Applied Optics

Professor Akhilesh Kumar Mishra

Department of Physics
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 02
Introduction to Geometrical Optics
(Refer Slide Time: 0:38)

Hello everyone, today, we will formally start the course and I will start with module one. The
module one is about introduction of geometrical optics and ray Theory, Fermat’s principle,
refraction from single and double interfaces. Today we will talk about introduction of
geometrical optics and a part of ray theory.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:48)

Now, what is a wave? this question brings some oscillations in our mind. Whenever we say
wave then the waves in a sea appears to mind, the way we wave our hand holding a rope, this
appears to our mind. Than the most basic definition would be wave is the disturbance. This is
the shortest and best definition, okay, but firmly if you want to bind these words in the best
possible way then it would be like this: Classical traveling wave is a self-sustaining disturbance
of a medium, which moves through space transporting energy and momentum okay. Now,
these waves are of two types: the first one is mechanical wave, sound is the best example of
the mechanical wave and second is electromagnetic waves where our visible light falls. Now
mechanical waves, these waves require medium to propagate. And these waves are subdivided
further as longitudinal wave and transverse wave.

In longitudinal wave, the medium is displaced in the direction of the motion of the wave. Sound
waves propagating in air comes in this category okay. When we speak then contraction and
rarification of air happens and through this contraction and rarification, this sound energy
propagates and then it goes to our ears, then it resonates with our eardrum and then we hear the
sound.

Now, the second kind is this transverse wave, in transverse wave. Medium is displaced in a
direction perpendicular to that of the motion of the wave, if you drop a cork ball in water, the
dropping of pebble will generate water waves and this surface wave will make the water move
up and down and this wave propagate radially outward and if you drop a water cork ball, you
will see that due to this movement of the wave the cork moves up and down slowly and this
represents that the medium is displaced in a direction which is perpendicular to the motion of
the wave, the wave is moving radially outward in the water at the water surface and the cork
ball is moving up and down. This is an example of a transverse mechanical wave.

Now coming to the electromagnetic waves, which is what we will be studying about in this
course, these waves do not require any medium since there is no association of the medium the
wave will propagate with a very high speed and this is why the speed of electromagnetic wave
is very huge and which is generated by, which is described or which is represented by c and its
value is value in vacuum is 3 × 108 meter per second okay.

And as I said disturbance advances not the medium and since this medium does not necessarily
require a medium it propagates very fast.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:31)

Now, whenever we say wave, this harmonic wave comes into our mind the sinusoidal wave
comes into our mind and all types of waves are represented by some wave function. And this
wave function is given by this expression,

𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)|𝑡=0 = 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝜓 is the wave function and this wave function 𝜓 is function of position variable x and time
variable t. Now, this wave function at t is equal to zero would be represented by 𝜓 as a function
of x.

Since, it is a harmonic wave or since it is a sinusoidal wave, generally we can write it as A

sin(kx), okay. Now you may ask that initially there was no k, how come k is appearing, how
come A is appearing, A represents amplitude of the wave, okay. Now, the insertion of k is
necessary. Why? then if you take sin(x) then that this would be not allowed. Why? because x
is dimensional quantity, x is distance, x is length and you cannot take sine of some dimensional
variable you will have to make a dimensionless.

And how to make this x dimensionless you will have to multiply x with one by length unit
therefore, k will have unit of 1 by length and this makes kx a dimensionless quantity and once
it is dimensionless we can easily take sine of this quantity and we will have something, so, now
allowed.

And therefore, we can see that A sin(kx) is a function which is x dependent, x is a variable.
Here now, if you vary x and see how does 𝜓 look then you will find this type of curve which
is given in blue here this is a sinusoidal curve.
(Refer Slide Time: 6:57)

Now, the general expression for a wave is A sin(kx) okay, But, we know that a wave moves in
space okay and since a wave is moving it must be having some velocity okay. All sort of waves
are represented by some wave function and these wave functions, this evolution of the waves
is governed by a certain type of mathematical expression which we call wave equation and
what is the form of wave equation?

Wave equation is represented like this. This is the wave equation this is our differential
equation, which is linear, homogeneous, second order partial differential equation okay, linear,
homogeneous second order partial differential equation and all kinds of wave function obey
this second order partial differential equation, they constitute the solution of this equation okay.
Now, as we discussed before, since a wave is moving therefore, velocity v must appear in the
expression of wave function, how to insert the expression of velocity in the expression, just by
replacing x by x-vt. v is the velocity and this x-vt will now introduce the expression of velocity
into the wave expression. Now, in this expression if you replace x by x-vt then you will get this
okay which is a function of x and t both now okay.

Now, the resultant wave function will look like A sin (kx-vkt) and this is sinusoidal both in
space and time, this expression is periodic both in space and time okay. Since there is a
periodicity in space, we can define or we can name this period and in a spatial domain this
spatial period is known as wavelength and this wavelength is expressed by a Greek letter λ
(lambda) okay. As I said the wave repeat itself after λ therefore, if you add or subtract λ in x,
the resultant expression would be unaltered okay. If you add or subtract λ in x, it would not
cause any variation into the resultant expression okay.

Now, we know that ψ is a harmonic function the wave function is harmonic and by adding or
subtracting λ there is no variation in the expression then what we can do is that we will write
this wave function and then we will add and subtract lambda in this okay and we also know
that in the expression of sin in the argument, if we add or subtract 2𝜋, this will also not cause
any variation. This will also not alter the argument of the sine function therefore, this would be
equivalent to 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 ± 2𝜋) because sine is a cyclic function. If you add 2𝜋 in its phase,
it would come again to its original value therefore, this will not make any variation in the
resulting function.

Now, if you compare the argument of the two, then we will find that |𝑘𝜆| = 2𝜋, what is λ
(lambda)? lambda is a spatial period which is having the dimension of length and which will
of course be a positive quantity. what is k? k is a parameter which is having the dimension of
1 by length (inverse of length) therefore, it would also be a positive quantity therefore, we can
safely remove this mod and therefore, we can write k as 2𝜋 by lambda, lambda is having the
dimension of length therefore, k would be having the dimension of inverse of a length okay
which is aligned with the initial definition of the k okay and this k is called wave number.

Now, since the wave function is periodic both in space and time and here we have studied the
spatial periodicity let us now analyze the temporal periodicity.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:38)

Now, let us assume that temporal period is 𝜏 (Tau), 𝜏 is the temporal period. It means, the wave
takes 𝜏 time for completing one cycle okay. Now, if you add or subtract 𝜏 in time then you
should also end up to the same expression because 𝜏 is the time period in time or periodicity in
time. Therefore, we will just applying the same analogy what we have used in case of spatial
analysis, 𝑠𝑖𝑛[𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)}~𝑠𝑖𝑛[𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑣(𝑡 ± 𝜏)] and since it is a sinusoidal function, this would
be equivalent to adding plus minus 2𝜋.

Upon comparing these two arguments, we will get |𝑘𝑣𝜏| = 2𝜋, again k is a positive number as
we have already discussed 𝜏 is time positive quantity v is positive number therefore, we will
get 𝑘𝑣𝜏 = 2𝜋. Now, in the last slide, we saw 𝑘 = 2𝜋⁄𝜆, substituting for k leads to this
expression which is (2𝜋/ 𝜆 ) (v× 𝜏)= 2𝜋, and from here we can get the expression for 𝜏 which
is time period.

Therefore, in equation 13 we see that 𝜏 = 𝜆⁄𝑣 , ratio of lambda to v gives the expression for
𝜏 and the inverse of 𝜏 defines temporal frequency 𝜐 (mu) okay I would also like to mention
here is that k is also called spatial frequency okay and inverse of 𝜏 is our temporal frequency.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:05)
Once temporal frequency is defined. Now, 𝜏 is time, it is measured in seconds, hours and so
on. Now, if 𝜏 is measured in second then the unit of 𝜐 (nu) is Hertz which is inverse of second.
Now, from equation 13 which is in our last slide, where 𝜏 = 𝜆/𝑣, we can write velocity 𝑣 =
𝜐𝜆 , 𝜐 (nu) is our temporal frequency and lambda is the wavelength okay this is a very important
relation.

Now, apart from these terms another very important term is angular frequency which is often
used in optics and how angular frequency is defined it is analogous to k, angular frequency is
defined by inverse of 𝜏 but it has 2𝜋 term in the numerator okay, 𝜔 = 2𝜋/𝜏 and we know that
1/ 𝜏 is equal to υ, therefore, we can write 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜐 again.

Now, we have so many definitions. We defined k, which is wave vector, we define 𝜔 (omega)
which is angular frequency therefore, we can write the initial expression this 𝜓 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘(𝑥 −
𝑣𝑡)) in terms of k and omega.

Now, if you write it in terms of k and omega then the final expression of the wave function
would be like this 𝜓 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 ± 𝜔𝑡) okay. what does plus and minus represent? plus
and minus represents the direction of the wave. If it is propagating, whether it is propagating
in positive x direction or it is propagating in minus x direction it is defined or taken care of this
minus and plus symbol.

Now, here we see that this wave function has only one frequency omega and such a wave is
called monochromatic wave okay a wave which has only one frequency, single frequency is
called monochromatic wave, but, in practice it is impossible to have a monochromatic wave.
All the waves have certain bandwidth and these waves are called polychromatic wave okay.
But if this bandwidth is very narrow then these waves is very close to be a monochromatic one
and these are called pseudo monochromatic.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:18)

Now, once we have defined all these, we can move on defining phase, what is phase? now, the
argument associated with the sine function is called phase okay and if we want to understand
it figuratively then, if you plot a sine function and this is the type of the plot which we get okay.
We see that the sine function is start with the zero, it is a zero here on the horizontal axis then
we see that the sine function is start from exactly from zero and therefore, we can say that phase
here is zero.

But sometimes we may start not from zero but from certain value which is not equal to zero
and this decides the phase what is the value at the beginning here but more accurately phase is
a relative concept. It is always measured with respect to some reference value like here in this
first case the reference value is zero, here the reference value is again zero but there is a
deviation here.

And then you can see that this is deviated by 𝜋/2 and therefore, the phase here would be 𝜋/2
okay anyway, let us go with the definition of phase here. The phase 𝜑 = 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡. Now, at t
and x is equal to zero. We can define the wave function which would be zero, because when
both x and t are zero the sinusoidal function would be zero and therefore, the wave function
would be zero.

Therefore, we can see that phase plays a very important role here. Now, when both x and t is
equal to zero, then this correspond to this point the wave function itself is zero which is here,
but here when phase is equal to 𝜋/2 the wave function has certain non-zero value okay. But
generally in addition to 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡, there is some extra term 𝜖 (Epsilon) in right along with this
𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡, which is called initial phase because, when both x and t is equal to zero, the wave
should look like this, but sometimes what happens is that even at x and t is equal to zero, wave
start from this point and here it means that some nonzero phase is there at the beginning this
non-zero phase is represented by this epsilon nonzero phases also here.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:18)

Okay, once we know what a phase is, what a wave, what is 𝜔 is, what a k is? Now, let us define
phase velocity now, we have this expression of phase 𝜑 = 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡. Now, let us take time
derivative of this phase keeping x constant if we take time derivative of phase keeping x
constant then since 𝜑 = 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡, then 𝜕𝜑/𝜕𝑡 = −𝜔. because we are keeping k, sorry x
constant and if you take the mod of this then you will get omega this is what is being represented
here.
Similarly, if you take the space derivative of a 𝜑 keeping time constant now, then you will get
k from the same expression this expression okay. Now, if you divide this and this, this is coming
here in the numerator this is in the denominator then we will get del x by del t at constant phi.
This quantity is called phase velocity and this represents speed of propagation of the constant
phase. Now, if we know that 𝜑 = 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 and if you take the time derivative of
this quantity then keeping 𝜑 constant here.

Here it says that we are taking time derivative of x and 𝜑 is kept constant okay and if you treat
𝜑 as a constant and take the derivative of this 𝜑 with respect to time this then this term would
be zero, here you will get omega and here you will get minus k and from here you can calculate
𝜕𝑥 𝜔
at constant 𝜑 which would be equal to ± 𝑘 and this is defined as velocity or phase velocity.
𝜕𝑡

Now, here we can also talk about the refractive index, what is index of refraction? usually
people define refractive index n as c the speed of light in vacuum by v, speed of light in a
certain medium and this ratio gives index of refraction or refractive index. The v which is used
here is this v, the phase velocity, okay and this definition is valid as long as our wave is
monochromatic okay.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:30)

Now, suppose we have more than one waves or we have more than one wave functions which
overlap in space, then what will happen? What will be the resultant of this? this would be
decided by superposition principle. And this principle says that if 𝜓1 (Psi1) and 𝜓2 (Psi2)
represents two separate solutions of the wave equation, or if 𝜓1 and 𝜓2 are two wave functions
then 𝜓1 + 𝜓2 is also a solution of wave equation or we can say that if 𝜓1 and 𝜓2 are two
disturbances which are overlapping in space, then the resultant disturbances would be the
addition of the two and this is what is being written here the resultant disturbance. Disturbance
at each point in the region of overlap is the algebraic sum of the individual constituent waves
at that location.

Now, here this is what is written here is shown schematically with a blue color we show wave
function 𝜓1 and with the orange color we show wave function 𝜓2 , the wave function 𝜓1 is
here, wave function 𝜓2 is here and with this yellow color the resultant is being expressed.
Now, we see that resultant is sum of 𝜓1 and 𝜓2 .

And we see that all these waves start, they are in phase. What I mean by saying that the waves
are in phase, in phase means, the crest and trough of these wave come at the same time all these
waves start from zero the initial phase is zero here and they passes through their maxima and
minima simultaneously. But, if we consider the opposite case, then what will happen is shown
here in this diagram again the blue curve represents the wave function 𝜓1 , the wave function
𝜓2 is given by this color and the yellow curve color represents the resultant.

Now, here you see what you see is that the blue color and this red color is opposite in phase
and therefore they cancel out and therefore, the resultant which is given by this yellow color is
a very low amplitude. While here the resultant is of very high in amplitude, it means the
resultant will always depend upon the relative phase of the waves which are overlapping in
time or which are overlapping in space okay, this is all superposition principle tells.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:28)

Now, it is while doing mathematics it is always very easy to move to complex domain.
Therefore, in this slide we will learn how to represent a wave function in complex
representation. Now, we know that any complex number can be expressed as x + iy. where x
is a real part, y is imaginary part okay, and i is iota which is equal to a √−1. In polar
coordinate, this can equivalently be written as 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) + 𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) okay.

And this can equivalently be written this 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , this all we know. Therefore,
complex number which is expressed by

𝑧̃ = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.

If you want to calculate the absolute value or the modulation of this complex number, then you
have to take the mod and this mod will be equal to r, r is modulus of z tilde (𝑧̃ ).

Now, how to calculate complex conjugate. Now, to calculate complex conjugate you will have
to just replace iota by minus iota. Therefore, here it the in the exponent i is removed, replaced
by minus i and here in this form i is again replaced by minus sign this represents the complex
conjugate of 𝑧̃ (z tilde).

Now z tilde which is a complex number as I said before it consists of a real part and the
imaginary part, the real of the z tilde is expressed as x and imaginary of z tilde is y, now, with
these information, we can write our wave function in complex note form, how to write this?
We know that our 𝜓 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) . 𝑇he minus sign will just alter the
phase okay, this is a real part, if you plot it you will see some variation here, but how to go to
the complex domain we will follow this, that a complex number can be represent as 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +
𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Then once 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, and r is known then everything can go into a complex notation which
is 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 . And the real part of this complex number is r which will represent our wave function.
Knowing this we can represent our wave function here.

We have 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥+𝜖) which is our wave function which is written in exponent complex form.
But the imaginary part of a wave function does not hold any significance. It is the real part
which is of our interest. Therefore, we put Re here, the real part of 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥±𝜖) will represent
the wave function, 𝜖 is some arbitrary phase. If you take the real part of 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥±𝜖) you will
get cosine function. And this is which you will get the 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ± 𝜖).

This is all for today. Now in the next class we will move further in the module one and we will
learn about the ray theory and then Fermat’s principle. Thank You.