The Kisjo Content, Second Edition

MOLE CONCEPT AND STOICHIOMETRY DETAILED NOTES AND SAMPLE

QUESTIONS
(I regret for any mistake if noted)
S3 TERM TWO TOPIC
CBC NEW LOWER SECONDARY CURRICULUM
(CHEMISTRY)

BY

TR. KISULE JOSEPH

(0751339538-0786570990)
[email protected]

DEDICATED TO YOU
The attached questions are almost enough for a student to have a general
idea/concept about this region(content/subtopic) in chemistry, however, I
advise a student to search for more related questions about this content area
for better results.

CONTENT:
1. Mole concept and Stoichiometry
2. Some sample questions on the above topic
3. Try so hard to answer the sample questions and look for more qns.

Don’t say tomorrow, it will be too late for chemistry revision, and
yesterday is gone forever, you have got today to revise your chemistry!
“Revise as if tomorrow is not there”
May god bless you

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MOLE CONCEPT

Introduction

Mole concept deals with determining or counting the number of particles.

Since the number of particles is in large quantities, it becomes very difficult to
deal with large numbers; therefore, these particles are placed in groups called
moles.
One mole of a substance has 6.02×1023 particles. The particles of substances
grouped into moles can be molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, radicals, protons or
any other specified particles.
For example, 1 mole of magnesium atoms contains 6.02×1023 atoms, 1 mole of
magnesium ions contains 6.02×1023 ions, 1 mole of H2SO4(aq) molecules contains
6.02×1023 molecules of H2SO4(aq).

A mole is the amount of substance which contains 6.02×1023 particles.

Or
A mole is the amount of substance that contains the same number of particles
as the number of particles in 12grams of carbon-12.
The number 6.02×1023 is called Avogadro ‘s number or constant and it is
denoted by letter L.

Molar Mass
Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance.
It is equal to the relative atomic mass expressed in grams.
The relative atomic masses of all elements have already been established.
Relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of isotopes of the
element compared to one twelfth the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
Do you still remember isotopes and isotopy???? Lets look at
them precisely.
Isotopes and Isotopy

Isotopes
Are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons.
Isotopes therefore have different mass numbers.
For elements that show isotopy, the most abundant (common) isotope is
taken to be the representative of all the element.

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The abundance is usually given as a percentage.

Isotopy
Is the existence of atoms of the same element with the same number of protons
but different number of neutrons.

Examples of isotopes
Element Symbol Atomic number Isotopes Abundance
Hydrogen H 1 99.99%

0.01%

Rare

Carbon C 6 98.9%

1.1%

Trace
Chlorine Cl 17 75%

25%

NB;
The atomic mass of substances or elements are obtained from the periodic table
and the abundance is always given as a percentage.
The mass of carbon atom is taken to be 12 atomic mass units (amu). This was
recommended by the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry).
One twelfth of the mass of carbon atom is one.
Relative Atomic Mass (RAM) / Ar
This is the mass of one atom of an element compared to 1/12 (a twelfth) of
the mass of one atom of Carbon 12 isotope.
NB:
R.A.M has no units because it is a ratio of the same quantity.

R.A.M =

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Relative Atomic Mass of an element that shows isotopy is dependent on

the relative abundance of each isotope and the atomic masses of the isotopes.
Example
Neon has three isotopes, (percentage abundance 90.5%); (percentage abundance of
0.3%) and (percentage abundance of 9.2%). Calculate the relative atomic mass of neon.
Solution

Examples are given below.

Atoms Relative atomic mass Molar mass
Hydrogen 1 1g
Carbon 12 12g
Oxygen 16 16g
Sodium 23 23g
Magnesium 24 24g
Sulphur 32 32g
Aluminium 27 27g
Copper 64 64g
Silver 108 108g
Lead 207 207g
Chlorine 35.5 35.5g
Calcium 40 40g
Potassium 39 39g
Tin 119 119g
Zinc 65 65g
Nickel 59 59g
Nitrogen 14 14g
Iron 56 56g
Phosphorus 31 31g

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Relative formula mass/RFM (Mr) or molecular mass/RMM (Mr)

Generally, these two can be defined as the mass of one mole of a compound.
They are obtained by adding the relative atomic masses of the atoms present in a
compound/molecule. They both have no units.
RMM is reserved for covalent compounds or molecules.
RFM is reserved for ionic compounds. This is because they are composed of
aggregates of ions arranged in crystal lattice.
Important terms
Lattice means a structure consisting of strips crossed and fastened together
but with spaces left between, just the way you use some wire fences.
A molecule is a structure of atoms connected by covalent bonds. Not all
chemical compounds are a molecule.
A particle is just a small portion of matter.

Examples
Calculate the formula/molecular masses of the following compounds.

a) Water ,H2O (H=1,O=16)

=(1x2) + 16
=18
b) Oxygen molecule, O2 (0=16)
=2x16
=32
c) Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4 (Na=23,S=32,0=16)
=(2x23)+32+(4x16)
=46+32+64
=142
d) Copper (II) sulphate crystals, CuSO4.5H2O (Cu=64,S=32,O=16,H=1)
=64+32+(4x16)+5(2x1+16)
=250

Exercise
Calculate the relative formula/molecular masses of the following compounds.
a) FeSO4.7H2O (Fe=56,S=32,O=16,H=1)
b) (NH4)2SO4 (N=14,H=1,S=32,O=16)
c) Al2O3 (Al=27,O=16)
d) Ca(HCO3)2 (Ca=40,H=1,C=12,O=16)
e) Magnesium hydroxide (H=1., O=16, Mg=24)

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f) Sodium carbonate decahydrate

g) Sodium hydroxide
h) Calcium hydroxide
i) Hydrated copper(ii) sulphate/copper(ii) sulphate pentahydrate
j) Chalk
k) Sand
l) Ammonia
m) Carbon dioxide (C=12, N=14, O=16, Na=23, S=32, Ca=40, Cu=64, Pb=207)
Calculating number of particles
This is based on the relationship that one mole of a substance contains
6.02×1023 particles.

Examples
1. Calculate the number of particles in the following compounds.
a) Water (H2O)
Number of molecules in 1 mole of H20 = 6.02×1023 molecules
1mole of H2O contains 2 moles of H atoms, therefore, number of H atoms
in 1 mole of H2O = (2X6.02×1023) =12.04x1023 atoms.

Number of O atoms in 1 mole of H2O =6.02×1023.

b) 2 moles of oxygen molecules, (2O2)

1 mole of oxygen molecules contains 6.02×1023 molecules

2 moles of oxygen molecules contains (2x6.02×1023)= 12.04x1023 molecules

1 mole of oxygen molecule contains 2 moles of oxygen atoms

2 moles of oxygen molecules contains (2x2)= 4 moles of oxygen atoms
1 mole of oxygen atom contains 6.02×1023 atoms
4 moles of oxygen atoms contains (4x6.02×1023)= 24.08x1023 atoms.

c) Number of hydrogen ions in 2 moles of H2SO4

1 mole of H2SO4 contains 2 moles of H+

2 moles of H2SO4 contains (2x2)= 4 moles of H+
1 mole of H+ contains 6.02×1023 ions
4 moles of H+ contains (4x6.02×1023)= 24.08x1023 H+ ions

d) Total number of ions in 1 mole of (NH4)2SO4

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(NH4)2SO4(aq) 2 (aq) + (aq)

1 mole of (NH4)2SO4 contains 3 moles of ions
1 mole of ion contains 6.02×1023 ions
3 moles of ions contain (3x6.02×1023)
= 18.06x1023 ions

2. Calculate the number of atoms in the following

a) 0.25 moles of calcium
1 mole of calcium contains 6.02×1023 atoms
0.25 moles of calcium contain ( ) atoms
23
=1.5x10 atoms
b) 8 moles of sulphur
1 mole of sulphur contains 6.02×1023 atoms
8 moles of sulphur contain ( ) atoms
23
=4.8x10 atoms
c) O.4 g of oxygen atoms
1 mole of oxygen atom contains 6.02×1023 atoms
16g of oxygen contains 6.02×1023 atoms
1g of oxygen contains ( ) atoms
0.4g of oxygen contains ( ) atoms
24
=1.5 x 10 atoms

Exercise

1. Calculate the following

(Al=27,H=1,O=16,S=32,Ca=40,Na=23,Hg=201,Cl=35.5)
a) Number of atoms in 2 moles of sodium
b) Number of molecules in 5 moles of hydrogen (H2)
c) Number of ions in 1 mole of Al2(SO4)3
d) Number of hydroxyl ions in 2 moles of Ca(OH)2
2. Calculate the number of particles in the following
a) 0.1 moles of sodium atoms
b) 0.5 moles of chlorine atoms
c) O.3 moles of calcium atoms
3. Use the value of 6.02×1023 mol-1 for the Avogadro constant to find the
number of atoms in;
a) 2.0x 10-3g of calcium
b) 16g of magnesium ribbon

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c) 27g of sodium carbonate decahydrate or hydrated sodium carbonate.

d) 5.0x10-6g of argon
e) 1.00x10-10g of mercury

f) How many P4 molecules and atoms are present in 30g of phosphorus? (P=31)

g) Sucrose is a compound commonly known as sugar. Its molecular formular is

C12H22O11. Calculate the number of atoms of each element in 4.32g of
sucrose. (Hint; get the RMM first)

Converting number of particles to masses

Example
1. Calculate the mass of sodium with 1.5x1022 sodium atoms.
(Na=23, L=6.02×1023 atoms)
6.02×1023 atoms are contained in 1 mole of sodium
6.02×1023 atoms are contained in 23g of sodium
1 atom is contained in ( )g of sodium
22
1.5×10 atoms are contained in ( )g of sodium
=0.575g of sodium

2. How many grams of calcium contain?

a) atoms

6.02×1023 atoms are contained in 1 mole of calcium

6.02×1023 atoms are contained in 40g of calcium
1 atom is contained in ( )g of calcium
23
6.02×10 atoms are contained in ( )g of calcium
=40g of calcium

b) atoms

6.02×1023 atoms are contained in 1 mole of calcium

6.02×1023 atoms are contained in 40g of calcium
1 atom is contained in ( )g of calcium

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1.5×1023 atoms are contained in ( )g of calcium

=10g of calcium

c) atoms

6.02×1023 atoms are contained in 1 mole of calcium

6.02×1023 atoms are contained in 40g of calcium
1 atom is contained in ( )g of calcium
23
3.0×10 atoms are contained in ( )g of calcium
=20g of calcium
Self-test
1. convert 2.03x1023 particles of sodium into mass. (Na=23)
2. 6x1018 particles of magnesium
3. 3 x1013 particles of lead(ii) nitrate
4. 2.4 x1020 particles of glucose
5. 5.08 x103 particles of methane
6. Methane is a gas used for cooking. Calculate the number of atoms of each element
in in 40g of methane.
7. How many molecules are present in;
a) 9g of water
b) 17g of ammonia

Converting masses to moles

Relationships
For atoms, 1 mole is equivalent to Relative atomic mass (RAM) in grams. For
example: 1 mole of Cu=64g; 1 mole of S = 32g; 1 mole of H= 1g.

For molecules, 1 mole is equivalent to relative molecular mass (RMM) or

relative formula mass (RFM). For example: 1 mole of H2O= 18g; 1 mole of CaCO3=
100g; 1 mole of H2SO4= 98g.

Examples
1. Calculate the number of moles of in;
a) 4g of oxygen molecule (O2)
(0=16, S=32)

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RMM= (2X16) =32

32g is contained in 1 mole of O2
1 g is contained in ( ) moles of O2
4g is contained in ( ) moles of O2
=0.125 moles of O2
b) 160g of sulphur (S)

RAM= 32
32g is contained in 1 mole of S
1 g is contained in ( ) moles of S
160g is contained in ( ) moles of S
=5.0 moles of S
2. Calculate the number of moles in the following molecules
a) 2 g of Calcium oxide

RMM of CaO= 40+16 =56

56g is contained in 1 mole of CaO
1 g is contained in ( ) moles of CaO
2g is contained in ( ) moles of CaO
=0.036 moles of CaO

b) 4 g of sodium hydroxide

RMM of NaOH= 23+16+1 =40

40g is contained in 1 mole of NaOH
1 g is contained in ( ) moles of NaOH
2g is contained in ( ) moles of NaOH
=0.1 moles of NaOH

Summary

Number of moles = , for atoms

Number of moles , for molecules

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Exercise
Given (O=16, Ca=40, C=12, S=32, H=1, Cu=64, Ag=108,
Mg=24) Calculate the number of moles in
a) 21.6 g of silver
b) 12g of magnesium
c) 6g of ammonia
d) 88g of carbondioxide
e) 22.2g of calcium chloride
f) 5g of copper

Converting moles to masses

Examples
Given (O=16, Ca=40, C=12, S=32, H=1, Cu=64)
Calculate the mass in
a) 0.23 moles of sodium
1 mole of sodium weighs 23g
0.23 moles of sodium weighs ( )g
=5.29g

b) 7.1 moles of chlorine molecules

RMM of Cl2
=35.5x2
=71
1 mole of chlorine weighs 71g
7.1 moles of chlorine weighs( )g
=504.1g of
chlorine

c) 0.1 moles of potassium carbonate

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RMM of K2CO3
=(39X2) +12+(16X3)
=138
1 mole of potassium carbonate weighs 138g
0.1 moles of chlorine weighs( )g
=13.8g of chlorine
Exercise
Calculate the mass of
a) 0.1 moles of sodium atom
b) 0.3 moles of chlorine molecules
c) 0.125 moles of sodium carbonate
d) 0,123 moles of calcium hydroxide
e) 0.25 moles of sodium hydroxide
f) 0.1 moles of sulphuric acid
g) 0.28 moles of lead(ii) nitrate
h) 0.5 moles of iron(iii) chloride
i) 0.05 moles of calcium atoms
j) 0.05 moles of copper (II)carbonate
k) 0.2 moles of lead (IV)oxide
l) Malaria is an infectious disease that affects human beings. It can easily be
treated by taking artemether lumefantrine (Coartem) tablets, which have the
molecular formula C46H58CL3NO6. One tablet contains 20 mg of coartem. The
prescription of for an infected adult is 4x2 for 3 days.
i. How many tablets are taken by an adult?
a) On daily basis
b) For a full dose
ii. On daily basis:
a) How many moles of coartem are swallowed?
b) How many molecules of coartem are swallowed?
c) How many atoms of carbon are orally swallowed?

Calculations on percentage composition by mass

From the formula of a compound, we can calculate the percentage by mass of
each element in a compound.

Percentage composition of an element x 100

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Examples
Given (O=16, Ca=40, C=12, S=32, H=1,
Cu=64) Calculate the percentage
composition by mass of;
a) Oxygen in calcium carbonate

Formula mass of CaCO3 =40+12+(3x16) =100g

Mass of oxygen= (3x16) =48g

Percentage of oxygen=
=48%

b) Water in CuSO4.5H2O

Formula mass of CuSO4.5H2O =64+32+(4x16) +5(1x2+16) =250g

Mass of water= 5(1x2+16) =90g

Percentage of oxygen=
=36%

c) Nitrogen in nitrogen dioxide

Formula mass of NO2 = 14+(2x16) =46g

Mass of nitrogen= 14g

Percentage of oxygen=
=30.4%

d) Oxygen in baking powder, NaHCO3

Formula mass of NaHCO3 =23+1+12+(3x16) =84g

Mass of oxygen= (3x16) =48g

Percentage of oxygen=
=57.14%
Exercise
1. Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in each of the following

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a) Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)

b) Sodium nitrate (NaNO3)
c) Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4
(N=14,H=1,Cl=35.5,Na=23,O=16,S=32)
2. Calculate the percentage of water of crystallization in sodium carbonate
crystals, Na2CO3.10H2O
3. A metal sulphate, X2(SO4)3 contains 28% by mass of metal X. Determine the
Relative Atomic Mass of X and the Relative Molecular Mass of X2(SO4)3

(X=56, RMM= 390)

Empirical and Molecular formulae

Empirical formula
This is the simplest formula of a compound which expresses the ratio in which
different atoms present in one molecule exists.

Example of empirical and molecular formulae

Compound Molecular formula Empirical formula
Water H2O H2O
Ammonia NH3 NH3
Ethene C2H4 CH2
Benzene C6H6 CH
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O

Steps in calculating empirical formulae

1. Write down the symbols of the elements present
2. Write down the percentage composition or composition by mass below the
symbols
3. Find the number of moles of each element by dividing the percentage
composition or mass by Relative Atomic Mass
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Number of moles = 𝑅𝐴𝑀/𝑅𝑀𝑀
4. Find the mole ratio of the elements by dividing the moles with the smallest
number
5. Write down the empirical number.

If the mole ratio is in fractions;

1. Round off to the nearest whole number if it is very close to the whole number.

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2. Multiply by a small number that converts the fraction to a whole number if the
fraction is not close to a whole number.

Molecular formula
Is a formula that shows the actual number of each atom present in one
molecule of a compound.
The molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula, so, from the
empirical formula, the molecular formula can be determined.

Molecular formula= (Empirical formula)n = Molecular

mass n is number to be determined

Calculations on empirical and molecular formulae

Examples
1. a) Calculate the empirical formula of a compound containing 80% carbon and 20%
hydrogen.
b) If the molar mass of the compound is 30g, determine its molecular formula.

Solution
a) Elements present C H

Percentage composition 80 20

Number of moles
6.7 20

Divide by the smallest

Mole ratio 1 3
The empirical formula is CH3

b) (Empirical formula)n= Molar mass

(CH3)n=30
(12+3)n=30
15n=30
n=2

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The molecular formula is therefore (CH3)2 = C2H6

2. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound containing 28% of iron, 24%

sulphur and the rest being oxygen. (Fe=56,S=32,0=16)

Solution
Percentage composition of oxygen=100-(28+24)
=100-52
=48%

Elements present Fe S O

Percentage composition 28 24 48
Number of moles

0.5 0.75 3

Divide by the smallest

Mole ratio 1 1.5 6

2x (1 1.5 6)
2 3 12

The empirical formula is Fe2S3012 or Fe2(SO4)3

3. A hydrocarbon contains 85.7% carbon and its relative molecular mass is 28. Work
out its molecular formula.

Solution
Percentage of hydrogen 100%-85.7% =14.3%

Elements present C H

Percentage composition 85.7 14.3

Number of moles

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7.14 14.3

Divide by the smallest

Mole ratio 1 2
The empirical formula is CH2

(Empirical formula)n= Molar mass

(CH2)n=28
(12+2)n=28
14n=28
n=2
The molecular formula is therefore (CH2)2 = C2H4

4. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound that contains 52g of zinc, 9.6g of
carbon and 38.4g of oxygen. (Zn=65,C=12,0=16)

Elements present Zn C O

Composition by mass 52 9.6 38.4

Number of moles

0.8 0.8 2.4

Divide by the smallest

Mole ratio 1 1 3

The empirical formula is ZnCO3

Exercise
1. A compound X consists of carbon 40%, hydrogen 6.7% and the rest being oxygen.
If the RMM is 60, determine its molecular formula.(C=12,H=1,0=16)(Ans. CH2O)
2. A hydrocarbon is made up of 92.3% carbon and has molecular formula of 78g.
Calculate its empirical and molecular formula.(Answer CH)
3. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound formed when 1.8g of carbon
forms 2.4g of a hydrocarbon. (Answer CH4)

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4. Given that 0.24g of magnesium reacted with 0.16g of oxygen. Find the empirical
formula.(O=16, Mg=24).
5. Calculate the molecular formula of a hydrocarbon with empirical formula CH2
and molecular mass of 28g. (Answer C2H4)
6. Calculate the empirical formula of a salt with the following composition, copper
25%, sulphur 12.8%, oxygen 25.6% and water 36.0% (Answer CuSO4.5H2O)
7. Calculate the empirical formula of a hydrated salt with the following
composition, sodium 16.09%, carbon 9.20%, oxygen 16.78% and water 62.93%
(Answer Na2C2O3.10H2O)
8. Find the empirical formulae of the compounds formed in the reactions
described below.
a) 10.800g magnesium form 18.000g of an oxide (Answer=MgO)
b) 3.400g calcium form 9.435g of a chloride (Answer=CaCl2)
c) 3.528g iron form 10.237g of a chloride. ( Answer=FeCl3)
8. Calculate the empirical formulae of the compounds from which the following
analytical results were obtained.
a) 27.3%C, 72.7%O (Answer=CO2)
b) 53.0%C, 47.0%O (Answer=C3O2)
c) 29.1%Na, 40.5%S,30.4%O (Answer=Na2S2O3)
d) 32.4%Na, 22.5%S, 45.0%O (Answer=Na2SO4)

Calculation of masses from equations

Moles and mole ratios can be used to calculate the number of substances
reacting and products formed.
This requires that a correctly balanced equation is written. Such an equation
is known as a stoichiometric equation.

STOICHIOMETRY
is the relationship between amounts of reactants and products in a chemical
reaction.

A stoichiometric equation is an equation in which the reactants and products

are correctly balanced.

Steps involved in the calculation

1. Write down a balanced equation for the reaction
2. Write down the moles of substances that concerns the question
3. Convert the moles into grammes

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Examples
1. Calculate the mass of iron (II) sulphide formed by heating 64g of sulphur
with excess iron filling. (S=32, Fe=56)

Solution
Molecular mass of FeS= 56+32 =88g
Equation for reaction
Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s)

1 mole of sulphur forms 1 mole of Iron (II)sulphide

32g of S forms 88g of FeS
1 g of S forms ( )g of FeS
64g of S forms ( )g of FeS
=176g of FeS
2. What is the mass of magnesium required to form 55g of magnesium oxide.

Solution
Molecular mass of MgO= 24+16 =40g
Equation for reaction
(2x40)g of MgO is formed by (2x24)g of Mg
2Mg(s) + O2(s) 2MgO(s)

2 moles of magnesium oxide is formed 2 mole of magnesium

(2x40)g of MgO is formed by (2x24)g of Mg
80g of MgO is formed by 48g of Mg

1 g of MgO is formed by ( )g of Mg
55g of MgO is formed by ( )g of Mg
=33g of Mg
3. a) Calculate the mass of copper formed when 3.2g of copper (II)oxide is
completely reduced to the metal by hydrogen gas.
b)How many grams of water was produced
c)Calculate the mass of hydrogen used in the experiment

Solution
a) CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) +H2O(l)
1 mole of CuO forms 1 mole of Cu
(64+16)g of CuO forms 64g of Cu

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80g of CuO forms 64g of Cu

1 g of CuO forms ( )g of Cu
3.2g of CuO forms ( )g of Cu

=2.6g of Cu
b) 1 mole of CuO forms 1 mole of H2O
(64+16)g of CuO forms (1x2+16)g of H2O
80g of CuO forms 18g of H2O
1 g of CuO forms ( )g of H2O
3.2g of CuO forms ( )g of H2O
=0.7g of H2O

c) 1 mole of CuO reacts with 1 mole of H2

(64+16)g of CuO reacts with (1x2)g of H2
80g of CuO reacts with 2g of H2
1 g of CuO reacts with ( )g of H2
3.2g of CuO reacts with ( )g of H2

=0.08g of H2
Exercise
1. A solution of 8.1g of NaOH was neutralized by hydrochloric acid. Calculate the
mass of sodium chloride produced when the solution was evaporated to
dryness.
(C=12, Na=23, O=16, H=1, Cl=35.5,) (Answer =11.85g)
2. Calculate the mass of residue left when 2.40g of sodium hydrogen carbonate
is decomposed by heat. (Answer =1.51g)
3. Calculate the loss in mass when 100g of calcium carbonate is heated to
constant mass. (Ca=40, C=12, 0=16) (Answer =44g)
4. 76.5g of calcium hydrogen carbonate was heated strongly. What was the mass
of carbon dioxide formed? (Answer =20.78g)
5. What mass of sodium oxide would be made from 1.5 g of sodium?
(Answer=2.02g)

Avogadro’s law
The law states that equal volume of gases at the same temperature and
pressure contains the same number of molecules.
Avogadro‘s law gives an interpretation to Gay-Lussac‘s law in terms of molecules
of gases. Consider the following examples

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1. 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)

2 volumes of hydrogen combine with 1 volume of oxygen to form 2 volumes
of steam
Is interpreted as
2 molecules of hydrogen combine with 1 molecule of oxygen to form 2
molecules of steam

2. H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)

1 volume of hydrogen combines with 1 volume of chlorine to form 2 volumes
of hydrogen chloride gas
Is interpreted as
1 molecule of hydrogen combines with 1 molecule of chlorine to form 2
molecules of hydrogen chloride gas

This law is quite important because it enables us to change from a statement about
volumes of gases to the same statement about moles of gases and vise versa.

The relationship between vapor density and Relative Molecular Mass can be
deduced from Avogadro‘s law and is expressed as
2 x Vapor Density= Relative Molecular Mass
I.e. Relative Molecular Mass is twice the value of vapor density.

It follows from Avogadro‘s law that if equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers
of molecules then the volume occupied by one mole must be the same for all gases.
It is called the gas molar volume.

Gas molar volume

The molar gas volume is the volume occupied by one mole of a gas. It is the same
for all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. Values for
molar gas volumes are given in the table below.

Condition Value for molar gas volume

Standard temperature and pressure(stp) 22.4l or 22.4dm3 or 22400cm3
Room temperature and pressure (rtp) 24l or 24dm3 or 24000cm3

Example
1. Determine the number of moles in the following gaseous volumes at stp
a) 1.2 dm3 of nitrogen

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b) 300cm3 of ammonia

Solution
a) 22.4 dm3 is occupied by 1 mole of nitrogen
1 dm3 is occupied by ( ) moles of nitrogen
1.2 dm3 is occupied by ( ) moles of nitrogen
= 0.05 moles of nitrogen at stp

b) 22400 cm3 is occupied by 1 mole of ammonia

1 cm3 is occupied by ( ) moles of ammonia
300 cm3 is occupied by ( ) moles of ammonia
= 0.013 moles of ammonia at
stp
2. Determine at rtp the volume and mass of
a) 0.04 moles of hydrogen
b) 0.2 moles of carbondioxide

Solution
a) 1 mole of hydrogen occupies 24l at rtp
0.04 moles of hydrogen occupies ( ) l at rtp
=0.96 l of hydrogen at rtp

RMM for H2 =(1x2)= 2

1 mole of hydrogen weighs 2g

0.04 moles of hydrogen weighs ( )g
=0.08g of hyrogen

b) 1 mole of carbondioxide occupies 24l at rtp

0.2 moles of carbondioxide occupies ( ) l at rtp
=4.8 l of carbondioxide at rtp

RMM for CO2 =12+(16x2)= 44

1 mole of carbondioxide weighs 44g

0.2 moles of carbondioxide weighs ( )g
=8.8g of carbondioxide

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3. Calculate the RMM of Y given that 0.8 g of Y occupies 560cm3 at stp.

Solution
560 cm3 of Y weighs 0.8g
1 cm3 of Y weighs ( ) moles of nitrogen
22400 cm3 of Y weighs ( ) moles of nitrogen
=32g
The RMM of Y is 32.

Calculation of masses and volumes

Examples
1. 0.2 moles of ammonia gas measured at stp were passed over copper(II)oxide.
The equation for the reaction is

2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s) 3Cu(s) + N2(g) + 3H20(l)

Calculate
a) The number of moles of copper(II)oxide used
b) The mass of copper formed
c) The volume of ammonia used at stp
(Cu=64,O=16,N=14,H=1, 1 mole of a gas occupies 22.4 l at stp)
Solution
1.
a) From the equation,
2 moles of NH3 reacts with 3 moles of CuO
1 mole of NH3 reacts with ( ) moles of CuO
0.2 moles of NH3 reacts with ( ) moles of CuO
=0.3 moles of CuO
b) From the equation
2 moles of NH3 produce 3 moles of Cu
2 moles of NH3 produce (3x64)g of Cu
1 mole of NH3 produces ( ) moles of Cu
0.2 moles of NH3 produces ( ) moles of Cu
=19.2g of Cu

c) 1 mole of NH3 occupies 22.4l at stp

0.2 moles of NH3 occupies ( )l at stp
=4.48 l of NH3 at stp

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2. 2.5 g of CuCO3 were heated to constant mass. Determine

a) The mass of the residue
b) The volume of gas produced at stp
(Cu=64,O=16,C=12, 1 mole of a gas occupies 24 dm3 at stp)

Solution
CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)
a) From the equation
1 mole of CuCO3 produces 1 mole of CuO
(64+12+16x3)g of CuCO3 produces (64+16)g of CuO
124g of CuCO3 produces 80g of CuO
1 g of CuCO3 produces ( ) g of CuO
2.5g of CuCO3 produces ( ) g of CuO
=1.61g of CuO (residue)
b) From the equation
1 mole of CuCO3 produces 1 mole of CO2
(64+12+16x3)g of CuCO3 produces 24dm3 of CO2
124g of CuCO3 produces 24dm3 of CO2
1 g of CuCO3 produces ( ) dm3 of CO2
2.5 g of CuCO3 produces ( ) dm3 of CO2
=0.484 dm3 of CO2
3. From the equation
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)
Calculate the
a) Volume of chlorine at stp required to react with 8 g of iron
b) Mass of iron(III)chloride formed

Solution
a) From the equation
2 moles of Fe react with 3 moles of Cl2
(2x56)g of Fe react with (3x22.4)dm3 of Cl2
112g of Fe react with 67.2dm3 of Cl2
1 g of Fe react with( )dm3 of Cl2
8 g of Fe react with( )dm3 of Cl2
=4.8 dm3 of Cl2 at stp
b) From the equation
2 mole of Fe produce 2 mole of FeCl2
(2x56)g of Fe produces 2x(56+35.5x2)g of FeCl2

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112g of Fe produces 325g of FeCl2

1 g of Fe produces ( ) g of FeCl2
8 g of Fe produces ( ) g of FeCl2
=23.01g of FeCl2
Exercise
1. What volume of hydrogen at stp would be used if 40g of nitrogen combined with
it to form ammonia.
2. 0.1 mole of lead nitrate is completely decomposed on heating according to the
reaction
2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
a) What volume at stp of nitrogen dioxide and oxygen were evolved
b) What was the mass of the residue left
3. 1.4 litres of ammonia gas measured at stp where passed over hot
copper(II)oxide. The equation for the reaction is
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) 3Cu(s) + N2(s) + 3H2O(l)
Calculate
a) The number of moles of ammonia used
b) The number of moles of nitrogen gas used
c) The mass of copper formed
4. 3.1g of a carbonate XCO3 are heated to constant mass; 2.0g of the metal oxide
are formed.. when heated in a stream of hydrogen for sufficient time, the oxide
is reduced to 1.6g of pure metal.
a) Give the equation for the two reactions
b) Calculate the minimum volume of hydrogen at stp needed to reduce the
oxide
c) Calculate the volume of carbondioxide at stp produced when the carbonate
was completely decomposed.
5. Calculate the mass of sulphur deposited when 8.4 dm3 of chlorine oxidizes
hydrogen sulphide.

Volumetric analysis
In an investigation to determine the nature of matter in a substance, a chemist
focuses on two main questions:
a) What are the components of the substance?
b) What amount of each component is present in the substance?
In an attempt to answer question (a) and (b), a chemist carries out qualitative and
quantitative analysis respectively. Most of the reactions which a chemist carries
out take place in solution.

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Consider the reaction below

A(aq) + B(aq) C(aq) + D(aq)
If we are to determine the volume of A needed to completely react with a
given amount or volume of B, the answer is provided practically through volumetric
analysis.

In volumetric analysis, quantities of substances (often acids or alkalis) are

estimated by analytical processes involving measurements of volumes of solutions
using pipettes, burettes and measuring cylinders (for approximate measurement).
Weighing may also be involved. Most of the work in volumetric analysis is based
upon molar (M) solutions.

Standard and Molar solutions

A standard solution
Is a solution of known concentration. Examples of standard solutions are;
solution containing 12g of sodium chloride in one litre of a solution; a solution
containing 2 moles of solute in 1dm3 e.t.c.
The substance that is used to prepare a standard solution is known as a
primary standard.

A Molar solution
Is a solution that contains one mole of a substance in a solution of one litre.
In other words, it is a solution containing one mole of solute in one litre.

Other related terms are;

Concentration; this is the amount of solutes in a given volume of solution.

Molarity; this is the number of moles of solute in one litre of a solution. The unit
is mol/dm3 or mol/l. The molarity of a solution is commonly denoted by letter M.
E.g.
0.2M NaOH which mean 1 litre of a solution containing 0.2 moles of NaOH.

1 litre(1 l)=1cubic decimetre (1dm3) = 1000 cubic centimetre (1000cm3)

Calculations on molarity and masses

Examples
1. Calculate the molarities of the following solution given (Na=23,O=16
H=1,C=12,Cl=35.5,S=32)

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a) 13.5g of copper(II)chloride in 1dm3 of solution

b) 4.0g of sodium hydroxide in 400cm3 of solution
c) 53g of anhydrous sodium carbonate in 2 dm3 of solution

Solution
a) RMM of CuCl2
=64+(35.5x2)
=135
135g is contained in 1 mole of CuCl2
1 g is contained in ( ) moles of CuCl2
13.5g is contained in ( ) moles of CuCl2
=0.1M of CuCl2

b) 400cm3 of solution contains 4.0g of NaOH

1cm3 of solution contains ( )g of NaOH
1000cm3 of solution contains ( )g of NaOH
=10g/l of NaOH (concentration in grams/litre)

RMM of NaOH
=23+16+1
=40
40g is contained in 1 mole of NaOH
1 g is contained in ( ) moles of NaOH
10 g is contained in ( ) moles of NaOH
=0.25M NaOH

c) 2dm3 of solution contains 53g of Na2CO3

1dm3 of solution contains ( )g of Na2CO3
3
=26.5g/dm of Na2CO3 (concentration in grams/litre)

RMM of Na2CO3
=23x2+12+16x3
=106

106g is contained in 1 mole of Na2CO3

1 g is contained in ( ) moles of Na2CO3
10 g is contained in ( ) moles of Na2CO3

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=0.25M Na2CO3

In general, Molarity

When the concentration of a solutr in grams per litre and the RMM are known
then the molarity can be calculated from the above expression.

N.B. The use of formula is not so much recommended and workings should be
from first principle.

2. Calculate the mass of the named substance needed to make

a) 0.1 dm3 of 2M sodium sulphate solution
b) 1 l of 0.25M sodium hydroxide solution
c) 25cm3 of 0.1M potassium carbonate solution
d) 500cm3 of 0.05M sodium carbonate solution

Solution
a) 1dm3 of solution contains 2 moles of Na2SO4
0.1dm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of Na2SO4
=0.2 moles of Na2SO4

RMM for Na2SO4

=23x2+32+16x4
=142

1 mole of Na2SO4 weighs 142g

0.2 moles of Na2SO4 weighs ( ))g
=28.4g

b) 1l of solution contains 0.25 moles of NaOH

RMM for NaOH

=23+16+1
=40

1 mole of NaOH weighs 40g

0.25 moles of NaOH weighs ( ))g
=10g

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c) 1000cm3 of solution contains 0.1moles of K2CO3

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of K2CO3
25 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of K2CO3
=0.0025 moles of K2CO3
RMM of K2CO3
=39x2+12+16x3
=138
1 mole of K2CO3 weighs 138g
0.0025 moles of K2CO3 weighs ( ))g

=0.345g
Calculating number of moles of ions in standard solutions

Examples
1. Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen ions in 25cm3 of a 0.2 M sulphuric
acid.
2. Calculate the number of moles of potassium ions in 35cm3 of 0.12 M
potassium carbonate solution.

Solution
1. 1000cm3 of solution contains 0.2moles of H2SO4
1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of H2SO4
25 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of H2SO4
=0.005 moles of H2SO4
From the equation of ionization of H2SO4

H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + (aq)

1 mole of H2SO4 produces 2 moles H+

0.005 moles of H2SO4 produces ( ) moles H+
=0.01
+
moles H
2. 1000cm3 of solution contains 0.12 moles of K2CO3
1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of K2CO3
35 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of K2CO3

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=0.0042 moles of
K2CO3
From the equation of ionization of K2CO3
K2CO3(aq) 2K+(aq) + (aq)

1 mole of K2CO3 produces 2 moles K+

0.0042 moles of K2CO3 produces ( ) moles K+

=0.0084moles K+

ACID-BASE REACTION (Titration)

This is a method of volumetric analysis in which a solution (usually a standard
solution) is added from a burette to another solution (usually whose concentration
is unknown) until the reaction is complete.
An indicator changes color immediately the reaction is complete or when the
end point is reached. Most titrations at this level are acid-base titrations.

Common laboratory indicators and color changes

Indicator Color in acidic solution Color in alkaline solution
Phenolphthalein Colorless Purple
Methyl orange Red/pink Yellow
Litmus Red Blue

Apparatus commonly used in titration

Apparatus Use
Pipette This is used for measuring and transferring
fixed volumes of solutions. The volume of
solution (usually whose concentration is not
known) is measured accurately and transferred
into a conical flask using a pipette. The solution
transferred by the pipette is the aliquot. The
common pipettes used are of volumes 20.0cm3
and 25.0cm3 which are usually written on them.
The reading of a pipette is recorded to one
decimal place e.g. 20.0 cm3.

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This is used to transfer accurately a precise

volume of solution. The titrant is filled into a
burette using a filter funnel to prevent wastage
of solutions. The reading of a burette is
recorded to two decimal places e.g. 0.00cm3,
18.40cm3 e.t.c. For accurate reading of volumes
of liquid in burettes and pipettes, the eye must
be at the same level with the meniscus of the
liquid as illustrated besides.
Burette

Conical flask It is a container in which the reaction between

the acid and the alkali take place. The titrant is
run from a burette into a conical flask
containing a known volume of the solution
(usually whose concentration is not known).

White tile It enables one to observe indicator color

changes more clearly. A piece of white paper can
be used in place of a white tile.

Filter funnel Enables the solution to be poured directly into

the burette without wastage

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For addition of the indicator to the solution in

the conical flask

Dropper

Beaker For holding and pouring out solutions

Procedure for acid-base titration

1. Wash the pipette with distilled water then a little of the

solution it is to measure. Use the pipette to deliver either
20.0cm3 or 25.0cm3 of the alkali into a clean conical flask.
Add a few drops (2 or 3 drops) of indicator. 2. Wash the
burette with distilled water then a little of the
Eye at same

Level with acid

solution and run out the acid through the tap. Fill
3
Burette meniscus the burette above the 0 cm mark and run a little of
the acid out to bring the meniscus of the acid to the 0 cm3
mark or slightly below it. Take the burette reading as V1 cm3.
3. Arrange the apparatus as shown on the left hand side.
Dilute acid Run the acid solution from the burette drop wise. Use your
left hand to open the tap and your right hand to swirl the
Tap conical flask (unless you are left handed). Stop when the
indicator just changes color. This is the end point the
titration.
4. Take the burette reading again V2 cm3. Subtract (V2- V1)
cm3 to get the ―titre‖ (i.e. the volume of the acid needed to
neutralize the known volume of alkali).
5. Repeat the titration. Obtain an average titre. From this
volume you can calculate the unknown concentration.

Alkali solution

White tile

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N.B The first titration is regarded as a trial run (rough titration) and may not be
very accurate, therefore the value may not be used in computing the average
volume. Values used in calculating the average volume must be close to each other

Specimen readings
Example
Neutralization of 0.1M NaOH solution with a solution of HCl
Volume of pipette used =25.0cm3
Number of titration 1 2 3
3
Final burette reading/ cm 14.80 30.00 15.00
3
Initial burette reading/ cm 0.00 15.00 0.00
Volume of acid used/ cm3 14.80 15.00 15.00

Value used to calculate average volume of acid used: 15.00 cm3 and 15.00 cm3
Average volume of acid used= =15.00 cm3
Calculate
a) The number of moles of sodium hydroxide that reacted
b) The number of moles of hydrochloric acid that reacted
c) The molarity of the hydrochloric acid ( i.e concentration in mol/litre)

Method of calculation
1. Write the equation for the reaction that took place. This gives you the mole
ratio of reaction between the acid and the alkali.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H 2O(l)
1 mole of HCl neutralizes 1 mole of NaOH

2. Work out the number of moles of the standard solution. In this case it is the
alkali (NaOH) as its concentration is known ( 25.O cm3 contains of 0.1M NaOH
).

a) Moles of NaOH that reacted

1000cm3 of solution contains 0.1moles of NaOH
1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of NaOH
25 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of NaOH
=0.0025 moles of
NaOH

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3. Work out the number of moles of the acid that reacted by relating the number
of moles of the alkali to the mole ratio of reaction between the acid and alkali.

b) From the equation of reaction

1 mole of NaOH reacts with 1 mole of HCl
0.0025 moles of NaOH reacts with ( ) moles of HCl
=0.0025 moles of HCl
(since the mole ratio of the reaction of the HCl : NaOH is 1:1, so, the number of
moles of HCl = 0.0025 moles)

4. Now work out the molarity of the acid

c) 15cm3 of solution contains 0.0025moles of HCl

1cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of HCl
1000cm3 of solution contains ( )
moles of HCl
=0.167 mol/l of HCl
The molarity of the HCl is 0.167M

5. From the molarity, you can proceed and work out the concentration in
grams/litre, if the Molar mass is known.(e.g. for 0.167M HCl in the above case)
Molar mass of HCl=(1+35.5)g =
36.5g 1 mole of HCl weighs
36.5g
0.167 moles of HCl weighs ( )g

=6.1g/l
Other examples
1. 25cm3 of sulphuric acid of concentration 0.15mol/dm3 neutralized 31.2cm3 of
potassium hydroxide solution. Find the concentration of the KOH solution in
mol/l and in grams/litre.

Solution
Write the equation
Equation for the reaction
H2SO4 (aq) + 2KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
1 mole of acid reacts with 2 moles of alkali

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Calculate the number of moles of the acid (standard solution) that reacted
1000cm3 of solution contains 0.15moles of H2SO4
1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of H2SO4
25 cm3 of solution contains ( )moles of H2SO4
=0.00375 moles of H2SO4

Relate the number of moles of acid to the mole ratio of the reaction to find
the number of moles of the alkali that reacted
1 mole of H2SO4 reacts with 2 moles of KOH
0.00375moles of H2SO4 reacts with ( ) moles of KOH
=0.0075 moles of KOH

Calculate the molarity (concentration in mol/dm3) of the alkali

31.2cm3 of solution contains 0.0075moles of KOH
1cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of KOH
1000cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of KOH
=0.24 mol/l of KOH
The concentration of the KOH is 0.24 mol/l of KOH

Proceed and calculate the concentration in g/l

Molar mass of KOH= (39+16+1)= 56g
1 mole of KOH weighs 56g
0.24 moles of KOH weighs ( )g
=13.44g
The concentration of the KOH is 13.44g/l

2. Determine the molarity of acids in the following solutions.

a) 16.0cm3 of 1.5M sodium hydroxide neutralized by 20.0cm3 of hydrochloric
acid
b) 25.0cm3 of 0.2M ammonia solution neutralized by 20.0cm3 of nitric acid
Solution
a) Equation of reaction
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) +H 2O(aq)

1000cm3 of solution contains 1.5moles of NaOH

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of NaOH
16 cm3 of solution contains ( )moles of NaOH

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=0.024 moles of NaOH

From the equation
1 mole of NaOH reacts with 1 mole of HCl,
0.024 moles of NaOH reacts with ( )moles of HCl
=0.024 moles
of HCl
20.0cm3 of solution contains 0.024moles of HCl
1cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of HCl
1000cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of HCl
=1.2 M HCl
The concentration of the HCl is 1.2M

Equation for reaction

b) HNO3(aq) + NH4OH(aq) NH4NO3(aq) +H2O(aq)

1000cm3 of solution contains 0.2moles of NH4OH

1 cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of NH4OH
25cm3of solution contains ( )moles of NH4OH
=0.005 moles of NH4OH

From the equation

1 mole of NH4OH reacts with 1 mole of HNO3
0.005moles of NH4OH reacts with ( )moles of HNO3
=0.005 moles of
HNO3
20.0cm3 of solution contains 0.005moles of HNO3
1cm3 of solution contains ( ) moles of HNO3
1000cm3 of solution contains( )moles of HNO3
=0.25 M HNO3

The concentration of the HNO3 is 0.25M

Activity of integration
In most activities we do at homes like preparing meals, preparing juice, we use the
knowledge of stoichiometry and moles because there is need to take measurements and
volumes of the substances we use.

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You expect Tr. Kisule and other seven guests in your home to attend your sister’s birthday.
Your parents have assigned you a role of taking charge of the planning and preparation of
the different food stuffs for the lunch that will be served on the birthday.
Your parents expect a nice dish, meat sauce, fruit salad and cocktail juice to be prepared
on that day.
Write a report to your parents explaining the quantities of terms needed for the lunch.
(think of the support materials)

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