CERTIFICATE

THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT SHRI __________________________

________________________ENROLLMENT NO._______________
OF B.E SEM 5th CLASS HAS SATISFACTORILY COMPLETED
THE COURSE IN REMOTE SENSING AND GIS(3150617) WITHIN
FOUR WALL OF L. D. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
AHMEDABAD-380015.

DATE OF SUBMISSION:-

INTERNAL INCHARGE:-

EXTERNAL INCHARGE:-

1
 INDEX

TITLE DATE OF DATE OF SIGN

START COMPLETION
ASSIGNMENT-1 08/08/2022 29/08/2022
ASSIGNMENT-2 29/08/2022 12/09/2022
ASSIGNMENT-3 12/09/2022 26/09/2022
ASSIGNMENT-4 26/09/2022 5/10/2022
ASSIGNMENT-5&6 03/10/2022 17/10/2022

2
 ASSIGNMENT – 1

FUNDAMENTAL OF REMOTE SENSING

1) What is remote sensing? Explain the process of remote sensing.

➢ Remote sensing is science & art of obtaining information about an objects, area or
phenomena, through analysis of data acquired by a device, that is not in contact with
object, area or phenomena under investigation.
• Process of the Remote Sensing:-
➢ The Remote Sensing System consists of the following stages:
1. Energy sources: the sun is the source of the energy in a passive Remote Sensing.
➢ The sun produce the electromagnetic energy
2. Propagation of the energy through the atmosphere: the energy from the source
propagate through the atmosphere.
➢ The atmosphere modify the wavelength and spectral distribution of the energy to some
extent.
3. Interaction of the energy with target: the energy received by the target interacts
where it is either transmitted, absorbed, scattered, emitted or the reflected from the
target.
4. Recording of the energy by sensor: the return signal is a set to the sensor which
respond to all wavelength. Sensor are mounted on the satellite.
5. Transmission reception and the processing: the energy recorded by the sensor has
to be transmitted, often in electronic form to receiving and the processing station on the
ground where the data are the processed into an image.
➢ The data product are the mainly to type photographic product and the digital product.
6. Interpretation and the analysis: the process image are the integrated, visually or the
digitally or electronically to extract information about the target of the interest
7. Application: the information about the target obtained from the Remote Sensing is
made available to the users in a Desired form.

3
 Fig. 1 Remote Sensing Process

2) Why remote sensing is required? Explain role of remote sensing in data collection.

• Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data of dangerous or inaccessible areas.

Remote sensing applications include monitoring deforestation in areas such as
the Amazon Basin, glacial features in Arctic and Antarctic regions, and depth
sounding of coastal and ocean depths. Military collection during the Cold
War made use of stand-off collection of data about dangerous border areas. Remote
sensing also replaces costly and slow data collection on the ground, ensuring in the
process that areas or objects are not disturbed.

• Orbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of

the electromagnetic spectrum, which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or
ground-based sensing and analysis, provides researchers with enough information
to monitor trends such as and other natural long and short term phenomena. Other
uses include different areas of the earth sciences such as natural resource
management, agricultural fields such as land usage and conservation, greenhouse
gas monitoring, oil spill detection and monitoring, and national security and
overhead, ground-based and stand-off collection on border areas.

4
3) Explain use of electromagnetic energy for remote sensing in detail. Draw sketch of
EMR spectrum. Explain each bonds application in different fields.
➢ The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the shorter wavelength to the longer
wavelength.
➢ There are several regions of the electromagnetic spectrum which are useful for the
Remote Sensing
➢ Wavelength region of the electromagnetic radiations have a different names ranging
from the gama-ray, X-ray ultraviolet, visible light, infrared to Radio wave in order from
the shorter wavelengths.
➢ A narrow range of the EMR, the interval detected by the human eye is known as a visible
region. White light contains a mix of the all wavelength in a visible region.
➢ Electromagnetic radiation regions used in a remote sensing are near ultraviolet, visible,
near short wave and the thermal infrared and the microwave.

Fig. 2 : The Electromagnetic Spectrum

❖ The different wavelength for the different application:

➢ Short wave infrared has a more recently been used for the geological classification of
the rock type.
➢ Thermal infrared is a primary used for the temperature measurement.
➢ Microwave is a utilised for the radar and the microwave radiometric.
➢ A special naming of K-Band, X-band, C-band and L-band is given to the microwave
region.
➢ Visible region is a used for the images and the photographs.

5
4) What is the principle of remote sensing? Explain different
Stages/components in remote sensing.
❖ Principle of the Remote Sensing is illustrate in fig. 3.
➢ The sun and the various artificial sources radiate electromagnetic energy of variable
wavelength.
➢ All objects on the surface of the earth have a spectral Signature. A spectral signature
of an object or ground surface feature is set of values for the reflectance or the radiance
of the features
➢ The electromagnetic energy interact with the Earth surface and various features like
buildings, bared soil, water, grass, paved Road, forest etc.
➢ The response of the ground surface material to incident radiation in the reflectance,
and the energy emitted by all object as a function of their temperature and the structure
is the emittance the reflectance and the emittance determine the signatures.
➢ The knowledge of the spectral signature is the essential for the exploiting the potential
of the Remote Sensing techniques. This knowledge enable one to identify and classify
objects.

Fig. 3 : Basic Principle Of Remote Sensing

6
❖ There are total 7 stages in remote sensing:
1. Energy source
2. Propagation of energy through atmosphere
3. Interaction of energy with target
4. Recording of energy by sensor
5. Transmission, reception and processing
6. Interpretation and analysis
7. Application

Fig. 4 : Stages Of Remote Sensing

7
5) Write a short note on Electromagnetic spectrum. Explain different bands that are
used in remote sensing.
➢ The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the shorter wavelength to the longer
wavelength
➢ There are several regions of the electromagnetic spectrum which are useful for the
Remote Sensing
➢ Wavelength region of the electromagnetic radiations have a different names ranging
from the gama-ray, X-ray ultraviolet, visible light, infrared to Radio wave in order from
the shorter wavelengths.
➢ A narrow range of the EMR, the interval detected by the human eye is known as a
visible region. White light contains a mix of the all wavelength in a visible region.
➢ Electromagnetic radiation regions used in a remote sensing are near ultraviolet, visible,
near short wave and the thermal infrared and the microwave.
❖ The different wavelength for the different application:
➢ Short wave infrared has a more recently been used for the geological classification of
the rock type.
➢ Thermal infrared is a primary used for the temperature measurement.
➢ Microwave is a utilised for the radar and the microwave radiometric.
➢ A special naming of K-Band, X-band, C-band and L-band is given to the microwave
region.
➢ Visible region is a used for the images and the photographs.

6) Explain the advantages and limitations of remote sensing.

❖ Advantages of remote sensing:

➢ Satellite images are permanent records providing useful information.
➢ Large area coverage enable regioned surveys on a variety of themes & identification
of large features.
➢ Repetitive coverage allows monitoring dynamic themes like water, agriculture etc.
➢ Easy data acquisition at different scales & resolutions.
➢ The image are analysed in lab thus reducing the amount of field work.
➢ Map revision at medium to small scales is economical & faster.

8
 ➢ Data generation by remote sensing is used for land use planning, faster development,
disaster management etc.
➢ Flods over large region, or the forest fire can be located from above and the rescue
Planning can be immediately arrange
➢ The inaccessible area like volcanic eruption, failure of the Dam over a river etc can be
covered by the Remote Sensing techniques to study the intensity of the disaster.

❖ Limitations of remote sensing:

➢ Expensive for small areas particularly for one time analysis.
➢ Require specialized training for the analysis of the images.
➢ Large scale engineering maps cannot be prepared from the satellite data.
➢ Aerial photographs are costly if repeated photographs are required to study the
dynamic features
➢ Human beings select the most appropriate sensor to collect the data, specify the
resolution of the data, calibrate the sensor, determine when the data will be collected
and the specified how the data will be processed. Thus, human method produced error
may be introduced.
➢ Powerful active Remote Sensing System such as Radars or lasers that emit their own
EMR can be intrusive and affect the phenomenon being investigated.

7) Write short note on energy sources & radiation.

• The sun is the natural source of energy. This energy is in the form of electromagnetic
Radiation (EMR).
• Depending on the predominant source of electromagnetic energy in the remote
Sensing system, the remote sensing can be passive or active.

9
8) Describe the history of remote sensing. Brief about remote sensing satellite launched
by India.
❖ History of Remote Sensing:

➢ The technology of modern remote sensing has a very long history, dating back to the
end of the 19th century with the invention of the camera.

➢ Initially cameras were used to take photographs on the ground, which provided (and
still does) a fascinating and exciting way to capture moments in time and keep a record
of something that happened, which looked more realistic than a drawing or painting,
and which could be captured much quicker than by drawing or painting.

➢ The idea and practice of remote sensing first developed in the 1840s, when it was
realized that a different and perhaps more revealing view of a particular landscape could
be obtained by taking a photograph from a vantage point, such as an incline or building,
and efforts were made to look down at the Earth’s surface by taking pictures with the
aid of cameras secured to tethered balloons, for purposes of topographic mapping.

➢ It was realized that the airborne perspective gave a completely different view than to
what was available from the ground. The most novel platform at the end of the last
century is perhaps the famed pigeon fleet that operated as a novelty in Europe.

➢ By the first World War, cameras were mounted on airplanes, which provided aerial
views of fairly large surface areas and was used as a method of data and information
acquisition, that proved invaluable in military reconnaissance. Thus, aerial photography

10
 remained the single standard tool for depicting the surface from a vertical or oblique
perspective till the early 1960s.

➢ The history of Satellite remote sensing can be traced back to the early days of the space
age of both Russian and American programs. It actually began as a dual approach of
imaging surfaces, from spacecraft, using several types of sensors. After World War II,
in 1946, V-2 rockets acquired from Germany, containing automated still or movie
camera, were launched to high altitudes from White Sands, New Mexico.

➢ These rockets, however never attained orbit, but took pictures of the earth’s surface as
the vehicle ascended. In the 1960s, with the emergence of the space program,
cosmonauts and astronauts started taking photographs out of the window of their
spacecraft in which they were orbiting the earth.

➢ Today, remote sensing is carried out using airborne and satellite technology, not only
utilizing film photography, but also digital camera, scanner and video, as well as radar
and thermal sensors.

➢ Unlike in the past, when remote sensing was restricted to only the visual part of the
electromagnetic spectrum i.e., what could be seen with naked eye, today through the
use of special filters, photographic films and other types of sensors, the parts of the
spectrum which cannot be seen with the naked human eye can also be utilized.

➢ Thus, today remote sensing is largely utilized in environmental management, which

frequently requires rapid, accurate and up-to-date data collection.

Serial Date of
Satellite Launch Vehicle Status
No. Launch

17 March
1 IRS-1A Vostok, USSR Mission Completed
1988

11
 29 August
2 IRS-1B Vostok, USSR Mission Completed
1991

20
Crashed, due to launch failure
3 IRS-P1 (also IE) September PSLV-D1
of PSLV
1993

15 October
4 IRS-P2 PSLV-D2 Mission Completed
1994

28
5 IRS-1C December Molniya, Russia Mission Completed
1995

21 March
6 IRS-P3 PSLV-D3 Mission Completed
1996

29
7 IRS 1D September PSLV-C1 Mission Completed
1997

27 May
8 IRS-P4 (Oceansat-1) PSLV-C2 Mission Completed
1999

Technology Experiment 22 October

9 PSLV-C3 Mission Completed
Satellite (TES) 2001

12
 17 October
10 IRS P6 (Resourcesat-1) PSLV-C5 Mission Completed
2003

11 IRS P5 (Cartosat 1) 5 May 2005 PSLV-C6 Mission Completed

10 January
12 IRS P7 (Cartosat 2) PSLV-C7 Mission Completed
2007

28 April
13 Cartosat 2A PSLV-C9 In Service
2008

28 April
14 IMS 1 PSLV-C9 Mission Completed
2008

20 April
15 RISAT-2 PSLV-C12 In Service
2009

23
16 Oceansat-2 September PSLV-C14 In Service
2009

12 July
17 Cartosat-2B PSLV-C15 In Service
2010

20 April
18 Resourcesat-2 PSLV-C16 In Service
2011

13
 12 October
19 Megha-Tropiques PSLV-C18 Mission Completed
2011

26 April
20 RISAT-1 PSLV-C19 Mission Completed
2012

25 Feb
21 SARAL PSLV-C20 In Service
2013

22 June
22 Cartosat-2C PSLV-C34 In Service
2016

26
23 Scatsat-1 September PSLV-C35 In Service
2016

07 Dec
24 RESOURCESAT-2A PSLV-C36 In Service
2016

15 Feb
25 Cartosat-2D PSLV-C37 In Service
2017

23 June
26 Cartosat-2E PSLV-C38 In Service
2017

27 Cartosat-2F 12 Jan 2018 PSLV-C40 In Service

14
 22 May
28 RISAT-2B PSLV-C46 In Service
2019

27 Nov
29 Cartosat-3 PSLV-C47 In Service
2019

11 Dec
30 RISAT-2BR1 PSLV-C48 In Service
2019

07 Nov
31 EOS-1 (RISAT-2BR2) PSLV-C49 In Service
2020

12 Aug Crashed, due to launch failure

32 EOS-3 (GISAT-1) GSLV-F10
2021 of GSLV

14 Feb
33 EOS-4 (RISAT-1A) PSLV-C52 In Service
2022

15
9) ) Explain the interaction of electromagnetic energy with the earth’s surface in detail.
➢ Electromagnetic radiation striking the matter or the earth's surface is called incident
radiation.
➢ The matter may be in solid, liquid or gaseous form.
➢ When the EM radiation strikes the matter, there is interaction between the two.
➢ This interaction may change various characteristics of the incident radiation, such as
intensity, direction, wave length, polarization and phase.
➢ The remote sensing systems are designed to detect and record these changes in the
incident radiation.
➢ The data and images obtained are interpreted to determine the characteristics of the
matter which produces these changes.

Fig. 5 : Interaction Of EM Radiation With Earth Surface

16
➢ The interaction of EM radiation with matter usually consists of the following five
modes:

1. Transmission

2. Absorption

3. Emission

4. Scattering

5. Reflection

1. Transmission: Transmission is that component of the incident radiation which passes

through the matter. The velocity of the EM radiation changes in the matter depending
upon the density of the medium. The change in the velocity is measured in terms of the
index of refraction (n).

➢ Index of refraction = velocity in the vacuum

Velocity in the matter

➢ Its value is greater than unity.

2. Absorption: Absorption is that component of the incident radiation which is absorbed

by the matter.
➢ The absorbed energy is used in the heating of the matter.

3. Emission: Emission is the energy emitted by the matter. Emission usually occurs at
longer wave lengths.
➢ It depends upon the structure of the matter and its temperature.

4. Scattering: Surfaces which have roughnesses comparable to the wave lengths of the
incident energy cause scattering. Light waves are scattered in the atmosphere by
molecules and particles which have sizes comparable to the dimensions of the wave
length of light.

17
5. Reflection: Some of the electromagnetic energy is reflected from the surface of the
matter such that the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.

➢ It may be noted that transmission and absorption are the phenomena which are governed
by the volume characteristics (or mass) of the matter.
➢ The volume characteristics such as density and conductivity control these phenomena.
➢ On the other hand, emission, scattering and reflection are the phenomena which are
governed by the surface characteristics such as roughness, colour.
➢ Energy incident = Energy absorbed + Energy transmitted + Energy reflected

Fig. 6 : Spectral Response Of Earth Surface Features

18
10) Explain the interaction of EM energy with the atmosphere in details.
➢ Once EMR is generated, first it is propagated through the vacuum almost at the speed
of light in a vacuum and then through the earth's atmosphere. Unlike a vacuum in which
nothing happens, however, the atmosphere may affect not only the speed of radiation
but also its wavelength, its intensity, and its spectral distribution. These effects are
caused by the two main mechanisms.

1. Absorption

2. Scattering

➢ The combined effect of absorption and scattering in reducing the intensity of the incident
radiation is called
Attenuation.

Fig. 6 : Energy Interaction In Atmosphere

19
1. Absorption:

➢ Absorption is the process by which radiant energy is absorbed and converted into other
forms of energy.
➢ The absorption of the incident radiant energy may take place in the atmosphere and on
the terrain.
➢ An absorption band is a range of wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum within
which radiant energy is absorbed by a substance.
➢ The cumulative effect of the absorption by the various constituents can cause the
atmosphere to close down completely in certain regions of the spectrum.
➢ This is not desired for remote sensing as no energy is available to be sensed.
➢ Ozone, Carbon dioxide and water vapour are the three main atmospheric constituents
that absorb radiation.
➢ Ozone serves to absorb the harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
➢ Carbon dioxide (a green house gas) tends to absorb radiation strongly in the far infrared
(thermal infrared) portion of the spectrum area associated with thermal heating which
serves to trap this heat inside the atmosphere.
➢ Water vapour in the atmosphere absorbs much of the incoming long wave (thermal)
infrared and short wave microwave radiations.

2. Scattering:

➢ One very serious effect of the atmosphere is the scattering of radiation by atmospheric
particles.
➢ It occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact with
and cause the EMR to be redirected from its original path.
➢ How much scattering takes place depends on several factors including the wavelength
of the radiation, the diameter of the particles or gases and the distance the radiation
travels through the atmosphere.

20
 Types of scattering

Selective scattering non-selective scattering

Rayleigh scattering mie scattering raman scattering

1. Rayleigh Scattering:

➢ Rayleigh Scattering (also referred to as molecular scattering) occurs when the effective
diameter of the matter (usually air molecules such as oxygen and nitrogen in the
atmosphere) is many times (usually < 0.1 times) smaller than the wave length of the
incident EMR.

➢ It happens in the upper part of the atmosphere, also called a clear atmosphere
scattering. It is responsible for the blue appearance of the sky.
➢ The shorter violet and blue wavelengths are more effectively scattered than the longer
green and red wavelengths.

2. Mie Scattering:

➢ Mie scattering (also referred to as non-molecular scattering) takes place in the lower
4.5 km of the atmosphere, where there may be many essentially spherical particles
present with diameters approximately equal to the size of the wavelength of the
incident energy.
➢ The actual size of the particles may range from 0.1 to 10 times the wavelength of the
incident energy.

3. Raman Scattering :

21
➢ Raman scattering is caused by atmospheric particles, which are larger, smaller or equal
to that of the wavelength of the radiation being sensed. The atmospheric particles may
be gaseous molecules, water droplets, fumes, or dust particles.
➢ These portions have an elastic collision with the atmospheric particles which result in
either loss or gain of energy and thus an increase or decrease in wavelength.

• Non-Selective Scattering:

➢ This type of scattering takes place in the lowest portions of the atmosphere where there
are particles greater than 10 times the wavelength of the incident EMR.
➢ This type of scattering is non-selective, that is, all wavelengths of light are scattered,
not just blue, green or red.
➢ Thus, the water droplets and ice crystals that make up clouds and fog banks scatter all
wavelengths of visible light equally well, causing the cloud to appear white.

22
11) What are the type of remote sensing ? What is the difference between active and
passive remote sensing? Explain microwave Remote Sensing.
➢ There are two types of remote sensing are as follows:
1. Active remote sensing
2. Passive remote sensing

ACTIVE REMOTE SENSING PASSIVE REMOTE SENSING

1 It generates and use its own energy to 1 It depends on solar radiation to illuminate
illuminate the target and record the the target.
reflected energy.
2 This system operate in microwave region 2 This systems operate in the visible and
of the electromagnetic spectrum infrared region of the
electromagneticsspectrum.
3 Their wavelengths are more than 1mm. 3 Their wavelength range from 0.4 to 10 µm.

4 They do not rely on detection of solar or 4 They rely on detection of solar emission.
terrestrial emissions.
5 It can work at any time 5 It can work only day time when sun light
is available.

❖ Microwave remote sensing :

➢ Microwaves are electromagnetic radiation which has frequency range from 0.3 ghz to
40 ghz and wavelengths from 1 mm to 1 m.
➢ Microwave remote sensing employ microwave radiation, which enables observation
in all weather conditions without any restriction by cloud or rain.
➢ This is an advantage which is not possible with the visible or infrared remote sensing.
➢ Microwaves have longer wavelengths compared to the visible and infrared.
➢ They can penetrate through cloud cover, dust, haze because the longer wavelengths are
not susceptible to atmospheric scattering, which affects shorter optical wavelengths.
➢ Microwave remote sensing provide unique information on some aspects that can not
be observed by visible and infrared sensors, for instance:
• Sea wind and wave direction
• Doppler effect

23
 • Polarization
• Backscattering, etc.

However, the necessity for sophisticated data analysis is the disadvantage in using
microwave remote sensing.

❖ Types of Microwave Remote Sensing

There are two types of microwave remote sensing:

1. Passive Microwave Remote Sensing

2. Active Microwave Remote Sensing

12) Explain Plateforms of remote sensing. Explain various remote sensing data product.
➢ There are two types of data used in geoinformatics, one is raster data and the other is
vector data.
➢ When we talk of remote sensing data, we always mean raster data, it means consisting
of a matrix of cells organised into rows &Columns where each cells contains a value
representing information, such as reflected EMR temperature of height value.
➢ Different types of data products as shown in diagram.

24
13) Write short note on data acquisition and recording in remote sensing.
• Remote sensing utilizes satellite and/or airborne based sensors to collect information
about a given object or area. Remote sensing data collection methods can be passive
or active.
• Passive sensors (eg., spectral imagers) detect natural radiation that is emitted or
reflected by the object or area being observed.
• In active remote sensing (e.g., radar) energy is emitted and the resultant signal that
is reflected back is measured.
A. Active remote sensors provide their own energy source; they emit a beam of energy
directed toward at target of interest and then measure the reflected or backscattered
signal.
• The time it takes for the signal to return is measured as well as the signals amplitude
and wavelength.
• By measuring the time delay between the signal emission and return the location,
speed, and direction of a target can be determined.
• Radar and lidar are the most commonly used active remote sensing techniques.
• Light Detection and Ranging (lidar) is an active remote sensing technology that uses
optical measurements of scattered light to find range.
• Measurements can be made from aircraft- or land-based sensors.
• Distance to an object is determined by the time delay between transmission and
detection of a laser pulse.
• It is accurate to within 0.1 m (at 1-m resolution, 0.3 m at 3-m resolution) and has the
ability to measure the land surface elevation beneath the vegetation canopy.
• Radio Detection And Ranging (RADAR) is used in a wide variety of applications.
• In remote sensing applications, the source of the radio waves is from satellites, and
the signals are bounced off of the earth's surface to determine the precise distance
from the satellite to the ground.
• The amount of time it takes for the radio signal to return to the satellite is measured
and then the distance can be calculated.
• By taking a number of measurements over a period of time precise ground movement
can be determined.

25
 B. Passive remote sensors detect energy that occurs naturally in the environment, a vast
majority of the energy is in the form of electromagnetic waves reflected off of the earth
from the sun.
• Photographs taken from satellites, which are essentially measurements of reflected
sunlight, are the most common source of electromagnetic waves measured by passive
sensors.
• Aerial Photography: Aerial photography involves taking photos from elevated
platforms such as manned or remote controlled aircrafts or helicopters.
• FLIR : Forward looking infrared (FLIR) typically used on military and civilian
aircraft, use an imaging technology that senses infrared radiation at wavelengths
between 3-12 micrometers.
• Hyper spectral Imaging: Hyper sensors collect data across a wide range of the
spectrum (VNIR-LWIR, plus TIR) at small spectral resolution (5-15 nm) and high
spatial resolution (1-5 m).
14) What are different application of remote sensing?
➢ Application of remote sensing are as follows:
1. Land use & land cover mapping
2. Natural resource Management
3. Wildlife habitat protection
4. Agriculture
5. Crop type mapping
6. Mapping of Soil Characteristic
7. Forestry
8. Monitoring deforestation
9. Biomass estimation
10. Forest health
11. Urban growth Studies.
12. Ground water mapping
13. Food Plan mapping
14. Hydrology
15. Geology & geomorphology
16. Ocean and coastal monitoring
17. Disaster management

26
15) Define: (i) Conduction, (ii) convection, (iii) radiation, (iv) wave model, (v) particle
model, (vi) absorption, (vii) scattering & its types, (viii) refraction, (ix) reflection, (x)
transmittance, (xi) reflectance, (xii) Lambertian surface, (xiii) Black body
i. Conduction : Conduction is the process by which heat energy is transmitted through
collisions between neighboring atoms or molecules.
ii. Convection: the process in which heat moves through a gas or a liquid as the hotter
part rises and the cooler, heavier part sinks.
iii. Radiation: Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels through space at
the speed of light.
iv. Wave model: A wave model is a depiction of how high waves are, where they are
heading, and how swell patterns are propagating throughout the world.
v. Partical model: The particle model is a scientific theory that explains the properties
of solids, liquids and gases by suggesting that all matter is made of particles, and that
those particles behave differently in solids, liquids and gases.
vi. Absorption : The amount of electromagnetic energy lost through interactions with gas
molecules and matter during its passage through the atmosphere.
vii. Scattering: a change in the direction of motion of a particle because of a collision with
another particle.
viii. Refraction: Refraction is the change in the direction of a wave passing from
one medium to another.
ix. Reflection : the phenomenon of a propagating wave (light or sound) being thrown
back from a surface.
x. Transmittance: The transmittance is the ratio of the light passing through to the light
incident on the specimens and the reflectance the ratio of the light reflected to the light
incident.
xi. Reflectance: the fraction of the total radiant flux incident upon a surface that is
reflected and that varies according to the wavelength distribution of the incident
radiation.
xii. Lambertian surface: A Lambertian surface for reflection is a surface that appears
uniformly bright from all directions of view and reflects the entire incident light.
Lambertian reflectance is the property exhibited by an ideal matte or diffusely
reflecting surface.

27
 xiii. Black body : An ideal body or surface that completely absorbs all radiant
energy falling upon it with no reflection and that radiates at all frequencies with a
spectral energy distribution dependent on its absolute temperature.

16) What is spectral reflectance curve and what are its utilities in remote sensing?
➢ The graphical representation of the spectral response of an object over different
wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum is termed as spectral reflectance curve.
The reflectance characteristics of the surface features are represented using these curves.
➢ The most important surface features are colour, structure and surface texture. These
differences make it possible to identify different earth surface features or materials by
analysing their spectral reflectance patterns or spectral signatures.

17) Elaborate the relative advantages of using aerial photos and satellite images over
products of conventional survey.

❖ Advantages of Satellite Imagery

➢ There are plenty number of advantages and uses of the satellite imagery. Initially it was
used for tracking the lands and areas by the military, now this technique is using at the
national level by the government. It is basically used for tracking disaster storms like
hurricanes, weather with awesome accuracy. The image create by the artificial satellite
which is revolving around the earth, so the imaging is repeatable.

18) What are the considerations for an ideal remote sensing system?

➢ Ideal Remote Sensing System The basic components of an ideal remote sensing system
include:

i. A Uniform Energy Source which provides energy over all wavelengths, at a constant,
known, high level of output ii. A Non-interfering Atmosphere which will not modify
either the energy transmitted from the source or emitted (or reflected) from the object
in any manner. Iii.

28
 ii. A Series of Unique Energy/Matter Interactions at the Earth's Surface which generate
reflected and/or emitted signals that are selective with respect to wavelength and also
unique to each object or earth surface feature type.

iii. A Super Sensor which is highly sensitive to all wavelengths. A super sensor would be
simple, reliable, accurate, economical, and requires no power or space. This sensor
yields data on the absolute brightness (or radiance) from a scene as a function of
wavelength.

iv. A Real-Time Data Handling System which generates the instance radiance versus
wavelength response and processes into an interpretable format in real time. The data
derived is unique to a particular terrain and hence provide insight into its physical-
chemical-biological state.

v. Multiple Data Users having knowledge in their respective disciplines and also in remote
sensing data acquisition and analysis techniques. The information collected will be
available to them faster and at less expense. This information will aid the users in
various decision making processes and also further in implementing these decisions.

19) Discuss on the spectral reflectance characteristics of water and vegetation in different
spectral bands.

❖ VEGETATION:

➢ A chemical compound is leaves called chlorophyll strongly absorbs radiation in the red
and blue wavelengths, but reflects green wavelengths. Leaves appear 'greenest to us in
the summer, when chlorophyll content is at its maximum.
➢ In autumn, there is less chlorophyll in the leaves, so there is less absorption and more
reflection of the red wavelength, making the leaves appear red or yellow.
➢ Infact, measuring and monitoring the near IR-reflectance is one way that scientists can
determine how healthy vegetation may be.

29
 ➢ Tree leaves and crop canopy reflect more in the shorter radar wavelengths, while tree
trunks and limbs reflect more in the longer wavelengths.
➢ There is maximum reflectance at 0.54 pm.
➢ Different crops have different leaf structure and reflectance between 0.7 to 1.3 um is
due to leaf structure. So this range is used to differentiate crops in images.

❖ WATER:

➢ Longer wavelength visible and near-IR radiation is absorbed more by water than
shorter visible wavelengths. Thus, water typically looks blue or blue-green due to
stronger reflectance of these shorter wavelengths.

➢ If there is suspended sediment present in the upper layers of the water body, then this
will allow better reflectivity and a brighter appearance of the water. Suspended
sediment can be easily confused with shallow clear water, since these two phenomena
appear very similar.

➢ Clear water reflects less energy while turbid water reflects more energy.

20) Write short notes on :

i. Wavelength:
➢ The distance between successive crests of a wave, especially points in a sound wave
or electromagnetic wave
ii. Frequency:
➢ The rate per second of a vibration constituting a wave, either in a material (as in sound
waves), or in an electromagnetic field (as in radio waves and light)
iii. Atmospheric window:
➢ An atmospheric window is a range of wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum
that can pass through the atmosphere of Earth.
iv. Spectral signature:
➢ The spectral signature of stars indicates the composition of the stellar atmosphere.
The spectral signature of an object is a function of the incidental EM wavelength and
material interaction with that section of the electromagnetic spectrum.
v. Path radiance:

30
 ➢ The path radiance term is a combination of molecular Rayleigh scattering, which
varies with wavelength as λ −4, and aerosol and particulate Mie scattering, which
depends less strongly, or not at all, on wavelength.
vi. Radiant flux
➢ The rate of emission or transmission of radiant energy
vii. In situ data
➢ In situ data means observation data from ground-, sea -or air -borne sensors
viii. NRSA & ISRO
❖ ISRO:
➢ The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is the pioneer space exploration
agency of the Government of India, headquartered at Bengaluru.
❖ NRSA:
➢ National Remote Sensing Agency
ix. INSAT
➢ The Indian National Satellite System or INSAT, is a series of
multipurpose geostationary satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy
the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology, and search and
rescue operations
x. CARTOSAT

➢ The Cartosat is a series of Indian optical earth observation satellites built and
operated by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The Cartosat series is a
part of the Indian Remote Sensing Program. They are used for Earth's resource
management, defence services and monitoring.

xi. GSLV

➢ Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) is a space launch vehicle designed,

developed, and operated by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) to launch
satellites and other space objects into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits. GSLV has the
capability to put a heavier payload in the orbit than the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
(PSLV).

31
xii. PSLV

➢ Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is an indigenous, third generation launch

vehicle developed by ISRO.

➢ It comes in the category of medium-lift launchers with a reach up to the Geo

Synchronous Transfer Orbit, Lower Earth Orbit, and Polar Sun Synchronous Orbit.
PSLV operations are controlled from the Satish Dhawan Space Center, Sriharikota.
PSLV is a four-stage rocket that combines solid and liquid propellants.

32
 Assignment 2: Image Interpretation and Digital Processing

Que.1 Give a brief introduction of a Digital Image.

• Digital images are produces by electro optical sensors.
• They are composed of tiny equal areas called Pixels.
• So digital image has finite number of elements and each has particular location
and value.
• These elements are called Pixels or Picture elements.
• A photograph could be represented and displayed in a digital format by
subdividing it into small equal sized and square areas (Pixels), representing the
brightness of each area with a numeric value or digital number.
• Thus, a photograph becomes a digital image.
• Electronic sensors that record electromagnetic energy, electronically record the
energy as an array of numbers in digital format right from the start, is a digital
image.

Que.2 What is Resolution and Pixel in Image? Explain in detail Spectral resolution
and temporal resolution.
• Resolution is defined as a measure of the ability of an optical system or sensor
to distinguish between signals that are spatially near or spatially similar.

• Digital images are produces by Electro optical sensors. They are composed of
Tiny Equal Areas called Pixels. So digital image has finite number of elements
and each has particular location and value. These elements are called as Pixels.
1.Spectral Resolution:

33
• Spectral resolution refers to the electromagnetic radiation wavelengths to which
a remote sensing system is Sensetive.
• Spectral refers to the number and width of the segments or bands of the
electromagnetic spectrum, which are covered by a sensing system, Standard
black and white photography, for example covers the range of visible light (0.4
0.7 µm wavelength) in one band and therefore, has a relatively poor spectral
resolution. Colour photography which consists of three-layer emulsion,
effectively splits the same range of wavelengths into three spectral bands, such
as blue (0.4-0.5 um), green (0.5-0.6 m) and red (0.6 0.7 μm).
• Spectral resolution describes the ability of a sensor to define fine wavelength
intervals. The finer the spectral resolution, the narrower the wavelengths range
for a particular channel of band. A higher spectral resolution is achieved from
a large number of bands and narrow band width of each band.
• By increasing the spectral resolution of a system, the potential of the system to
discriminate between feature is improved. Features, which may have rather
similar reflectance over a broad band, may differ in detail if the spectral interval
of sensing is narrowed. The use of several bands of the spectrum in conjunction
is referred to as multispectral sensing.

2. Temporal Resolution:
• The temporal resolution refers to the frequency with which a given area is
imged. It is expressed in days and it is also called repeativity. Low temporal
resolution refers to a platform that infrequently repeats coverage, while high
temporal resolution refers to a platform that frequently repeats coverage.
• Temporal resolution refers to the frequency of data collection. In remote
sensing, to capture changes in environmental phenomenon occuring, the data
may have to be collected either daily, monthly, seasonally or yearly. For
instance, to monitor crop growth/stress, image interval of 10 days would be
required, but intervals of 1 year would be appropriate to monitor urban growth
patterns.
• IRS-1 A has 22 days temporal resolution, meaning it can acquire image of a
particular area in 22 days interval repetitively. LANDSAT has temporal
resolution of 18 days while SPOT has 4 days.

34
Que.3 Enlist various data formats of digital image.
• The most common digital data storage formats are:
1. BIL (Brand Interleaved by Line)
2. BSQ (Band Sequential)
3. BIP (Band Interleaved by Pixels)

Que.4 Write about different sensors in accordance to remote sensing.

Or
Write a note on Imaging sensors for digital image.
• An image sensor is a device that allows the camera to convert photons – that is,
light – into electrical signals that can be interpreted by the device.
• The first digital cameras used charge-coupled devices, facilitating movement of
the electrical charge through the device so it could be modulated.
• The digital image sensor is a technology used to record electronic images.
• The most commonly recognized application of the digital image sensor is the
digital camera.
• In digital cameras, the image sensor is used in conjunction with a color
separation device and signal processing circuitry to record images.
• The image sensor of the camera is responsible for converting the light and color
spectrum into electrical signals for the camera to convert into zeroes and ones.
• All commercially available digital cameras (still, movie, or security) use one
of two possible technologies for the camera's image sensor.

Que.5 Explain air borne and space borne sensors.

1. Air borne Sensors:
• In airborne remote sensing, downward or sideward looking sensors are mounted
on an aircraft to obtain images of the earth's surface.
• An advantage of airborne remote sensing, compared to satellite remote sensing,
is the capability of offering very high spatial resolution images (20 cm or less).
• Airborne imagery is commonly used in water quality catchment monitoring by

35
 utilising the high-resolution spatial information it can gather.
• The systems range from advanced stabilized systems, long-range oblique
imaging systems, hyperspectral systems, head up displays for aircraft of all
types, DIRCM systems for aircraft protection and space imaging systems.

2. Space borne Sensors:

• In spaceborne remote sensing, sensors are mounted on-board a spacecraft (space
shuttle or satellite) orbiting the earth.
• At present, there are several remote sensing satellites providing imagery for
research and operational applications.
• Spaceborne platforms include the space station as well as both low-level (700
to 1500 km) and high-level (~ 36,000 km) satellites. These types of platforms
can acquire large areas of data in a short amount of time, which can be used to
monitor Earth resources, atmospheric dynamics, and other applications.

Que.6 Explain the systems of image classification in remote sensing.

i. Classification: In this step, based on the appearance of an object or feature, the
analyst assigns a class or informational group. At this stage, the analyst first
carries out the determination of presence or absence of an object or phenomena
through the process of detection. This is followed by recognition where an
object or phenomena is assigned an identity to a class or category. This
generally requires a higher level of knowledge of feature. Finally the feature is
identified with a certain degree of confidence to a specific class. This process is
known as identification.
ii. Enumertion: It relates to listing and counting of objects of phenomena that are
visible on an image.
iii. Mensuration: This is the process of measurement in which the analyst makes
measurements of objects in terms of length, area, volume, or height. Another
type of measurement could be in terms of an image brightness characteristics
known as Densitometry.
iv. Delineation: It is the final task to be performed for outlinig the regions of
homogeneous objects or areas. These are characterized by specific tones and
textures. When sharp boundries between objects occur, the delineation process

36
 becomes simpler.

Que.7 Differentiate Between Supervised and Unsupervised classification.

(i) Supervised Classification: Supervised Classification is defined as the process

of sample of a known identity to classify Pixels of unknown indentity.
• The user can select pixels values or spectral signature in an image that an
representative of specific classes and then direct the image processing software
to use these trainings sites as refrences for the classification of all other pixels
in the image.

(ii) Unsupervised Classification: In unsupervised classification, the groupings

of pixels with common characteristics are band on the software analysis of an image
without the user providing sample classes.
• The user first applies the algorithm to the imaged and some spectral classes are
formed to assign a spectral class to the designed information class later.

Que.8 Write any five file formats of Raster data.

1. .JPG
2. .PCX
3. GIF
4. .IGS
5. .PSD

Que.9 Write any five file formats of vector data.

1. DWG
2. E00
3. DLG
4. VPF
5. TAB

Que.10 Explain systematic errors in context of satellites examples.

• The systematic error is defined as the part of error to which a linear function

37
 can be fitted. This methodology is adopted to explore random and systematic
error of satellite precipitation data across the CONUS.

Que.11 Write the full forms of DEM, JPEG and GIF.

• DEM: Digital Elevation Model
• JPEG: Joint Photographic Experts Group
• GIF: Graphics Interchange Format

Que.12 Explain different resolutions with their significance.

(1) Spatial Resolution:
• The minimum detectable area on the ground by a detector placed on a sensor is
called spatial resolution. It refers to the capability of the sensor to discriminate
the smallest object on the ground of different sizes; usually specified in terms
of linear dimension. Images where only large features are visible are said to
have coarse or low resolution. Fine or high resolution images make possible
detection of small objects. As a general rule, higher the resolution, smaller the
objects that can be identified.
• Spatial resolution of passive sensors depends primarily on their instantaneous
field or view (IFOV). The IFOV may be defined as the area on the ground,
which is viewed by a single instrument from a given altitude at any given instant
of time. This area on the ground is called the resolution cell and determines a
sensor's maximum spatial resolution.

(2) Spectral Resolution:

• Spectral refers to the number and width of the segments or bands of the
electromagnetic spectrum, which are covered by a sensing system. Standard
black and white photography, for example covers the range of visible light (0.4-
0.7 um wavelength) in one band and therefore, has a relatively poor spectral
resolution. Colour photography which consists of three-layer emulsion,
effectively splits the same range of wavelengths into three spectral bands, such
as blue (0.4-0.5 m), green (0.5-0.6 µm) and red (0.6-0.7 pm).
• Spectral resolution describes the ability of a sensor to define fine wavelength
intervals. The finer the spectral resolution, the narrower the wavelengths range

38
 for a particular channel of band.
• A higher spectral resolution is achieved from a large number of bands and
narrow band width of each band.

(3) Temporal Resolution:

• The temporal resolution refers to the frequency with which a given area is
imged. It is expressed in days and it is also called repeativity. Low temporal
resolution refers to a platform that infrequently repeats coverage, while high
temporal resolution refers to a platform that frequently repeats coverage.

39
 • Temporal resolution refers to the frequency of data collection. In remote
sensing, to capture changes in environmental phenomenon occuring, the data
may have to be collected either daily, monthly, seasonally or yearly. For
instance, to monitor crop growth/stress, image interval of 10 days would be
required, but intervals of 1 year would be appropriate to monitor urban growth
patterns.

(4) Radiometric Resolution:

• Radiometric resolution refers to the capability of the sensor to discriminate two
targets based on its reflectance / emittance difference. It is measured in terms of
the smalest reflectance / emittance that can be detected by the sensor.

• Higher the radiometric resolution, smaller the radiance difference that can be
detected between two targets.
• The radiometric resolution is defined as the sensitivity of a remote sensing
detector to differences in signal strength as it records the radiation flux reflected
or emitted from the terrain. It defines the number of just discriminable signal
levels. The radiometric resolution of an imaging system describes its ability to
discriminate very slight differences in energy. The finer the radiometric
resolution of a sensor is, the more sensitive it is for detecting small differences
in reflected or emitted energy.

Que.13 What is image enhancement? Discuss.

• Image enhancement can be defined as the conversion of the image quality to a
better and more understandable level for image interpretation.
• Image enhancement techniques sharper image features such as edges,
boundaries or contrast to make a graphic display more helpful.

40
 • The objective of image enhancement to improve the appearance of the images
to assist in visual interpretation and analysis.
• Although radiometric corrections for illumination, atmospheric influence and
sensor characteristics may be done prior to distribution of data to the user, the
image may still not be optimized for visual interpetation.
• The image enhancement techniques are applied either to single-band images or
separately to the individual bands of a multi-band image set.
• The pricipal-objectives of image enhancement are:
i. To make image for easier interpretation
ii. To remove distortions from image for better visulization
iii. To extract maximum data

Que.14 Write a note on image processing systems.

• Image processing is a vital part of most remote sensing operations. All dgital
images must be of use in the majority of applications.
• The digital image processing is the task of processing and analyzing the digital
data using some image processing algorithm.
• The analysis relies solely upon multispectral characteristic of the feature
repressented in the form of tone and colour.
• The digital image processing has the following broad operations.

(1) Preprocessing (Image rectification and restoration):

• In remotely sensed data, a variety of distortions such as radiometric,atmospheric
and geometric errors can be observed.
• The correction of these error present in the data through some methods is known
is known as Pre-Proceesing.

(2) Image enhancement:

• Image enhancement can be defined as the conversion of the image quality to a
better and more understandable level for image interpretation.

(3) Image Transformation:

• Image Transformation involve combined processing of data from multiple

41
 spectral bands or the manipulation of multiple bands of data.

(4) Image Classification:

• Image classification is the process of sorting pixels into fiite number of
individual classes or categories of data, based on their DN values.
• Classification is exempted on the basis of spectral or spectral defined features
such as density, texture, etc.

42
 • The main objectives of image classification is to automatically categorise all
pixels in an image of a tenain into different themes.

(5) Data Merging and GIS integration

Que.15 Give your views on image interpretation strategies.

Or
Explain image interpretation strategies.
• An Image Interpretation Strategy can be defined as a disciplined procedure that
enables the interpreter to relate geographic patterns on the ground to their
appearance.
• Image interpretation strategies can be defined in to five categories.

(1) Field Observation:

• Sometimes, the ground conditions as depicted on an image is complex, and an
interpreter, on the basis of his knowledge and experience, is unable to correlate
the relationships between ground and image. In such situation, the interpreter
visit the ground to make proper identification. For an accuracy of identification,
field observation is an important part of an interpretation.

(2) Direct recognition:

• Direct recognition is the application of an interpreter's experience, skill and
judgment to associate the image patterns with informational classes. This
process is essentially a qualitative and subjective analysis of the image using
the elements of image interpretation as visual and logical clues. Direct
recognition is an intuitive process, and hence it requires very careful and
systemic examination of the image.

(3) Interpretation by Inference:

• In this strategy, the analyst identifies information on the basis of the presence
of some other information to which it is closely related to. Such inference
information is known as surrogate or proxy.
• For example, as soil distributions are closely related to patterns of landforms

43
 and vegetation that are recorded on the image, and hence the interpreter infers
the invisible soil distribution from patterns that are visible.

(4) Probabilistic interpretation:

• Sometimes an object or phenomena is correlated to certain specific
characteristics, e.g. Certain types of crops will be grown as per time or season.
This non-image information or knowledge can be utilized in probabilistic
interpretation

(5) Deterministic interpretation:

• This is the most rigorous and precise approach. Deterministic interpretations are
based upon quantitatively expressed relationships that tie image characteristics
to ground conditions. In contrast with other methods, most information is
derived from the image itself. Photogrammetric analysis of stereopairs for
terrain information is a good example of deterministic interpretation. A scene is
imagined from two separate positions along a flight path and the
photogrammetrist measures the apparent displacement in the position of an
object. Based upon the knowledge of the geometry of the photographic system,
a topographic model of the landscape can be prepared. Thus, the precise
information about the landscape can be derived using the image itself.

Que.16 What is resolution for sensor in Image?

• Resolution is defined as a measure of the ability of an optical system or sensor
to distinguish between signals that are spatially near or spatially similar.
• There are four resolutions:
i. Spatial Resolution
ii. Spectral Resolution
iii. Temporal Resolution
iv. Radiometric Resolution

Que.17 Give a brief Idea about GSLV & PSLV.

(1) GSLV:
• GSLV (Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle) is the most important rocket

44
 developed by ISRO.
• GSLV presented the Indian Space program with its most demanding
technological test. It embodies decades of struggle of dedicated ISRO researh
scientists.
• The need for a heavy lift booster was left by India in the early 1980s as the
PSLV has the inadequate to place heavy payloads in geosynchronous orbit. The
purpose of the program was to satisfy India's need for telecommunications,
environmental monitoring, disaster warning and other systems.

(2) PSLV:
• India joined a selected group of six nations on October 15, 1994, when the
PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) successfully accomplished its mission
of placing the 800 kg remote sensing satellite, IRS-P2 in the intended orbit.
• The success of PSLV is an important milestone for the Indian Space industry.
India has achieved selfsufficiency in launching its operational satellites. The
PSLV can place a satellite weighing about 3000 kg in low earth orbit, at a height
of 400-600 km. It can also depoy satellites weighing up to 1500 kg in polar
sunsychronous orbit at a height of 750 km from the earth surface.
• Indian PSLV successfully launched several satellites for other nations as well,
like BIRD for Germany, KITSAT-3 for Korea, PROBA for Belgium, LAPAN-
TUBSAT for Indonesia, AGILE for Itly etc.

Que.18 Define Swath and explain the concept of Orbital Calender.

• Swath: As a satellite revolves around the earth, the sensor sees a certain portion
of the earth's surface. In a satellite system, the total width of the area on the
ground covered by the scanner is called the Swath or Width of the total field
view(FOV).
• Orbit Calender: Orbital calender gives information about satellite's path and
its timings. Since satellite rotates with different path on different days, it is
essential to know the position of the satellite at particular day.
• For example in case of RESOURCESAT-1, it has 341 orbits in 24 days cycle.
Hence on any given day it is possible to determine the orbit which will trace
designated path.

45
 • If the path is known then it is possible to find out day on which data may be
captured using reference scheme.
• Hence, orbital calender can be used for analysis of temporal changes after
knowing the path and timings of the satellite and to capture the data for temporal
analysis.

Que.19 Differentiate Active & Passive remote sensors.

Or
Write short note on Active and Passive Remote Sensor.
(1) Passive Remote Sensor:
• Passive sensors senses natural radiation which is either emitted or reflected from
the target. The sun's energy is either reflected, as it is for visible wavelengths,
or absorbed and then re-emitted, as it is for thermal infrared wavelengths.
• Passive sensors can only be used to detect naturally occuring energy. There is
no reflected energy available from the sun at night. The amount of solar
radiation present at polar latitudes is often insufficient for visible light sensors
limiting the use of passive sensors to lower latitudes.
• The problems associated with passive remote sensing can be overcome by
designing a remote sensing system in which a sensor can be used that is capable
of detecting radiation in several different portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum. For example, by using a combination of visible and thermal infrared
channels, weather satellites can provide imagery of the earth's cloud patterns
during both day and night hours.
• Thematic mapper (TM) is a good example of the passive sensor. This sensor
has seven bands or channels, each being sensitive to a different range of EMR.
The sensors on the thematic mapper are sensitive to narrow portions of the
visible and near infrared portion of the spectrum, with one band sensitive to
thermal infrared.

(2) Active Remote Sensor:

• The sensors which produces its own electromagnetic radiation of a specific
wavelength or band of wavelengths and the interaction of this radiation with the
target is studied for target identification are called active sensors.

46
 • The active sensors direct a burst of radiation at the target and use sensors to
measure how the target interacts with the energy. Most often, the sensor detects
the reflection of the energy, measuring the angle reflection or the amount of
time it took for the energy to return. Active sensors provide the capability to
obtain measurements any time, regardless of the time of the day or season.
However, active system require the generation of a fairly large amount of
energy to adequately illuminate targets.
• Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is one of the best example of active remote
sensing. This sensing system operates in the microwave region of
electromagnetic spectrum and include radiation with wavelength longer than 1
mm.

Que.20 Describe the software's available for image processing and analysis with
their features.
• Imaging software is a type of graphic design software used to create, edit and
manipulate images on a computer. Imaging software is designed to work on
photographs for images created by digital cameras, camcorders or related
devices.
• ENVI is the industry standard for image processing and analysis software. It is
used by image analysts, GIS professionals and scientists to extract timely,
reliable and accurate information from geospatial imagery.
• ENVI is the premier software solution for extracting quick, easy and accurate
information from geospatial imagery.
• It provides advanced user-friendly tools to read, explore, prepare, analyze and
share information extracted from imagery.
• Tools and processes helps you easily and accurately extract information needed
for intelligence, scientific or planning purposes.
• ENVI has broad cross platform support and can be run in Windows, Linux, Unix
or Macintosh.
• ENVI can read over 70 data formats and includes UDF, geotiff, NITF etc.

47
 Assignment 3: Geographic Information System

Ques. 1 What do you understand by GIS?

• GIS is a data management system that provides many facilities for surveyors and
planners. GIS is a computer based system which collects and stores spatially referenced
data with other relevant attributes and enables us to manipulate, analyse and display in
suitable formats.
• Some of the definitions of GIS given in different publications are :-
• "A system which uses a spatial database to provide answers to queries of a geographical
nature”
• “It is a systematic integration of computer hardware, software and spatial data, for
capturing, storing, displaying, updating, manipulating and analyzing, in order to solve
complex management problems."
• “A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will and displaying spatial
data from the real world".
• "In common parlance, a geographic information system (GIS) is a configuration of
computer hardware and software specifically designed for the acquisition, maintenance,
and use of cartographic data."
• “An organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographical data, and
personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze and display
all forms of geographically referenced Information."
• Referring to maps/plans and then to attribute data stored in hard copies like books is
time consuming. Updating and managing the stored data is also difficult.
• This problem is overcome by combining spatial data (location information) and
computers. The location information (spatial data) is digitised from available maps and
stored in computers. Over the spatial data attribute data is overlayed and stored.
Different data are stored in different layers.
• Once this geographical information system is developed, the user can access the
attribute data of any place by clicking over the spatial data of that place. The user can

48
 utilise the information for further analysis, planning. Design or management purposes.
For example, if land records of a village is developed as GIS data, the user can click
the state map to pick up the district map and then access the taluka map. Then he will
access to pick up the village map. Then land record of that village can be obtained and
property map of any owner can be checked and printed. All this can be done in a very
short time from any convenient place.

Ques. 2 What are the different components of GIS? Explain in brief.

• GIS have five components as under :

• Computer system (hardware) : It includes CPU, VDU, keyboard, mouse, digitizer,
plotter, pointer, CD/DVD drive etc. To store, processed present digital spatial data.
• Software: It include software like Arc GIS, Map info, Geomatica, Autodesk Map and
other to perform GIS operations.
• Data: Geographical data in the form of hard copy map or digital map, aerial
photographs, satellite images, statistical ales and other documents are used as data for
GIS operations.
• Procedure : To complete certain tasks, procedures are performed using hardware and
software.
• Experts and users: Experts with knowledge are required to apply GIS appropriately.
Different types of users are using the GIS at different levels.

Ques. 3 What are raster and vector? Write the basic differences between raster and
vector?

• Raster Data :- Raster is a grid of cells or pixels. Raster data are also referred to as raster
image. Raster images ar 2D array of pixels arranged in row-column structure. In a raster
image, the x-axis is the column indicator and y-axis is the row indicator. Not only
geographic data, but other pictorial data can also be represented and stored in a
computer as raster.
• The raster data model uses a regular grid to cover the space and value in each cell to
correspond to the characteristics of a spatial phenomena at the cell location. Raster data
have been described as field based, asopposed to object based vector data. The raster
data model can also represent discrete geographic features like point, line and area.

49
 • The size of the cells in a raster file is an important factor. Smaller cells improve image
quality because they increase detail. As cell size increases, image definition decreases
or blurs.
• Vector Data :- Vector model uses discrete points, lines and areas corresponding to
discrete entity and can be defined by the coordinate geometry. Vectors have a precise
direction, length and shape.
• In this model, each point is stored by its location (X, Y). Each line is stored by the
sequence of first and last point. Polygon is represented by a sequence of points, where
the last point is equal to the first point.

Vector data
Raster data represents a
represents the object
graphic object as a
Data as points or a set of
pattern of cells or
lines drawn between
Pixels.
specific points.
Data Structure Simple Complex
Data Volume Large Small
Editing Difficult Easy
Remote Sensing memory Compatible Not-compatible
Graphic representation Average Easy
Overlay analysis Easy Difficult
Network analysis No Easy
Geometric accuracy Low High

50
Ques. 4 Explain vector data model and raster data model in GIS.

• Raster Data :- Raster is a grid of cells or pixels. Raster data are also referred to as raster
image. Raster images ar 2D array of pixels arranged in row-column structure. In a
raster image, the x-axis is the column indicator and y-axis is the row indicator. Not only
geographic data, but other pictorial data can also be represented and stored in a
computer as raster.
• The raster data model uses a regular grid to cover the space and value in each cell to
correspond to the characteristics of a spatial phenomena at the cell location. Raster data
have been described as field based, asopposed to object based vector data. The raster
data model can also represent discrete geographic features like point, line and area.
• The size of the cells in a raster file is an important factor. Smaller cells improve image
quality because they increase detail. As cell size increases, image definition decreases
or blurs.
• Vector Data Model :- Vector model uses discrete points, lines and areas corresponding
to discrete entity and can be defined by the coordinate geometry. Vectors have a precise
direction, length and shape.
• In this model, each point is stored by its location (X, Y). Each line is stored by the
sequence of first and last point. Polygon is represented by a sequence of points, where
the last point is equal to the first point.

Ques. 5 Define metadata, attribute data & spatial data.

• Metadata : _ Metadata is defined as background information that describes the content,

quality, condition and other appropriate characteristics of the data, Metadata is a simple
mechanism to inform others of the existence of data sets, their purpose and scope.
• Attribute data :- Attribute data are the information linked to the geographic features
(spatial data) that describe features. That is, attribute data are the “[non- graphic
information associated with a point, line, or area elements in a GIS.”
• Spatial data:- The spatial data give information about the geometrical orientation, shape
and size of a feature, and its relative position with respect to the position of other
feature.
• The spatial data represented as either layers or objects, are simplified by breaking down
all geographic features with three basic entity types: Points, lines and areas, before they
stored in the computer.

51
Ques. 6 Give the salient features of cadastral, thematic and topographic maps.

• Cadastral map :- Cadastral GIS data contains information regarding the legal
interpretation of property lines. This information is used in the creation of cadastral
maps, which may include linework, parcel numbers, land ownership, tax and value
assessments, acreage, dimensions, and topographic mapping.
• Thematic map :- Thematic maps normally include some locational or reference
information, such as place names or major water bodies, to help map readers familiarize
themselves with the geographic area covered on the map. All thematic maps are
composed of two important elements: a base map and statistical data.
• Thematic maps concentrate on spatial variations of a single phenomena (e.g.
Population) or the relationship between phenomena (e.g different classes of land cover).
• Topographic map :- Topographic maps show contours, elevation, forest cover, marsh,
pipelines, power transmission lines, buildings and various types of boundary lines such
as international, provincial and administrative, and many others.

Ques. 7 Write the types of views a map can be visualized in GIS.

• A GIS is often associated with maps. A map, however, is the only way to work with
geographic data in a GIS, and the only type of product ge rated by a GIS.
• A GIS can be viewed in three ways :-
• 1. Database view (table view)
• 2.Map view
• 3. Model view
• 1. Database view (table view) :- A GIS is a unique kind of database of the world - a
geographic database (geodatabase). It is an information system for geography.
Fundamentally, a GIS is based on a structured database that describes the world in
geographic maps.
• 2.Map view :- A GIS is a set of intelligent maps and other views that show features and
feature relationships on the earth's surface, Maps of underlying topographic information
can be constructed and used to support analysis and editing of the information. This is
also called geovisualization.
• 3. Model view :- A GIS is a set of information transformation tools that derive new
geographic datasets from existing datasets. This is called geoprocessing. These

52
 geoprocessing functions take information from existing datasets, apply analytic
functions, and write results into new derived datasets, thus a model is created.

Ques. 8 What are the advantages of GIS over map?

• Advantages over map : -

• Before computers became widely available, thematic maps on plastic mylar sheets,
which could be laid on top of each other, revealed more information about an area was
possible with any single paper map. The difficulties with the manual overlay method
include registering maps, which may be published at different scales. The more layers
of map included in the analysis and the more complex they were, the more the
likelihood of human error entering the analysis and the longer the process takes.
• The GIS can take maps from different sources and register them rosily and is consistent
in its analysis of multiple layers of map data.
• It is also faster than manual methods of analysis, allowing the flexibility to try alternate
variables in analysis.
• The common problem with traditional paper map is the loss of paper, misplacement or
being misfiled. GIS is a central computer database of all map data stored in different
data layers and can be accessed by any number of users within the network.
• The amount of data that can be portrayed is limited by the size and scale of the paper
map. While the GIS based cartographic database can be both continuous and scale-free.

Ques. 9 What do you understand by 'map'? Differentiate between topographic and

thematic map.

• Maps are made for a variety of users. Geographers, military personnel, economists,
planners, civil engineers, architects, air and marine navigators use maps. The earth's
features are numerous, and hence it is not possible to represent all of them in one map.
• Maps are classified into four categories:
• 1. Casastral map
• 2. Topographical maps
• 3. Thematic maps
• 4. Remotely sensed images

Ques. 10 Explain data quality in GIS.

53
 • A dictionary definition of quality is 'degree of excellence". In GIS, data quality is give
an indication of how good data are. It describes the overall fitness or suitability of data
for a specific purpose or is used to indicate data free from errors and other problems.
• The vector data must be made topologically correct, before it can be used for some
advanced analy Some errors might occur as a result of computaitonal miscalculations
and rounding error in the GIS software but most database errors result from improper
input. Even with the most meticulous map preparation procedure the finest equipment,
and the best trained technicians, mistakes are likely to occur.
• Examining the following issues can help to assess the quality of individual data sets.
• Error :- A GIS database is subject to errors involving entity, attribute, and entity-
attribute agreement. Entity error (positional error) is present primarily in vector
graphics. It can come in three different forms-missing entities incorrectly placed entities
and disordered entities. Attribute error and entity attribute error forms the second group
that has no influence on topology creation. Attribute error is wrong data input into
attribute table, while entity attribute error is improper linking between attribute and
spatial information.
• Accuracy: Accuracy is the extent to which an estimated data value approaches its true
value. If a GIS database accurate, it is a true representation of reality. It is impossible
for a GIS database to be 100 percent accurate though it is possible to have data that are
accurate within specified tolerances.
• Precision : - Precision is the recorded level of detail of your data. Precision indicates
uniformity of data which may not be accurate.
• Bias: - Bias in GIS data is the systematic variation of data from reality. Bias is a
consistent error through data set. It may be due to badly calibrated digitizer or the
consistent truncation of the decimal points from data values by a software program.
These examples have a technical source. Human sources of bias also exist. An aerial
photograph interpreter may have a consistent tendency to ignore all features below a
certain size.

Ques. 11 Explain input data for GIS and GIS products.

• Input data for GIS cover all aspects of capturing spatial data and the attribute data. The
sources of spatial data are existing maps, aerial photographs, satellite imageries, field

54
 observations, and other sources. The spatial data not in digital form are converted into
standard digital form using digitizer or scanner for use in GIS.
• The digital data in an acceptable format and the attribute data are stored in the computer
memory and managed by DBMS which is a part of GIS, for analysis and producing the
results in user desired formats.
• Different types of spatial and attribute data have been discussed in article 3.10.
• GIS products :- The output products can be of various kinds, and since these products
are computer generated, the user I analyst should be aware of the desired forms of
output options available in GIS software.
• The most common graphics products produced by GIS are maps. A map is a two
dimensional model of a part of the Earth's surface, and it can be of various kinds.
• A thematic map shows information about a special topic, which is superimposed on a
base map. Types of thematic maps include:
• Soil map
• Forestry map
• Land use map
• Historical map, etc.

Ques. 12 Explain Error in GIS data and managing the errors.

• Error :- A GIS database is subject to errors involving entity, attribute, and entity-
attribute agreement. Entity error (positional error) is present primarily in vector
graphics. It can come in three different forms-missing entities incorrectly placed entities
and disordered entities. Attribute error and entity attribute error forms the second group
that has no influence on topology creation. Attribute error is wrong data input into
attribute table, while entity attribute error is improper linking between attribute and
spatial information.
• Managing data errors : - Errors input data may derive from three main sources, errors
introduced during encoding ,errors propagated during data transfer and conversion.
Errors in source data may be difficult to identify. For example, there may be subtle
errors in a paper map source used for digitizing because of the methods by particular
surveyors, or there may be printing errors in paper based records used as source data.
• Data encoding is the process by which data are transferred from non-GIS source, such
as paper map, satellite image or survey into a GIS format. During data encoding a range

55
 of errors can be introduced. During keyboard encoding it is easy for an operator to make
a typing mistake, daring digitizing an operator may encode the wrong line; and folds
and stains can easily be scanned and mistaken for real geographical features During
data transfer, conversion of data between different formats required by different
packages may lead to a loss of data.
• Errors in attribute data are relatively easy to spot and may be identified using manual
comparison with the original data. For example, if the operator notices that a hotel has
been coded as a cafe, then the attribute database may be corrected accordingly.

Ques. 13 Write about the function of DBMS.

• The most important functions of Database Management System are :-

• Data Dictionary Management
• Data Storage Management
• Data Transformation and Presentation
• Security Management
• Multi user Access Control
• Backup and Recovery Management
• Data Integrity Management
• Database Access Languages and Application Programming Interfaces
• Database Communication interfaces

Ques. 14 Explain data management in GIS.

• It is a system for managing information, organizing and visualizing maps and data, and
analyzing relationships and patterns over any geography. This allows you to design,
plan, and perform predictive analytics.

56
 Assignment-4 Spatial data analysis

Q-1 What do you mean by spatial data? Write brief

• The spatial data give information geometric orientation, shape and size of its relative
position with respect to the position of other feature.
• Spatial data is described by its x and y coordinates.
• The spatial data is normally available in analog form as map bur now the maps also
available directly in digital form.
• The spatial data represented as either layers or objects, are simplified by breaking down
all geographic feature with three basic entity types: points, lines and areas, before they
stored in computer.

Points: Points have single geographic coordinate, such as

• Trees
• Lamp post
• Well
• Traffic accident point, etc.

Lines: Lines are single geographically interrelated coordinates, such as

• Stream
• Canal
• Road
• Railway line, etc.

Areas: Areas area a series of geographical coordinates joined together to form a

boundary such as.
• Town

57
 • Lake
• Garden Soil types, etc.

Q-2 Name the different sources in India to obtain various spatial and non-spatial data?

• Some of the agencies which generate and distribute data in India are:
I. Survey of India: Topical maps, tourist maps, city guide maps, etc.
II. Geological survey of India: Geological maps, resources maps, mineral
resources maps etc.
III. National Bureau Planning (NBSSLUP): Soil maps
IV. All India soil and land use survey: Soil and land use maps
V. Forest Survey of India (FSL): Forest maps
VI. Central Ground Water Board (CGWB):Hydrology maps
VII. National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA): Land use maps, waste land maps,
urban
VIII. Central Water Commission (CWC): Command area maps
IX. Naval Hydrography Department (NHD): Naval hydrography charts
X. State settlement survey and land records Departments: Cadastral maps
• The internet is a data hypermarket for GIS.
• Serval organisations have set up data ‘clearing houses’ where you browse for and
purchase data online.

Q-3 What do you mean by non-spatial data?

• Non spatial data are information about various attribute like length, area, population,
average, etc.
• Attribute data describe the attribute of a point, lines or area(polygon) describe.
• What is at a point ? (e.g. Hospital, school)

58
 • What is along a line ? (e.g. Road, canal)
• What is in polygon ? (e.g. Forest, lake)
• The attribute of a soil category may be depth of soil, texture type of erosion or
permeability.
• The attribute data, mostly available in tabular form, also converted into digital format
for use in GIS
• Normally the spatial and non-spatial data are stored separately in GIS, and links are
established between the two at the time of processing and analysis.

• Data input device in GIS :

I. Digitizer – conversion of raster to vector.
II. Scanner – to convert data on paper to raster/digital data.
III. Keyboard – entry of attribute data.
IV. Disk drive – to take data from another system into a GIS.

• Data output device in GIS :

I. Printer – used to print the information after analysis on a paper.
II. Plotter – used to plot the geographical information after analysis.
III. VDU – (visual display unit) used to display the results after analysis.
IV. Tape drive - used to store the results after analysis and take it to other systems.

Q-4 Write a note on reference co-ordinate systems.

• Coordinate system enable geographic datasets to use common location for integration.
• A coordinate system is a reference system used to represent location of geographic
feature, imagery, and observations such as GPS location within a common geographical
framework.
• Each coordinate system defined by:
▪ Its measurement framework which is either geographic (in which the
earth is coordinates are projected onto a two dimensional planar
surface).

59
 ▪ Unit of measurement (typically feet or meters for projected coordinate
system or decimal degrees for latitude-longitude).
▪ The definition of map projection for projected coordinate systems.
▪ Other measurement system properties such as a spheroid of reference a
datum and projection parameter like one or more standard parallels, a
central meridian, and possible shifts in the y- directions.
• Types of coordinate systems:

There are two common type of coordinate system used in GIS:

1. A global or spherical coordinate system such as latitude-longitude.

• These are often referred to as Geographic coordinate systems.

2. A projected coordinate system based on a map projection such as transverse Mercator,

Albers equal area, or Robinson, all of which(along with numerous other map projection
models) provide various mechanisms to project maps of the earth’s spherical one a two
dimensional Cartesian coordinate plane.
• Projected coordinate system are sometimes referred to as map projections.

1. Geographic Coordinate System(GCS):

• One method for describing the position of a spherical location on the earth’s
surface is using spherical measurement of latitude and longitude.
• They are measure of the angles (in degrees) from the center of the earth to a
point on the earth’s surface.
• This reference system is often referred to as a geographic coordinate system.
• A geographic coordinate system is a reference system for identifying location
on the curved surface of the earth.
• Location on the earth’s surface are measured in angular units from the center of
the earth relative to two planes: the plane defined by the equator and the plane
defined by the prime meridian (which crosses Greenwich England).
• A location is therefor defined by two values: a latitude value and a longitude
value.
A geographic coordinate system or GCS consists of:
▪ Datum (which includes the ellipsoid)

60
 ▪ Prime Meridian (almost always Greenwich England)
▪ Units (always degrees)

• The equator is at an angle of 0o.

• Often, the northern positive measures of latitude and the southern has hemisphere has
negative measures of latitude.
• Measures angles in an east-west direction.
• Longitude measures are traditionally based on the prime is an imaginary line running
form the north pole through Greenwich, England to the south pole.
• This angle is longitude 0o, west of the prime meridian is often recorded as negative
longitude and east is recorded as positive

2. Projected Coordinate System (PCS): [Rectangular Coordinate System]

• The surface of the earth is curved but maps are flat.
• A projected coordinate system is a reference system for identifying locations
and measuring features on a flat surface.
• It consists of the lines that intersect at right angles, forming a grid.
• Projected coordinate systems have an origin, an x axis, y axis and a linear
unit measure.
• A two-dimensional coordinate reference system is commonly defined by
two axes.

61
 • At right angles to each other, they form a so called XY-plane.
• The horizontal axis is normally x, and the vertical axis is normally labelled
y.
• In a three-dimensional coordinate reference system, another axis, normally
labelled z, is added.
• It is also at a right angles to the x and y axes.
• The z axis provide a third dimension od space.
• Every point that is expressed in spherical coordinates can be expressed as
an X Y Z coordinate.

Fi. 3.25 two and three dimensional coordinate reference systems.

• The universal transverse Mercator coordinate reference system has its origin on the equator
at a specific longitude.
• Now the y values increase southwards and x-values increase to the west.
• The UTM CRS is a global map projection.
• This means it is generally used all over the word.
• But, the larger the area the more distortion of angular conformity, distance and area occur.
• To avoid too much distortion, the world is divided into 60 equal zones that are all 6 degrees
wide in longitude from East to West.

62
• The UTM zones are numbered 1 to 60, starting at the international date line (zone 1 at 180
degrees west longitude) and progressing East back to the international date line (zone 60 at
180 degrees East longitude).

Q-6 What are map projections in GIS? Describe briefly properties as well as classification
of map projections.

• The globe which is divided into various sectors by the lines of longitude is a true
representation of the earth.
• The network of latitude and longitude is called graticule.
• A map projection denotes the preparation of the graticule on a flat surface.
• Map projection is defined as a systematic drawing of parallels of latitude and meridians
of longitudes on a plane surface for the whole earth or a part of it on a certain scale so
that any point o the earth surface may correspond to that on the drawing.
• When the curved surface of the earth is shown in a flat sheet, some distortion is
inevitable.
• On large scale maps, the distortion caused by the map projection may be negligible
because the map will typically cover only a small part of the earth’s surface.
• On smaller scale maps, such as religion maps and world maps, where a small distance
on the map represents large distance on the earth, this distortion will have a bigger
impact.

• Classification of map projections:

• Today there are a wide range of map projections in use.
• Different map projections are used in different parts of the world for mapping different
sized areas and for different applications.
• There can be as many classification as many bases.
• Table 3.3 shows classification of maps depending on different bases.

Table 3.3 Classification pf Maps

Basic Classes
Method of construction 1. Perspective

63
 2. Non-perspective
Developable surface area 1. Cylindrical
2. Conical
3. Azimuthal/planar/zenithal
4.conventional
Position of tangent surface 1. Polar
2. Normal or equatorial
3. Oblique
Preserve qualities 1. Equal area/homolographic
2. Conformal/orthomorphic
3. Azimuthal
Position of light or view point 1. Ortnographic
2. Stereographic
3. Gnomonic

Map projection can be classified into the following four general classes:

a. Cylindrical map projection

b. Conical map projection
c. Azimuthal/zenithal/planar map projection
d. Miscellaneous

A. Cylindrical map projection:

• Cylindrical projection result from projecting spherical onto a cylinder.
• When a graticule is prepared on the surface a of a hollow cylinder, it is called cylindrical
projection.

64
 • In cylindrical projection meridians are geometrically projected onto the cylindrical
surface, and parallels are mathematically projected.
• This produced graticular angles of 90.
• The cylindrical is cut along any meridian to produce the final cylindrical projection.
• The meridians are equaily spaced, while the spacing between parallel lines of latitude
increases towards are poles.
• If the cylindrical is rotated and/ or made tangent or secant, more complex cylindrical
projections are obtained(fig 3.9).

Advantages:

• Continuous picture of the earth.

• Countries near the equator in true relative positions.
• Area for the most part is preserved.

Disadvantages:

• Distance increase between countries located towards top and bottom of image.
• The view of the pole is very distorted.

B. Conical map projection:

• Conical map projections result from projecting a spherical surface onto a cone.
• A cone may be imagined to touch the globe of a convenient size along any circle.

65
 • The most useful case is the normal cone in which the apex of the cone lies vertically
above the pole on the earth’s axis produced and the surface of the cone is tangent to the
sphere along some parailel of latitude called standard parallel.
• The meridians are projected onto the conical surface , meeting at the apex of the cone,
while parallel lines of latitude are projected onto the cone as rings.
• The cone is then cut along any meridian to produce the final conic projection which has
straight converging lines for meridians and concentric circular arcs for parallels.

Advantages:

• Scale for the most part is preserved.

Disadvantages:

• Area is distorted
• Distance is very distorted towards the bottom of the image
C. Azimuthal /zenithal/planar map projection:
• Azimuthal projection result from projecting a spherical onto a plane.
• In this projection, a flat paper is assumed to touch the globe at one point and project the
lines of latitude and longitude on the plane.

66
 • The point of contact may be the north pole, south pole, a point on the equator or any
point in between.
• This point is the focus of the projection.
• Types of zenithal projections, with respect to the plane’s position touching the globe
are:
▪ Normal or equatorial zenithal – where the plane touches the globe at pole.
▪ Polar zenithal – where the plane touches the globe at pole
▪ Oblique zenithal – where the plane touches the globe at any other point

Types of zenithal projections, according to the location of the view point are:

▪ Gnomonic / central – view point lies at the centre of the globe

▪ Stereographic - – view point lies at the opposite pole
▪ Orthographic - – view point lies at the infinity

Advantages:

• Distance for the most part is preserved.

Disadvantages:

• Only a part of the earth’s surface in visible.

• The view will be of half the globe or less.
• Distortion will occur at all edges.

67
Q-7 What is geo-referencing ? Why geo-referencing is required in GIS?

• All the elements in a map layer have a specific geographic location and extent that
enables them to be located on or near the earth’s surface
• The ability to accurately describe geographic locations is critical in both mapping and
GIS.
• This process is called georeferencing.
• A spatial referencing system is required to handle spatial information.
• The primary aim of a reference system is to locate a feature on the earth’s surface or a
2D representation of this surface such as a map.
• A map portrays accurately real world feature that occur on the curved surface of earth.
• The objective of georeferencing is to provide a rigid spatial framework by which the
positions of the real world feature are measured, computed, recorded, and analyzed in
terms of length of a line, size of an area, and shape of a feature.

Q-8 Explain the procedure of geo-referencing in QGIS software.

Scan the map

The first task you will have to do is to scan your map. If your map is too big, then you can scan
it in different parts but keep in mind that you will have to repeat preprocessing and
georeferencing tasks for each part. So if possible, scan the map in as few parts as possible.

If you are going to use a different map that the one provided with this manual, use your own
scanner to scan the map as an image file, a resolution of 300 DPI will do. If your map has
colors, scan the image in color so that you can later use those colors to separate information
from your map into different layers (for ex., forest stands, contour lines, roads...).

For this exercise you will use a previously scanned map, you can find it as rautjarvi_map.tif in

the data folder exercise_data/forestry

Follow Along: Georeferencing the scanned map

68
Open QGIS and set the project’s CRS to ETRS89 / ETRS-TM35FIN in Project ‣ Project

Properties ‣ CRS, which is the currently used CRS in Finland. Make sure that Enable ‘on the
fly’ CRS transformation is checked, since we will be working with old data that is another
CRS.

Save the QGIS project as map_digitizing.qgs .

You will use the georeferencing plugin from QGIS, the plugin is already installed in QGIS.
Activate the plugin using the plugin manager as you have done in previous modules. The plugin
is named Georeferencer GDAL.

To georeference the map:

• Open the georeference tool, Raster ‣ Georeferencer ‣ Georeferencer.

• Add the map image file, rautjarvi_map.tif , as the image to georeferenciate, File ‣ Open

raster.

69
• When prompted find and select the KKJ / Finland zone 2 CRS, it is the CRS that was used

in Finland back in 1994 when this map was created.

• Click OK.

Next you should define the transformation settings for georeferencing the map:

• Open Settings ‣ Transformation settings.

• Click the icon next to the Output raster box, go to the folder and create the

folder exercise_data\forestry\digitizing and name the file as rautjarvi_georef.tif .

• Set the rest of parameters as shown below.

• Click OK.

70
The map contains several cross-hairs marking the coordinates in the map, we will use those to
georeferenciate this image. You can use the zooming and panning tools as you usually do in
QGIS to inspect the image in the Georeferencer’s window.

• Zoom in to the left lower corner of the map and note that there is a cross-hair with a
coordinate pair, x and y, that as mentioned before are in KKJ / Finland zone 2 CRS. You

will use this point as the first ground control point for the georeferencing your map.
• Select the Add point tool and click in the intersection of the cross-hairs (pan and zoom as
needed).
• In the Enter map coordinates dialogue write the coordinates that appear in the map (X:
2557000 and Y: 6786000).
• Click OK.

The first coordinate for the georeferencing is now ready.

Look for other cross-hairs in the black lines image, they are separated 1000 meters from each
other both in North and East direction. You should be able to calculate the coordinates of those
points in relation to the first one.

Zoom out in the image and move to the right until you find other cross-hair, and estimate how
many kilometres you have moved. Try to get ground control points as far from each other as
possible. Digitize at least three more ground control points in the same way you did the first
one. You should end up with something similar to this:

71
With already three digitized ground control points you will be able to see the georeferencing
error as a red line coming out of the points. The error in pixels can be seen also in the GCP
table in the dx[pixels] and dy[pixels] columns. The error in pixels should not be higher than
10 pixels, if it is you should review the points you have digitized and the coordinates you have
entered to find what the problem is. You can use the image above as a guide.

Once you are happy with your control points save your ground control points, in case that you
will need them later, and you will:

• File ‣ Save GCP points as....

72
• In the folder exercise_data\forestry\digitizing , name the file rautjarvi_map.tif.points .

Finally, georeference you map:

• File ‣ Start georeferencing.

• Note that you named the file already as rautjarvi_georef.tif when you edited the

Georeferencer settings.

Now you can see the map in QGIS project as a georeferenced raster. Note that the raster seems
to be slightly rotated, but that is simply because the data is KKJ / Finland zone 2 and your

project is in ETRS89 / ETRS-TM35FIN .

To check that your data is properly georeferenced you can open the aerial image in
the exercise_data\forestry folder, named rautjarvi_aerial.tif . Your map and this image should

match quite well. Set the map transparency to 50% and compare it to the aerial image.

73
Save the changes to your QGIS project.

Q-9 Explain the terms : Re-projection and geo-referencing.

74
1)Re-projection: Reprojection in GIS consists in changing the coordinates values of a dataset
from one coordinate system to another coordinate system.

Let's take a one dimensionnal case as an exampple. Imagine that you need to guide two friends
who are trying to find your house. The first thing that you need to know is from which direction
they will approach your street. If they don't approach from the same side of the road, you will
need to give different indications to each.

From point A, you will tell your friend to drive 250 m then it will be on his right. From point
B, you will tell your friend to drive 750 m then it will be on his left.

So, for the same destination, you give different information in order to find your place.

If you translate this in GIS terms, A and B are the origins of two different coordinate reference
systems. The coordinate of your house, in the first coordinate reference system, is 250m; the
coordinate of your house, in the second coordinate reference system, is 750m.

The reprojection that you apply to the coordinates, in this easy case, is 1000 - x.

With 2D (or 3D) coordinate system, the reprojection will be more complex, but the idea is the
same.

For different reasons you may need to change the coordinate reference system (some examples
are given below).

Therefore you apply a mathematical transformation of each geometry represented in the first
coordinate system so that it can be located by someone using another coordinate reference
system.

Main reasons to change coordinate system:

75
 • Facilitate the computation of some features, because each projection has the ability to
preserve some properties of the "real world" objects (e.g. Shortest path is represented by
a straight line, loxodrome (constant compass direction) represented as straight line,
distances measured from some points of the map are true distances, areas can be compared,
local angle (shape) is preserved...) But none can preserve them all.
• Changing territory, because many coordinate reference systems are "locally" optimized
for one state, one country... And you might need some continuity when working across
the boundaries of these countries.

2.Geo-referencing:

• All the elements in a map layer have a specific geographic location and extent that
enables them to be located on or near the earth’s surface
• The ability to accurately describe geographic locations is critical in both mapping and
GIS.
• This process is called georeferencing.
• A spatial referencing system is required to handle spatial information.
• The primary aim of a reference system is to locate a feature on the earth’s surface or a
2D representation of this surface such as a map.
• A map portrays accurately real world feature that occur on the curved surface of earth.

The objective of georeferencing is to provide a rigid spatial framework by which the positions
of the real world feature are measured, computed, recorded, and analyzed in terms of length of
a line, size of an area, and shape of a feature.

Q-10 Describe the fundamental of GIS analysis functions. Define the tern retrieval and
reclassification of GIS analysis functions.

• The core issues of geographic information system can be summarized into five aspects:
location, conditions, trends, patterns and models.

1. Locations (Locations)

• First, you must define the specific location of an object or region information,
commonly used definition methods are: determine the location through various
interactive means, or directly input a coordinate; second, after specifying the location

76
 of the target or region, you can get the expected results and all or part of their
characteristics, such as the current plot owner, address, land use, valuation, and so on.

2. Conditions

• That is, where there is something that meets certain conditions.

• First, you can specify a set of conditions, such as selecting from predefined options;
filling in logical expressions; and interactively filling in forms on terminals.

• Secondly, after specifying the conditions, you can get a list of all the objects that meet
the specified conditions, such as showing all the features that meet the specified
conditions on the screen with high brightness, such as the land type in which it is
located, the valuation is less than $200,000, four bedrooms and a wooden house.

3. Trends

• Such problems need to integrate existing data in order to identify geographical

phenomena that have occurred or are changing.

• First of all, to determine trends, of course, the determination of trends does not
guarantee that each time is correct, once a specific data set is mastered, the
determination of trends may depend on hypothetical conditions, personal speculation,
observation phenomena or evidence reports.

4. Patterns

• Such problems are related to the analysis of events that have occurred or are occurring.
Geographic Information System (GIS) combines existing data to better explain what is
happening and find out which data is relevant to what happened.

• In order to accomplish the core tasks of the above GIS, different functions are needed to
implement them. Although the advantages and disadvantages of commercial GIS
software packages are different, and the technologies they use to implement these
functions are different, most commercial GIS software packages provide the following
functions: Data Acquisition, Preliminary data Processing, Storage and Retrieval, Search
and Analysis, Display and Interaction .

Q-11 Explain the concept of “overlay analysis”.

77
 • Overlay analysis is a group of methodologies applied in optimal site selection or
suitability modeling.
• It is a technique for applying a common scale of values to diverse and dissimilar inputs
to create an integrated analysis.
• Suitability models identify the best or most preferred locations for a specific
phenomenon. Types of problems addressed by suitability analysis include the
following:

• Where to site a new housing development

• Which sites are better for deer habitat
• Where economic growth is most likely to occur
• Where the locations are that are most susceptible to mudslides

• Overlay analysis often requires the analysis of many different factors. For instance,
choosing the site for a new housing development means assessing such things as land
cost, proximity to existing services, slope, and flood frequency.
• This information exists in different rasters with different value scales: dollars, distances,
degrees, and so on. You cannot add a raster of land cost (dollars) to a raster of distance
to utilities (meters) and obtain a meaningful result.
• Additionally, the factors in your analysis may not be equally important. It may be that
the cost of land is more important in choosing a site than the distance to utility lines.
• How much more important is for you to decide.
• Even within a single raster, you must prioritize values.
• Some values in a particular raster may be ideal for your purposes (for example, slopes
of 0 to 5 degrees), while others may be good, others bad, and still others unacceptable.

Q-12 Explain buffering and neighborhood as a GIS analysis function

• Neighborhood Operations:
• Neighborhood Operations, also called proximity analyses, consider the characteristics
of neighboring area around a specific location.
• This function either modify existing or create new feature layers, which are influenced,
to some degree, by the distance from existing features.

78
 • Neighborhood function analyzes the relationship an object and similar surrounding
objects.
• Foe example in certain area analysis of kind of land use is next what kind of land use
can be done by using this function.
• A new map is created by computing the value assigned to location as a function the
independent values surrounding that location.
• Neighborhood functions are particularly valuable in evaluating the character of local
area.

All GIS provide some Neighborhood analyses which include buffering, interpolation,
Theissen polygons, and various topographic functions.

➢ Buffering:
• Buffering creates physical zones around features. These “buffers” are usually based on
specific straight line distances from Selected features common to both raster and vector
systems, are created around point, line or Polygon features. The resulting buffers are
placed in an output Polygon feature layer. Once complete,Buffer layers are used to
determine which features occur either within or outside the buffers, to perform overlay,
or to measure the area of the buffer zone. They are the most useful neighborhood
operation.

Q-13 Explain the concept of quadrant counts and nearest neighbour analysis with respect
to GIS data processing.

79
Q-14 Define data output in GIS.

• The output products can be of various kinds, And since these products are computers
generated, the user /analysts should be aware of the desired forms of output options
available in chaos software.
• The most common graphics products produced by GIS are maps. A map is dimensional
model of a part of the earth surface, and it can be of various kinds.
• A thematic maps shows information about a special topic, which is superimposed on a
base map.
• Types of thematic map includes:
i. Geological Maps,

80
 ii. Soil map
iii. Forestry Map
iv. Land Use Map
v. Historical Map etc.

Q-15 Define data encoding

• Data encoding is a process for inclusion of data into digital database.

• Inclusion of data into a database may involve several techniques, but it solely dependent
on the type of data. For example, analog for digital.
• It is necessary to make a distinction between the analog and digital sources of special
data. Analog data. Are normally in paper form and include paper maps, tablets, hard
copy, satellite images, aerial images. Old is determined to be converted into digital form
before using GIS.
• Digital data are already in computer credible forms in their supplied digital. Digital
map data, digital remote sensing imagery. Data from digital database are all available
in digital form.

While selecting proper data encoding method following factors should be considered.

i. Weather, the data is analog or digital.

ii. Weather, the data is spatial or attribute.
iii. In case of special data, whether the data is to be stored in vector or raster format.

81
82
 ASSSIGNMENT-5

1) Write any five tools (softwares) used in GIS.

1) ESRI( environmental system Research Institute)
2) Arch info
3) Arch map
4) Arch view
5) GEOMEDIA
2) Discuss the features of important GIS software package.
1) ESRI:
Jack and laura founded ESRI in 1969
The ESRI’s early research and development in cartographic data structure
Specialised GIS software tools and creative application set the stage for
Current revolution in digital mapping and GIS.
2) Arch info
It is developed by ESRI ,California ,USA is a vector base GIS package.
Are info is available on wide range of platforms.
It supports ERDAS system. 3) Arch map
The maps produce in arc map generally include features such as north Arrow
,scalbers ,titles, legends etc.
The software package includes a style set of these features.
4) GEOMEDIA
Geomedia is a powerful GIS software that enables you to realise the maximum
Value of Geospatial resources.
It provides Simultaneously access to geospatial data in almost any form
Uniting them in a single map view for efficient processing capture and
Maintenance analysis presentation and sharing.
4) Discuss the features of Map window GIS and Arc GIS.
1) Map window GIS:
Friendly graphical user interface: identify/select features,
Easy Viewing of many Vector and Raster Formats
Create, edit and export spatial data using.
Perform spatial analysis using plugins.
Extensible plugin architecture.

83
activex control.
2) Arc GIS:
Basemap layers. Build 2D and 3D mapping applications using ready-to-use
Layers such as streets, imagery, and topographic from the basemap layer
Service.
Data hosting.
Data visualization.
Geocoding and search.
Routing and directions.
Demographic data.
Spatial analysis.
Content management.
5) How do you differentiate public domain software‟s with other software‟s available
In GIS? Explain with examples.
Differences Between Commercial And Open Source GIS Software
1. MARKETING STRATEGIES:
The marketing strategies of open source and commercial software differ
Significantly.
On the other hand, developers of open source software rely mostly on
Individual efforts like viral marketing (word of mouth) and search engine
(SEO).
2. PRICING
Many commercial GIS software are quite expensive.
Open source or GIS software is completely free on the initial download and
No licensing fee or maintenance fee. 3. QUALITY OF SUPPORT
Since most commercial GIS software is owned and distributed by reputable
Software development companies, they do everything possible to give users
The value of their money.
For open source software, the quality of support is inferior compared to
Commercial software.
4. FLEXIBILITY
Commercial GIS software possesses excellent spatial analysis tool and
Geoprocessing functionality.
On the other hand, it is the complete opposite for open
84
Source GIS software.
6) Write salient features of remote sensing tool ENVI or ERDAS.
1) ENVI:
ENVI is the premier Software Solution for extracting quick, easy and accurate
Information from Geo special imagery.
It provides advanced user friendly tools to read ,explore, prepair ,analyse and
Share information extracted from imagery.
Tools and process is helps you easily and accurately extract information
Needed for intelligence ,scientific or planning purpose.
ENVI has broadcross platform support and can be run in window ,Linux ,Unix
Etc.
ENVI can read over 70 data format include UDF, geotiff, NITF etc. 2)ERDAS:
It is design by ERDAS for geospatial applications.
It is Remote Sensing application with raster graphics editor.
The latest version is 11.0.4 ERDAS image in primarily at geospatial raster data
Processing and allows the user to prepare ,display and enhance digital image
For mapping use in GIS.
It is a tool box allowing the user to perform numerous operation on an image
And generate an answer to specific geographic question.
7) Explain applications of digital terrain model.
In GIS continuous surface such as terrain, surface elevation, temperature,
Rainfall pressure, population density etc required to be model.
Topographic surface models are preferred as digital tear and model( DTM).
DTM is a digital representation of teren features like elevation, slope,
Drainage ,aspect etc.
DTM is used in a generalised sense and DEM normally represent elevation of
Ground above or reference surface.
Various projects like flooding prediction, land erosion ,Susceptibility mining
Potential ,site elevation etc are greatly enhanced by 3D modelling. Vector approach to
DTM
1) point model
2) lattice model
3) contour model
4) TIN model
85
8) Explain surface modeling in GIS.
In GIS continuous surface such as terrain, surface elevation, temperature,
Rainfall pressure, population density etc required to be model.
Topographic surface models are preferred as digital tear and model( DTM).
DTM is a digital representation of teren features like elevation, slope,
Drainage ,aspect etc.
Digital elevation model(DEM) ,digital height model(DHM),and digital surface
Model (DSM), are also widely used in a different parts of the word to
Represent various elements of elevation.
DTM is used in a generalised sense and DEM normally represent elevation of
Ground above a reference surface.
DHM represent the height of various objects like building, trees etc. A good GIS surface
can integrate surface models into spatial analysis.
Various projects like flooding prediction, land erosion ,Susceptibility mining
Potential ,site elevation etc are greatly enhanced by 3D modelling.
To model a surface accurately it would be necessary to store and infinite
Number of observations.
Since this is impossible a surface model approximate a continuous surface
Using a finite number of observations.
Thus an appropriate number of observations must be selected along with their
Geographical location.
Resolution of DTM is determined by frequency of observations used.

9) What is DEM and TIN?

TIN model
Triangulated irregular network( TIN) Stores GIS data for 3D surface model.
In vector GIS a TIN is used to create a DTM from either regular or irregular
Height data.
The TIN method joints the height observations together with straight lines to
Create a mosaic or irregular triangles.
In the TIN model the vertices of triangles produced represent terran features
Such as peak ,depressions ,and passes and edges represent ridges and valleys.
86
The surface of individual Triangles provide areas slope and orientation.
This values can be stored as TIN attributes.
DEM model( Digital Elevation Model):
DEM represents a graphic grid of an area where the contents of each grid cells
Represent the height of Terrain in that cell.
DEM consist of X ,Y and Z coordinates.
It is impossible to collect data from each and every point on the earth and Raster
Surface is generated by interpolating the available observations.
This raster surface is known as DEM.
For example point data control or even vector TIN can be interpolated to generate
Raster surface.
A DEM is representation of topography of earth in digital raster format that is by
Co-ordinate of pixel and numerical description of altitude.
DEM may or may not be accompanied by information such as slope aspect brake
Lines etc about the ground cover. There is some difference between DEM and DTM.
DEM include only elevation data that are generally not considered as terrain
Surface.
In most cases DEM is a grid data which elevation attributes which is suitable
To use for analysis in raster GIS.

10) Explain the role of GIS and RS in assessing the impact of floods.
Flooding is the natural phenomenon in hydrological cycle.
flood have become an unfailing event almost every year in the Indian state of
Assam ,Bihar ,Uttar Pradesh, north Bengal etc .
millions of Hector of land are inadeviated specially by Brahmaputra Ganga
And its tributaries.
Resulting damages to crop worth millions of rupees.
Remote Samsung and GIS can assist the impact of flood.
Remote Sensing techniques are used to measure and monitor the real extent
Of flooded areas to efficiently target receiver efforts and provide quantifiable
Estimates of amount of land and infrastructure affected. Incorporating remotely sensed data
into GIS allows for quick calculations and
Assessment of water level damage and areas facing potential flood danger.
Remote Sensing data is used by flood for Casting Agencies ,hydro power
87
Companies ,conservation authorities ,City planning department,s emergency
Response department and insurance companies.

11) Write any ten different applications of GIS.

Geographic Information System: Different Applications of GIS
Mapping & Navigation.
Mapping is the primary function of GIS.
Telecommunications Services.
Community Development & Planning.
Public Health.
Agriculture.
Disaster Management.
Risk Assessment.
Environmental Impact Analysis.
Water resources.
Civic facility.
12) Explain various applications of remote sensing and describe any two.
1) Land use and land cover mapping
2) agriculture
3) Forestry
4) urban growth studies
5) groundwater mapping
6) flood plane maping
7) hydrology
8)geology and geomorphology
9) ocean and coastal monitoring
10) disaster management
11) Land use and land cover mapping
It includes:
Natural resource management
wildlife Habitat protection
urban expansion
planning for seismic extraction
damage delineation
88
legal boundaries for tax and property evalution. 2) Agriculture
It includes:
Crop type mapping
assessment of Crop condition
estimation of Crop yield
mapping of soil characteristic
mapping soil moisture conditions
monitoring of farm practice.

13) Write a note on Remote Sensing and its application to disaster management.
In case of natural disaster like flood ,cyclone ,earthquakes, landside, forest
Fires etc.
It becomes difficult to pinpoint the area where immediate attention is
Required because of the physical obstruction .
so satellite based on modern technique like Remote sensing in GIS are highly
Useful and technically accurate.
Satellite Technology can help in disaster preparedness by providing repetitive
And synoptic up to the date information on locally available resources and by
Facility the forecast of event in time so that alternate arrangement could be
Provided.
Disaster prevention measures can be improved through satellite technology in
3 ways
 1) mapping the disaster prone areas
 2)prediction of immediate disaster
3)monitoring the phenomena to predic their own set progress. Satellite data can help in
disaster relief operations by providing the
Information on the extent of areas affected, magnitude of damages ,and
Needs of the local population.
 for an effective disaster management time is crucial for factor and hence
Information on near real time should be available .
 many time loss partial but high temporal resolution data are valuable in
Certain phenomenon like draught and floods.

14) Discuss in detail about any two casestudies of applications of remote sensing and
89
GIS in the field of civil engineering.
 A Case Study of Using Remote Sensing Data and GIS for Land
Management; Catalca Region
 Key words: Satellite data, Merge, Land Management, Change detection,
Analysis.
 In this study Catalca region has been selected as study area. This region is one
Of the most developing and changing area around the Istanbul.
 People whom live around the Istanbul, also like to improve their standard of
Living and live in small houses in garden instead of apartments.
 But this change causes decrease of productive agricultural land and increase
Of residential areas.
 IRS1C and LISS remotely sensed images in the years of 1996, 1998 and 2000 of
The study area have been used together with ground measurements, digital
Terrain model and demographic data for analyse of change detection in the
Land use and impacts of this change on the environment.
 For the planning and direct of this kind change for future, satellite images
Have been referenced to the UTM coordinate system boundary of study area
Were determined on the images and classification algorithms have been
Applied to these data.
 Result data have been produced as polygon and transformed to GIS software.
Benefits of these kinds of data in the planning phase have been analyzed.
21) Explain the usefulness of RS & GIS in civil engineering.
 GIS and remote sensing techniques play a crucial role and serve as a complete
Platform in every aspect of civil engineering.
 Following are the applications
 1) Water resources:
 Irrigation
 water supply
 groundwater assessment
 watershed management
 agriculture.
2)Planning and Engineering:
 Urban planning
 Road network planning
90
 real network planning
 Air routes planning
 reasonal planning.
3) Disaster management:
 Identify area prones to natural disaster
 planning of preventive measures.
 4) Environment and natural resources:
 Environment impact assessment
 monitor rules and regulations
 cropping pattern for irrigation water.
 5) Civic facility management:
 Mapping pipeline and cables
 mapping telecommunication network

91
UTM Zone Of India

92