8.

03 Lecture 12

Systems we have learned:

Wave equation:
∂2ψ 2
2∂ ψ
= v p
∂t2 ∂x2
There are three different kinds of systems discussed in the lecture:

(1) String with constant tension and mass per unit

length ρL s
T
vp =
ρL

(2) Spring with spring constant k, length l, and

mass per unit length ρL
s
kl
vp =
ρL

(3) Organ pipe with room pressure P0 and air

density ρ s
γP0
vp =
ρ

This time, we are doing EM (electromagnetic) waves!

 ∇ ~ = ρ
~ ·E ⇒Gauss’ Law
0
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0 ⇒Gauss’ Law for magnetism
~
∇ ~ = − ∂B
~ ×E ⇒Faraday’s Law
∂t
~
!
∇ ~ = µ0 J~ + 0 ∂ E
~ ×B ⇒Ampere’s Law
∂t

In the vacuum: ρ = 0 and J~ = 0 and we get:

~ ·E
∇ ~ =0
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0
~
~ = − ∂B
~ ×E
∇
∂t
~
~ = µ0 0 ∂ E
~ ×B
∇
∂t

Where in the last two equations we see a changing magnetic field generates an electric field and a
changing electric field generates a magnetic field. Can you see the EM wave solution from these
equations? Maxwell saw it!
We need to use this identity:
~ × (∇
∇ ~ × A)
~ = ∇(
~ ∇~ · A)
~ − (∇
~ · ∇)
~ A~

~ ·∇
Where ∇ ~ ≡∇
~ 2 is the Laplacian operator. In the vacuum:

~
~ ~ ~
: −∂ B/∂t
~~·
~:0 ~ 2 ~
∇ ×
(∇× E) = ∇
 (∇ E) − (∇ )E

Where we have made replacements based on the vacuum Maxwell equations above. Let’s first
examine the left hand side:
~
!
~ × − ∂B ∂ ~ 
∇ =− ~
∇×B
∂t ∂t
∂2E~
= −µ0 0
2
∂t
~
= −∇ E2

2~
~ 2 E = µ0 0 ∂ E
⇒ ∇
∂t2

2
Recall !
2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ ≡ + +
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
And so we have a wave equation!!
2~
!
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ~ = µ0 0 ∂ E
+ + E
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂t2

This equation changed the world! Maxwell is the first one who recognized it because of the term
he put in. It was a wave equation with speed equal to the speed of light:
1
vp = c = √ ≈ 3 · 108 m/s
µ0 0

~ field? We can do the same exercise:

What about the B
2~
~ 2 B = µ0  0 ∂ B
∇
∂t2
It is very important that the associated magnetic field also satisfies the wave equation. From the
Maxwell equation E ~ creates B
~ and B~ creates E,
~ therefore they can not exist without each other.

1638 Galileo: speed of light is large

1676 Romer: 2.2 × 108 m/s
1729 James Bradley: 3.01 × 108 m/s

This means that in vacuum you can excite EM waves! What is oscillating? The field!
Before we tackle EM waves, let’s review divergence and curl briefly.
*Field:
Scalar field: every positing in the space gets a number. Temperature is an example.
Vector field: Instead of a number or scalar, every point gets a vector.
~ y, z) = Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ
A(x,

The electric and magnetic fields are vector fields, e.g.:

F~ = q(E
~ + ~v × B)
~

To understand the structure of vector fields:

Divergence (using our definition of ∇~ from above):

~ = ∂Ax + ∂Ay + ∂Az

~ ·A
∇
∂x ∂y ∂z

3
The divergence is a measure of how much the vector v spreads out (diverges) from a point:

The divergence of this vector field is positive. The divergence of this vector field is zero.

Curl:
x̂ ŷ ẑ
∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax ∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax
     
~ ×A
∇ ~= ∂ ∂ ∂
= − x̂ + − ŷ + − ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
Ax Ay Az

~ “curls around” a point.

What exactly does curl mean? It is a measure of how much the vector A

This vector field has a large curl. This vector field has no curl.

Gauss’ Theorem (or the Divergence Theorem):

ZZZ   I
~ ·A
∇ ~ dτ = ~
~ · da
A
V S

Which allows us to relate the integral of the divergence over the whole volume (RHS) to a 2-D
surface integral (LHS).

Stokes’ Theorem: ZZ  I

~ ×A
∇ ~ =
~ · da ~
~ × dl
A
S P

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Which allows us to related the surface integral over the curl (LHS) to a line integral integral over
a closed path (RHS).

Gauss’ Theorem Stokes’ theorem

*Consider a “plane wave” solution:

h i
~ = Re E0 ei(kz−ωt) x̂
E Only in the x̂ direction.
= {E0 cos(kz − ωt) , 0 , 0}

Check if it satisfies
2~
~ 2 E = µ0 0 ∂ E
∇
∂t2
∂ 2 Ex ∂ 2 E~x
⇒ x̂ = µ 
0 0 x̂
∂z 2 ∂t2
In x̂ direction: −E0 k 2 cos(kz − ωt) = −µ0 0 ω 2 E0 cos(kz − ωt)
ω 1
=√ = c ⇒ Condition needed to satisfy the wave equation.
k µ0 0

~
*What about B?
~
~ = − ∂B
~ ×E
∇
∂t
x̂ ŷ ẑ 0
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂Ex ∂Ex
= ∂x ∂y ∂z = ŷ − ẑ
∂z ∂y
Ex 0 0
= −kE0 sin(kz − ωt)ŷ

⇒ ~ = k E0 cos(kz − ωt)ŷ = E0 cos(kz − ωt)ŷ

B
ω c

What did we learn from this exercise?

~ must come with B.

1. E ~ In vacuum: the two fields are perpendicular and they are in phase.
If ~k is the direction of propagation then B
~ = 1 k̂ × E
c
~ The amplitude of the magnetic field is
equal to the amplitude of the electric field divided by the speed of light.

2. The EM wave is non-dispersive, meaning that the speed of the wave c is independent of the
wave number k: ωk = c = √µ10 0

5
 ~ ×B
3. The direction of the propagating EM wave is E ~

In general a propagating EM wave can be written as:

~ 0 ei(~k·~r−ωt+φ)
h i
~ t) = Re E
E(r,

Where E~ 0 ≡ E0x x̂ + E0y ŷ + E0z ẑ , ~r ≡ xx̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ and ω ≡ ck

Given this electric field, we can get the magnetic field:

~ t) = 1 k̂ × E
B(r, ~
c

Example:

~k = 2π √x̂ + √ŷ
 

λ 2 2
E0 E0
~ 0 = − √ x̂ + √ ŷ
E
2 2
2π
~k · ~r = √ (x + y)
2λ
√ !
x̂ ŷ 2π
 
~
⇒ E(x, y, z) = E0 − √ + √ cos (x + y) − ωt
2 2 λ

6
 √ !
~ = 1 k̂ × E
~ ⇒ B(x,
~ E0 2π
B y, z) = ẑ cos (x + y) − ωt
c c λ
If there is no other material, this EM wave will travel forever...
Now let’s put something into the game: A “perfect conductor”

A busy world inside this system! All the little

charges are moving around without cost of energy
(there is no dissipation).

Incident wave:

E~ I = E0 cos(kz − ωt)x̂
2
B~ I = E0 cos(kz − ωt)ŷ
2c

~ = 0 at z = 0 we
To satisfy the boundary conditions E
need a reflected wave!

~ R = − E0 cos(−kz − ωt)x̂
E
2
~R = E0
B cos(−kz − ωt)ŷ
2c

7
 ~ =E
E ~ R = E0 (cos(kz − ωt) − cos(−kz − ωt)) x̂
~I + E
2
= E0 sin(ωt) sin(kz)x̂
~ =B
B ~ R = E0 (cos(kz − ωt) + cos(−kz − ωt))ŷ
~I + B
2c
E0
= cos(ωt) cos(kz)ŷ
c

Energy density?
1 0
UE = b E 2 = E02 sin2 ωt sin2 kz
2 2
1 2 0 2
UB = B = E0 cos2 ωt cos2 kz
2µ0 2
Poynting vector: directional energy flux, or the rate of energy transfer per unit area:
~ ~
~ = E × B = 1 Ex By ẑ
S
µ0 µ0
E2
= 0 sin ωt cos ωt sin kz cos kz ẑ
µ0 c
E2
= 0 sin(2ωt) sin(2kz)ẑ
4µ0 c
This is how a microwave oven works!

*The EM waves are bounced around inside the oven

*EM waves increase the vibration of the molecules in the oven and increase the temperature of the
food.

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8.03SC Physics III: Vibrations and Waves

Fall 2016

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