative frequency

0 - 100 2 2
100 - 200 5 7
200 - 300 x 7+x
300 - 400 12 19 + x
400 - 500 17 36 + x
500 - 600 20 56 + x
600 - 700 y 56 + x + y
700 - 800 9 65 + x + y
800 - 900 7 72 + x + y
900 - 1000 4 76 + x + y

It is given that n = 100

So, 76 + x + y = 100, i.e., x + y = 24 (1)
The median is 525, which lies in the class 500 – 600
So, l = 500, f = 20, cf = 36 + x, h = 100

n 
 − cf 
Using the formula : Median = l +  2  h, we get
 f 
 

 50 − 36 − x 
525 = 500 +   × 100
 20 
i.e., 525 – 500 = (14 – x) × 5
i.e., 25 = 70 – 5x
i.e., 5x = 70 – 25 = 45
So, x= 9
Therefore, from (1), we get 9 + y = 24
i.e., y = 15

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Now, that you have studied about all the three measures of central tendency, let
us discuss which measure would be best suited for a particular requirement.
The mean is the most frequently used measure of central tendency because it
takes into account all the observations, and lies between the extremes, i.e., the largest
and the smallest observations of the entire data. It also enables us to compare two or
more distributions. For example, by comparing the average (mean) results of students
of different schools of a particular examination, we can conclude which school has a
better performance.
However, extreme values in the data affect the mean. For example, the mean of
classes having frequencies more or less the same is a good representative of the data.
But, if one class has frequency, say 2, and the five others have frequency 20, 25, 20,
21, 18, then the mean will certainly not reflect the way the data behaves. So, in such
cases, the mean is not a good representative of the data.
In problems where individual observations are not important, and we wish to find
out a ‘typical’ observation, the median is more appropriate, e.g., finding the typical
productivity rate of workers, average wage in a country, etc. These are situations
where extreme values may be there. So, rather than the mean, we take the median as
a better measure of central tendency.
In situations which require establishing the most frequent value or most popular
item, the mode is the best choice, e.g., to find the most popular T.V. programme being
watched, the consumer item in greatest demand, the colour of the vehicle used by
most of the people, etc.

Remarks :
1. There is a empirical relationship between the three measures of central tendency :
3 Median = Mode + 2 Mean
2. The median of grouped data with unequal class sizes can also be calculated. However,
we shall not discuss it here.

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EXERCISE 14.3
1. The following frequency distribution gives the monthly consumption of electricity of
68 consumers of a locality. Find the median, mean and mode of the data and compare
them.

Monthly consumption (in units) Number of consumers

65 - 85 4

85 - 105 5

105 - 125 13

125 - 145 20

145 - 165 14

165 - 185 8

185 - 205 4

2. If the median of the distribution given below is 28.5, find the values of x and y.

Class interval Frequency

0 - 10 5

10 - 20 x

20 - 30 20

30 - 40 15

40 - 50 y

50 - 60 5

Total 60

3. A life insurance agent found the following data for distribution of ages of 100 policy
holders. Calculate the median age, if policies are given only to persons having age 18
years onwards but less than 60 year.

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Age (in years) Number of policy holders

Below 20 2

Below 25 6

Below 30 24

Below 35 45

Below 40 78

Below 45 89

Below 50 92

Below 55 98

Below 60 100

4. The lengths of 40 leaves of a plant are measured correct to the nearest millimetre, and
the data obtained is represented in the following table :

Length (in mm) Number of leaves

118 - 126 3

127 - 135 5

136 - 144 9

145 - 153 12

154 - 162 5

163 - 171 4

172 - 180 2

Find the median length of the leaves.

(Hint : The data needs to be converted to continuous classes for finding the median,
since the formula assumes continuous classes. The classes then change to
117.5 - 126.5, 126.5 - 135.5, . . ., 171.5 - 180.5.)

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5. The following table gives the distribution of the life time of 400 neon lamps :

Life time (in hours) Number of lamps

1500 - 2000 14
2000 - 2500 56
2500 - 3000 60
3000 - 3500 86
3500 - 4000 74
4000 - 4500 62
4500 - 5000 48

Find the median life time of a lamp.

6. 100 surnames were randomly picked up from a local telephone directory and the
frequency distribution of the number of letters in the English alphabets in the surnames
was obtained as follows:

Number of letters 1-4 4-7 7 - 10 10 - 13 13 - 16 16 - 19

Number of surnames 6 30 40 16 4 4

Determine the median number of letters in the surnames. Find the mean number of
letters in the surnames? Also, find the modal size of the surnames.
7. The distribution below gives the weights of 30 students of a class. Find the median
weight of the students.

Weight (in kg) 40 - 45 45 - 50 50 - 55 55 - 60 60 - 65 65 - 70 70 - 75

Number of students 2 3 8 6 6 3 2

14.5 Graphical Representation of Cumulative Frequency Distribution

As we all know, pictures speak better than words. A graphical representation helps us
in understanding given data at a glance. In Class IX, we have represented the data
through bar graphs, histograms and frequency polygons. Let us now represent a
cumulative frequency distribution graphically.
For example, let us consider the cumulative frequency distribution given in
Table 14.13.

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Recall that the values 10, 20, 30,

. . ., 100 are the upper limits of the
respective class intervals. To represent
the data in the table graphically, we mark
the upper limits of the class intervals on
the horizontal axis (x-axis) and their
corresponding cumulative frequencies
on the vertical axis ( y-axis), choosing a
convenient scale. The scale may not be
the same on both the axis. Let us now
plot the points corresponding to the
ordered pairs given by (upper limit,
corresponding cumulative frequency), Fig. 14.1
i.e., (10, 5), (20, 8), (30, 12), (40, 15),
(50, 18), (60, 22), (70, 29), (80, 38), (90, 45), (100, 53) on a graph paper and join them
by a free hand smooth curve. The curve we get is called a cumulative frequency
curve, or an ogive (of the less than type). (See Fig. 14.1)

The term ‘ogive’ is pronounced as ‘ojeev’ and is derived from the word ogee.
An ogee is a shape consisting of a concave arc flowing into a convex arc, so
forming an S-shaped curve with vertical ends. In architecture, the ogee shape
is one of the characteristics of the 14th and 15th century Gothic styles.

Next, again we consider the cumulative frequency distribution given in

Table 14.14 and draw its ogive (of the more than type).
Recall that, here 0, 10, 20, . . ., 90
are the lower limits of the respective class
intervals 0 - 10, 10 - 20, . . ., 90 - 100. To
represent ‘the more than type’ graphically,
we plot the lower limits on the x-axis and
the corresponding cumulative frequencies
on the y-axis. Then we plot the points
(lower limit, corresponding cumulative
frequency), i.e., (0, 53), (10, 48), (20, 45),
(30, 41), (40, 38), (50, 35), (60, 31),
(70, 24), (80, 15), (90, 8), on a graph paper,
Fig. 14.2
and join them by a free hand smooth curve.
The curve we get is a cumulative frequency curve, or an ogive (of the more than
type). (See Fig. 14.2)

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Remark : Note that both the ogives (in Fig. 14.1 and Fig. 14.2) correspond to the
same data, which is given in Table 14.12.
Now, are the ogives related to the median in any way? Is it possible to obtain the
median from these two cumulative frequency curves corresponding to the data in
Table 14.12? Let us see.
One obvious way is to locate
n 53
= = 26.5 on the y-axis (see Fig.
2 2
14.3). From this point, draw a line parallel
to the x-axis cutting the curve at a point.
From this point, draw a perpendicular to
the x-axis. The point of intersection of
this perpendicular with the x-axis
determines the median of the data (see
Fig. 14.3). Fig. 14.3
Another way of obtaining the
median is the following :

Draw both ogives (i.e., of the less

than type and of the more than type) on
the same axis. The two ogives will
intersect each other at a point. From this
point, if we draw a perpendicular on the
x-axis, the point at which it cuts the
x-axis gives us the median (see Fig. 14.4).
Fig. 14.4
Example 9 : The annual profits earned by 30 shops of a shopping complex in a
locality give rise to the following distribution :

Profit (Rs in lakhs) Number of shops (frequency)

More than or equal to 5 30
More than or equal to 10 28
More than or equal to 15 16
More than or equal to 20 14
More than or equal to 25 10
More than or equal to 30 7
More than or equal to 35 3

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Draw both ogives for the data above.

Hence obtain the median profit.
Solution : We first draw the coordinate
axes, with lower limits of the profit along
the horizontal axis, and the cumulative
frequency along the vertical axes. Then,
we plot the points (5, 30), (10, 28), (15, 16),
(20, 14), (25, 10), (30, 7) and (35, 3). We
join these points with a smooth curve to
get the ‘more than’ ogive, as shown in
Fig. 14.5.
Now, let us obtain the classes, their
frequencies and the cumulative frequency Fig. 14.5
from the table above.

Table 14.17

Classes 5 - 10 10 - 15 15 - 20 20 - 25 25 - 30 30 - 35 35 - 40
No. of shops 2 12 2 4 3 4 3
Cumulative 2 14 16 20 23 27 30
frequency

Using these values, we plot the points

(10, 2), (15, 14), (20, 16), (25, 20), (30, 23),
(35, 27), (40, 30) on the same axes as in
Fig. 14.5 to get the ‘less than’ ogive, as
shown in Fig. 14.6.
The abcissa of their point of intersection is
nearly 17.5, which is the median. This can
also be verified by using the formula.
Hence, the median profit (in lakhs) is
` 17.5.
Remark : In the above examples, it may
be noted that the class intervals were
continuous. For drawing ogives, it should
be ensured that the class intervals are
continuous. (Also see constructions of Fig. 14.6
histograms in Class IX)

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EXERCISE 14.4
1. The following distribution gives the daily income of 50 workers of a factory.

Daily income (in `) 100 - 120 120 - 140 140 - 160 160 - 180 180 - 200

Number of workers 12 14 8 6 10

Convert the distribution above to a less than type cumulative frequency distribution,
and draw its ogive.
2. During the medical check-up of 35 students of a class, their weights were recorded as
follows:

Weight (in kg) Number of students

Less than 38 0
Less than 40 3
Less than 42 5
Less than 44 9
Less than 46 14
Less than 48 28
Less than 50 32
Less than 52 35

Draw a less than type ogive for the given data. Hence obtain the median weight from
the graph and verify the result by using the formula.
3. The following table gives production yield per hectare of wheat of 100 farms of a village.

Production yield 50 - 55 55 - 60 60 - 65 65 - 70 70 - 75 75 - 80
(in kg/ha)

Number of farms 2 8 12 24 38 16

Change the distribution to a more than type distribution, and draw its ogive.

14.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. The mean for grouped data can be found by :
Σfi xi
(i) the direct method : x =
Σfi

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Σ f i di
(ii) the assumed mean method : x = a +
Σf i
 Σf u 
(iii) the step deviation method : x = a +  i i  × h ,
 Σf i 
with the assumption that the frequency of a class is centred at its mid-point, called its
class mark.
2. The mode for grouped data can be found by using the formula:

 f1 − f 0 
Mode = l +  ×h
2
 1 f − f 0 − f 2 
where symbols have their usual meanings.
3. The cumulative frequency of a class is the frequency obtained by adding the frequencies
of all the classes preceding the given class.
4. The median for grouped data is formed by using the formula:

n 
 2 − cf 
Median = l +  × h,
 f 
 

where symbols have their usual meanings.

5. Representing a cumulative frequency distribution graphically as a cumulative frequency
curve, or an ogive of the less than type and of the more than type.
6. The median of grouped data can be obtained graphically as the x-coordinate of the point
of intersection of the two ogives for this data.

A NOTE TO THE READER

For calculating mode and median for grouped data, it should be
ensured that the class intervals are continuous before applying the
formulae. Same condition also apply for construction of an ogive.
Further, in case of ogives, the scale may not be the same on both the axes.

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PROBABILITY 15
The theory of probabilities and the theory of errors now constitute
a formidable body of great mathematical interest and of great
practical importance.
– R.S. Woodward
15.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you have studied about experimental (or empirical) probabilities of events
which were based on the results of actual experiments. We discussed an experiment
of tossing a coin 1000 times in which the frequencies of the outcomes were as follows:
Head : 455 Tail : 545
455
Based on this experiment, the empirical probability of a head is , i.e., 0.455 and
1000
that of getting a tail is 0.545. (Also see Example 1, Chapter 15 of Class IX Mathematics
Textbook.) Note that these probabilities are based on the results of an actual experiment
of tossing a coin 1000 times. For this reason, they are called experimental or empirical
probabilities. In fact, experimental probabilities are based on the results of actual
experiments and adequate recordings of the happening of the events. Moreover,
these probabilities are only ‘estimates’. If we perform the same experiment for another
1000 times, we may get different data giving different probability estimates.
In Class IX, you tossed a coin many times and noted the number of times it turned up
heads (or tails) (refer to Activities 1 and 2 of Chapter 15). You also noted that as the
number of tosses of the coin increased, the experimental probability of getting a head
1
(or tail) came closer and closer to the number ⋅ Not only you, but many other
2

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persons from different parts of the world have done this kind of experiment and recorded
the number of heads that turned up.
For example, the eighteenth century French naturalist Comte de Buffon tossed a
coin 4040 times and got 2048 heads. The experimental probabilility of getting a head,

in this case, was 2048 , i.e., 0.507. J.E. Kerrich, from Britain, recorded 5067 heads in
4040
10000 tosses of a coin. The experimental probability of getting a head, in this case,
5067
was = 0.5067 . Statistician Karl Pearson spent some more time, making 24000
10000
tosses of a coin. He got 12012 heads, and thus, the experimental probability of a head
obtained by him was 0.5005.
Now, suppose we ask, ‘What will the experimental probability of a head be if the
experiment is carried on upto, say, one million times? Or 10 million times? And so on?’
You would intuitively feel that as the number of tosses increases, the experimental
probability of a head (or a tail) seems to be settling down around the number 0.5 , i.e.,
1
, which is what we call the theoretical probability of getting a head (or getting a
2
tail), as you will see in the next section. In this chapter, we provide an introduction to
the theoretical (also called classical) probability of an event, and discuss simple problems
based on this concept.

15.2 Probability — A Theoretical Approach

Let us consider the following situation :
Suppose a coin is tossed at random.

When we speak of a coin, we assume it to be ‘fair’, that is, it is symmetrical so

that there is no reason for it to come down more often on one side than the other.
We call this property of the coin as being ‘unbiased’. By the phrase ‘random toss’,
we mean that the coin is allowed to fall freely without any bias or interference.

We know, in advance, that the coin can only land in one of two possible ways —
either head up or tail up (we dismiss the possibility of its ‘landing’ on its edge, which
may be possible, for example, if it falls on sand). We can reasonably assume that each
outcome, head or tail, is as likely to occur as the other. We refer to this by saying that
the outcomes head and tail, are equally likely.

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For another example of equally likely outcomes, suppose we throw a die

once. For us, a die will always mean a fair die. What are the possible outcomes?
They are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Each number has the same possibility of showing up. So
the equally likely outcomes of throwing a die are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
Are the outcomes of every experiment equally likely? Let us see.
Suppose that a bag contains 4 red balls and 1 blue ball, and you draw a ball
without looking into the bag. What are the outcomes? Are the outcomes — a red ball
and a blue ball equally likely? Since there are 4 red balls and only one blue ball, you
would agree that you are more likely to get a red ball than a blue ball. So, the outcomes
(a red ball or a blue ball) are not equally likely. However, the outcome of drawing a
ball of any colour from the bag is equally likely. So, all experiments do not necessarily
have equally likely outcomes.
However, in this chapter, from now on, we will assume that all the experiments
have equally likely outcomes.
In Class IX, we defined the experimental or empirical probability P(E) of an
event E as
Number of trials in which the event happened
P(E) =
Total number of trials
The empirical interpretation of probability can be applied to every event associated
with an experiment which can be repeated a large number of times. The requirement
of repeating an experiment has some limitations, as it may be very expensive or
unfeasible in many situations. Of course, it worked well in coin tossing or die throwing
experiments. But how about repeating the experiment of launching a satellite in order
to compute the empirical probability of its failure during launching, or the repetition of
the phenomenon of an earthquake to compute the empirical probability of a multi-
storeyed building getting destroyed in an earthquake?
In experiments where we are prepared to make certain assumptions, the repetition
of an experiment can be avoided, as the assumptions help in directly calculating the
exact (theoretical) probability. The assumption of equally likely outcomes (which is
valid in many experiments, as in the two examples above, of a coin and of a die) is one
such assumption that leads us to the following definition of probability of an event.
The theoretical probability (also called classical probability) of an event E,
written as P(E), is defined as

Number of outcomes favourable to E ,

P(E) =
Number of all possible outcomes of the experiment

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where we assume that the outcomes of the experiment are equally likely.
We will briefly refer to theoretical probability as probability.
This definition of probability was given by Pierre Simon Laplace in 1795.

Probability theory had its origin in the 16th century when

an Italian physician and mathematician J.Cardan wrote the
first book on the subject, The Book on Games of Chance.
Since its inception, the study of probability has attracted
the attention of great mathematicians. James Bernoulli
(1654 – 1705), A. de Moivre (1667 – 1754), and
Pierre Simon Laplace are among those who made significant
contributions to this field. Laplace’s Theorie Analytique
des Probabilités, 1812, is considered to be the greatest
contribution by a single person to the theory of probability. Pierre Simon Laplace
In recent years, probability has been used extensively in (1749 – 1827)
many areas such as biology, economics, genetics, physics,
sociology etc.

Let us find the probability for some of the events associated with experiments
where the equally likely assumption holds.

Example 1 : Find the probability of getting a head when a coin is tossed once. Also
find the probability of getting a tail.
Solution : In the experiment of tossing a coin once, the number of possible outcomes
is two — Head (H) and Tail (T). Let E be the event ‘getting a head’. The number of
outcomes favourable to E, (i.e., of getting a head) is 1. Therefore,

Number of outcomes favourable to E 1

P(E) = P (head) = =
Number of all possible outcomes 2
Similarly, if F is the event ‘getting a tail’, then
1
P(F) = P(tail) = (Why ?)
2

Example 2 : A bag contains a red ball, a blue ball and a yellow ball, all the balls being
of the same size. Kritika takes out a ball from the bag without looking into it. What is
the probability that she takes out the
(i) yellow ball? (ii) red ball? (iii) blue ball?

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Solution : Kritika takes out a ball from the bag without looking into it. So, it is equally
likely that she takes out any one of them.
Let Y be the event ‘the ball taken out is yellow’, B be the event ‘the ball taken
out is blue’, and R be the event ‘the ball taken out is red’.
Now, the number of possible outcomes = 3.
(i) The number of outcomes favourable to the event Y = 1.
1
So, P(Y) =
3
1 1
Similarly, (ii) P(R) = and (iii) P(B) = ⋅
3 3
Remarks :
1. An event having only one outcome of the experiment is called an elementary
event. In Example 1, both the events E and F are elementary events. Similarly, in
Example 2, all the three events, Y, B and R are elementary events.
2. In Example 1, we note that : P(E) + P(F) = 1
In Example 2, we note that : P(Y) + P(R) + P(B) = 1
Observe that the sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of
an experiment is 1. This is true in general also.

Example 3 : Suppose we throw a die once. (i) What is the probability of getting a
number greater than 4 ? (ii) What is the probability of getting a number less than or
equal to 4 ?
Solution : (i) Here, let E be the event ‘getting a number greater than 4’. The number
of possible outcomes is six : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, and the outcomes favourable to E are 5
and 6. Therefore, the number of outcomes favourable to E is 2. So,
2 1
P(E) = P(number greater than 4) = =
6 3
(ii) Let F be the event ‘getting a number less than or equal to 4’.
Number of possible outcomes = 6
Outcomes favourable to the event F are 1, 2, 3, 4.
So, the number of outcomes favourable to F is 4.
4 2
Therefore, P(F) = =
6 3

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Are the events E and F in the example above elementary events? No, they are
not because the event E has 2 outcomes and the event F has 4 outcomes.
Remarks : From Example 1, we note that
1 1
P(E) + P(F) = + =1 (1)
2 2
where E is the event ‘getting a head’ and F is the event ‘getting a tail’.
From (i) and (ii) of Example 3, we also get

1 2
P(E) + P(F) = + =1 (2)
3 3
where E is the event ‘getting a number >4’ and F is the event ‘getting a number ≤ 4’.
Note that getting a number not greater than 4 is same as getting a number less
than or equal to 4, and vice versa.
In (1) and (2) above, is F not the same as ‘not E’? Yes, it is. We denote the event
‘not E’ by E .
So, P(E) + P(not E) = 1
i.e., P(E) + P( E ) = 1, which gives us P( E ) = 1 – P(E).
In general, it is true that for an event E,
P( E ) = 1 – P(E)
The event E , representing ‘not E’, is called the complement of the event E.
We also say that E and E are complementary events.
Before proceeding further, let us try to find the answers to the following questions:
(i) What is the probability of getting a number 8 in a single throw of a die?
(ii) What is the probability of getting a number less than 7 in a single throw of a die?
Let us answer (i) :
We know that there are only six possible outcomes in a single throw of a die. These
outcomes are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Since no face of the die is marked 8, so there is no
outcome favourable to 8, i.e., the number of such outcomes is zero. In other words,
getting 8 in a single throw of a die, is impossible.
0
So, P(getting 8) = =0
6

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That is, the probability of an event which is impossible to occur is 0. Such an

event is called an impossible event.
Let us answer (ii) :
Since every face of a die is marked with a number less than 7, it is sure that we
will always get a number less than 7 when it is thrown once. So, the number of
favourable outcomes is the same as the number of all possible outcomes, which is 6.
6
Therefore, P(E) = P(getting a number less than 7) = =1
6
So, the probability of an event which is sure (or certain) to occur is 1. Such an event
is called a sure event or a certain event.
Note : From the definition of the probability P(E), we see that the numerator (number
of outcomes favourable to the event E) is always less than or equal to the denominator
(the number of all possible outcomes). Therefore,
0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
Now, let us take an example related to playing cards. Have you seen a deck of
playing cards? It consists of 52 cards which are divided into 4 suits of 13 cards each—
spades (♠), hearts (♥), diamonds (♦) and clubs (♣). Clubs and spades are of black
colour, while hearts and diamonds are of red colour. The cards in each suit are ace,
king, queen, jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2. Kings, queens and jacks are called face
cards.
Example 4 : One card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Calculate the
probability that the card will
(i) be an ace,
(ii) not be an ace.
Solution : Well-shuffling ensures equally likely outcomes.
(i) There are 4 aces in a deck. Let E be the event ‘the card is an ace’.
The number of outcomes favourable to E = 4
The number of possible outcomes = 52 (Why ?)
4 1
Therefore, P(E) = =
52 13
(ii) Let F be the event ‘card drawn is not an ace’.
The number of outcomes favourable to the event F = 52 – 4 = 48 (Why?)

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The number of possible outcomes = 52

48 12
Therefore, P(F) = =
52 13
Remark : Note that F is nothing but E . Therefore, we can also calculate P(F) as
1 12
follows: P(F) = P( E ) = 1 – P(E) = 1 − = ⋅
13 13

Example 5 : Two players, Sangeeta and Reshma, play a tennis match. It is known
that the probability of Sangeeta winning the match is 0.62. What is the probability of
Reshma winning the match?
Solution : Let S and R denote the events that Sangeeta wins the match and Reshma
wins the match, respectively.
The probability of Sangeeta’s winning = P(S) = 0.62 (given)
The probability of Reshma’s winning = P(R) = 1 – P(S)
[As the events R and S are complementary]
= 1 – 0.62 = 0.38

Example 6 : Savita and Hamida are friends. What is the probability that both will
have (i) different birthdays? (ii) the same birthday? (ignoring a leap year).
Solution : Out of the two friends, one girl, say, Savita’s birthday can be any day of the
year. Now, Hamida’s birthday can also be any day of 365 days in the year.
We assume that these 365 outcomes are equally likely.
(i) If Hamida’s birthday is different from Savita’s, the number of favourable outcomes
for her birthday is 365 – 1 = 364
364
So, P (Hamida’s birthday is different from Savita’s birthday) =
365
(ii) P(Savita and Hamida have the same birthday)
= 1 – P (both have different birthdays)
364
= 1− [Using P( E ) = 1 – P(E)]
365
1
=
365

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Example 7 : There are 40 students in Class X of a school of whom 25 are girls and 15
are boys. The class teacher has to select one student as a class representative. She
writes the name of each student on a separate card, the cards being identical. Then
she puts cards in a bag and stirs them thoroughly. She then draws one card from the
bag. What is the probability that the name written on the card is the name of (i) a girl?
(ii) a boy?
Solution : There are 40 students, and only one name card has to be chosen.
(i) The number of all possible outcomes is 40
The number of outcomes favourable for a card with the name of a girl = 25 (Why?)
25 5
Therefore, P (card with name of a girl) = P(Girl) = =
40 8
(ii) The number of outcomes favourable for a card with the name of a boy = 15 (Why?)
15 3
Therefore, P(card with name of a boy) = P(Boy) = =
40 8
Note : We can also determine P(Boy), by taking

5 3
P(Boy) = 1 – P(not Boy) = 1 – P(Girl) = 1 − =
8 8
Example 8 : A box contains 3 blue, 2 white, and 4 red marbles. If a marble is drawn
at random from the box, what is the probability that it will be
(i) white? (ii) blue? (iii) red?
Solution : Saying that a marble is drawn at random is a short way of saying that all the
marbles are equally likely to be drawn. Therefore, the
number of possible outcomes = 3 +2 + 4 = 9 (Why?)
Let W denote the event ‘the marble is white’, B denote the event ‘the marble is blue’
and R denote the event ‘marble is red’.
(i) The number of outcomes favourable to the event W = 2
2
So, P(W) =
9
3 1 4
Similarly, (ii) P(B) = = and (iii) P(R) =
9 3 9

Note that P(W) + P(B) + P(R) = 1.

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Example 9 : Harpreet tosses two different coins simultaneously (say, one is of ` 1

and other of ` 2). What is the probability that she gets at least one head?
Solution : We write H for ‘head’ and T for ‘tail’. When two coins are tossed
simultaneously, the possible outcomes are (H, H), (H, T), (T, H), (T, T), which are all
equally likely. Here (H, H) means head up on the first coin (say on ` 1) and head up
on the second coin (` 2). Similarly (H, T) means head up on the first coin and tail up on
the second coin and so on.
The outcomes favourable to the event E, ‘at least one head’ are (H, H), (H, T)
and (T, H). (Why?)
So, the number of outcomes favourable to E is 3.
3
Therefore, P(E) =
4
3
i.e., the probability that Harpreet gets at least one head is ⋅
4
Note : You can also find P(E) as follows:

1 3  1
P (E) = 1 – P(E) = 1 – =  Since P(E) = P(no head) = 
4 4  4
Did you observe that in all the examples discussed so far, the number of possible
outcomes in each experiment was finite? If not, check it now.
There are many experiments in which the outcome is any number between two
given numbers, or in which the outcome is every point within a circle or rectangle, etc.
Can you now count the number of all possible outcomes? As you know, this is not
possible since there are infinitely many numbers between two given numbers, or there
are infinitely many points within a circle. So, the definition of (theoretical) probability
which you have learnt so far cannot be applied in the present form. What is the way
out? To answer this, let us consider the following example :
Example 10* : In a musical chair game, the person playing the music has been
advised to stop playing the music at any time within 2 minutes after she starts playing.
What is the probability that the music will stop within the first half-minute after starting?
Solution : Here the possible outcomes are all the numbers between 0 and 2. This is
the portion of the number line from 0 to 2 (see Fig. 15.1).

Fig. 15.1

* Not from the examination point of view.

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Let E be the event that ‘the music is stopped within the first half-minute’.
1
The outcomes favourable to E are points on the number line from 0 to .
2
1 1
The distance from 0 to 2 is 2, while the distance from 0 to is .
2 2
Since all the outcomes are equally likely, we can argue that, of the total distance
1
of 2, the distance favourable to the event E is .
2
1
Distance favourable to the event E 2 =1
So, P(E) = =
Total distance in which outcomes can lie 2 4

Can we now extend the idea of Example 10 for finding the probability as the ratio of
the favourable area to the total area?

Example 11* : A missing helicopter is reported to have crashed somewhere in the

rectangular region shown in Fig. 15.2. What is the probability that it crashed inside the
lake shown in the figure?

Fig. 15.2
Solution : The helicopter is equally likely to crash anywhere in the region.
Area of the entire region where the helicopter can crash
= (4.5 × 9) km2 = 40.5 km2

* Not from the examination point of view.

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Area of the lake = (2.5 × 3) km2 = 7.5 km2

7.5 75 5
Therefore, P (helicopter crashed in the lake) = = =
40.5 405 27

Example 12 : A carton consists of 100 shirts of which 88 are good, 8 have minor
defects and 4 have major defects. Jimmy, a trader, will only accept the shirts which
are good, but Sujatha, another trader, will only reject the shirts which have major
defects. One shirt is drawn at random from the carton. What is the probability that

(i) it is acceptable to Jimmy?

(ii) it is acceptable to Sujatha?

Solution : One shirt is drawn at random from the carton of 100 shirts. Therefore,
there are 100 equally likely outcomes.

(i) The number of outcomes favourable (i.e., acceptable) to Jimmy = 88 (Why?)

88
Therefore, P (shirt is acceptable to Jimmy) = = 0.88
100
(ii) The number of outcomes favourable to Sujatha = 88 + 8 = 96 (Why?)
96
So, P (shirt is acceptable to Sujatha) = = 0.96
100
Example 13 : Two dice, one blue and one grey, are thrown at the same time. Write
down all the possible outcomes. What is the probability that the sum of the two numbers
appearing on the top of the dice is

(i) 8? (ii) 13? (iii) less than or equal to 12?

Solution : When the blue die shows ‘1’, the grey die could show any one of the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The same is true when the blue die shows ‘2’, ‘3’, ‘4’, ‘5’ or
‘6’. The possible outcomes of the experiment are listed in the table below; the first
number in each ordered pair is the number appearing on the blue die and the second
number is that on the grey die.

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1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)

Fig. 15.3

Note that the pair (1, 4) is different from (4, 1). (Why?)
So, the number of possible outcomes = 6 × 6 = 36.
(i) The outcomes favourable to the event ‘the sum of the two numbers is 8’ denoted
by E, are: (2, 6), (3, 5), (4, 4), (5, 3), (6, 2) (see Fig. 15.3)
i.e., the number of outcomes favourable to E = 5.
5
Hence, P(E) =
36

(ii) As you can see from Fig. 15.3, there is no outcome favourable to the event F,
‘the sum of two numbers is 13’.
0
So, P(F) = =0
36

(iii) As you can see from Fig. 15.3, all the outcomes are favourable to the event G,
‘sum of two numbers ≤ 12’.
36
So, P(G) = =1
36

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EXERCISE 15.1
1. Complete the following statements:
(i) Probability of an event E + Probability of the event ‘not E’ = .
(ii) The probability of an event that cannot happen is . Such an event is
called .
(iii) The probability of an event that is certain to happen is . Such an event
is called .
(iv) The sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of an experiment is
.
(v) The probability of an event is greater than or equal to and less than or
equal to .
2. Which of the following experiments have equally likely outcomes? Explain.
(i) A driver attempts to start a car. The car starts or does not start.
(ii) A player attempts to shoot a basketball. She/he shoots or misses the shot.
(iii) A trial is made to answer a true-false question. The answer is right or wrong.
(iv) A baby is born. It is a boy or a girl.
3. Why is tossing a coin considered to be a fair way of deciding which team should get the
ball at the beginning of a football game?
4. Which of the following cannot be the probability of an event?

2
(A) (B) –1.5 (C) 15% (D) 0.7
3
5. If P(E) = 0.05, what is the probability of ‘not E’?
6. A bag contains lemon flavoured candies only. Malini takes out one candy without
looking into the bag. What is the probability that she takes out
(i) an orange flavoured candy?
(ii) a lemon flavoured candy?
7. It is given that in a group of 3 students, the probability of 2 students not having the
same birthday is 0.992. What is the probability that the 2 students have the same
birthday?
8. A bag contains 3 red balls and 5 black balls. A ball is drawn at random from the bag.
What is the probability that the ball drawn is (i) red ? (ii) not red?

9. A box contains 5 red marbles, 8 white marbles and 4 green marbles. One marble is taken
out of the box at random. What is the probability that the marble taken out will be
(i) red ? (ii) white ? (iii) not green?

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10. A piggy bank contains hundred 50p coins, fifty ` 1 coins, twenty ` 2 coins and ten ` 5
coins. If it is equally likely that one of the coins will fall out when the bank is turned
upside down, what is the probability that the coin (i) will be a 50 p coin ? (ii) will not be
a ` 5 coin?
11. Gopi buys a fish from a shop for his aquarium. The
shopkeeper takes out one fish at random from a
tank containing 5 male fish and 8 female fish (see
Fig. 15.4). What is the probability that the fish taken
out is a male fish?

12. A game of chance consists of spinning an arrow

which comes to rest pointing at one of the numbers Fig. 15.4
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (see Fig. 15.5 ), and these are equally
likely outcomes. What is the probability that it will
point at
(i) 8 ?
(ii) an odd number?
(iii) a number greater than 2?
(iv) a number less than 9?
Fig. 15.5
13. A die is thrown once. Find the probability of getting
(i) a prime number; (ii) a number lying between 2 and 6; (iii) an odd number.
14. One card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Find the probability of getting
(i) a king of red colour (ii) a face card (iii) a red face card
(iv) the jack of hearts (v) a spade (vi) the queen of diamonds
15. Five cards—the ten, jack, queen, king and ace of diamonds, are well-shuffled with their
face downwards. One card is then picked up at random.
(i) What is the probability that the card is the queen?
(ii) If the queen is drawn and put aside, what is the probability that the second card
picked up is (a) an ace? (b) a queen?
16. 12 defective pens are accidentally mixed with 132 good ones. It is not possible to just
look at a pen and tell whether or not it is defective. One pen is taken out at random from
this lot. Determine the probability that the pen taken out is a good one.
17. (i) A lot of 20 bulbs contain 4 defective ones. One bulb is drawn at random from the lot.
What is the probability that this bulb is defective?
(ii) Suppose the bulb drawn in (i) is not defective and is not replaced. Now one bulb
is drawn at random from the rest. What is the probability that this bulb is not
defective ?
18. A box contains 90 discs which are numbered from 1 to 90. If one disc is drawn at random
from the box, find the probability that it bears (i) a two-digit number (ii) a perfect
square number (iii) a number divisible by 5.

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19. A child has a die whose six faces show the letters as given below:

A B C D E A

The die is thrown once. What is the probability of getting (i) A? (ii) D?
20*. Suppose you drop a die at random on the rectangular region shown in Fig. 15.6. What is
the probability that it will land inside the circle with diameter 1m?
3m

2m

Fig. 15.6
21. A lot consists of 144 ball pens of which 20 are defective and the others are good. Nuri
will buy a pen if it is good, but will not buy if it is defective. The shopkeeper draws one
pen at random and gives it to her. What is the probability that
(i) She will buy it ?
(ii) She will not buy it ?
22. Refer to Example 13. (i) Complete the following table:
Event :
‘Sum on 2 dice’ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 5 1
Probability
36 36 36

(ii) A student argues that ‘there are 11 possible outcomes 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and
1
12. Therefore, each of them has a probability . Do you agree with this argument?
11
Justify your answer.
23. A game consists of tossing a one rupee coin 3 times and noting its outcome each time.
Hanif wins if all the tosses give the same result i.e., three heads or three tails, and loses
otherwise. Calculate the probability that Hanif will lose the game.
24. A die is thrown twice. What is the probability that
(i) 5 will not come up either time? (ii) 5 will come up at least once?
[Hint : Throwing a die twice and throwing two dice simultaneously are treated as the
same experiment]

* Not from the examination point of view.

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25. Which of the following arguments are correct and which are not correct? Give reasons
for your answer.
(i) If two coins are tossed simultaneously there are three possible outcomes —two
heads, two tails or one of each. Therefore, for each of these outcomes, the
1
probability is ⋅
3
(ii) If a die is thrown, there are two possible outcomes— an odd number or an even
1
number. Therefore, the probability of getting an odd number is .
2

EXERCISE 15.2 (Optional)*

1. Two customers Shyam and Ekta are visiting a particular shop in the same week (Tuesday
to Saturday). Each is equally likely to visit the shop on any day as on another day. What
is the probability that both will visit the shop on (i) the same day? (ii) consecutive
days? (iii) different days?
2. A die is numbered in such a way that its faces show the numbers 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 6. It is
thrown two times and the total score in two throws is noted. Complete the following
table which gives a few values of the total score on the two throws:
Number in first throw
+ 1 2 2 3 3 6
Number in second throw

1 2 3 3 4 4 7
2 3 4 4 5 5 8
2 5
3
3 5 9
6 7 8 8 9 9 12

What is the probability that the total score is

(i) even? (ii) 6? (iii) at least 6?
3. A bag contains 5 red balls and some blue balls. If the probability of drawing a blue ball
is double that of a red ball, determine the number of blue balls in the bag.
4. A box contains 12 balls out of which x are black. If one ball is drawn at random from the
box, what is the probability that it will be a black ball?
If 6 more black balls are put in the box, the probability of drawing a black ball is now
double of what it was before. Find x.

* These exercises are not from the examination point of view.

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5. A jar contains 24 marbles, some are green and others are blue. If a marble is drawn at
2
random from the jar, the probability that it is green is ⋅ Find the number of blue balls
3
in the jar.

15.3 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. The difference between experimental probability and theoretical probability.
2. The theoretical (classical) probability of an event E, written as P(E), is defined as

Number of outcomes favourable to E

P (E) =
Number of all possible outcomes of the experiment

where we assume that the outcomes of the experiment are equally likely.
3. The probability of a sure event (or certain event) is 1.
4. The probability of an impossible event is 0.
5. The probability of an event E is a number P(E) such that
0 ≤ P (E) ≤ 1
6. An event having only one outcome is called an elementary event. The sum of the
probabilities of all the elementary events of an experiment is 1.
7. For any event E, P (E) + P ( E ) = 1, where E stands for ‘not E’. E and E are called
complementary events.

A NOTE TO THE READER

The experimental or empirical probability of an event is based on
what has actually happened while the theoretical probability of the
event attempts to predict what will happen on the basis of certain
assumptions. As the number of trials in an experiment, go on
increasing we may expect the experimental and theoretical
probabilities to be nearly the same.

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