UNIT 3: FUNCTIONS

There are many situations where elements of one set are related (paired) with elements of anoth-
er set. For example:
✓ To each car, there corresponds a plate number
✓ To each university student, there corresponds an ID number
✓ To each person, there corresponds an age
✓ To each person, there corresponds a father
Such pairings (or associations) between elements of two sets are captured mathematically by
concepts, called relations and functions.

3.1 Review of Relations and Functions

3.1.1 Definition
Recall the definition of the Cartesian product 𝐴 × 𝐵 of two sets from the set theory section of
Chapter 1.
Definition 1 [order pair, equality of ordered pairs and coordinates of ordered pairs]:
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be any two nonempty sets.
a) Elements of 𝐴 × 𝐵 are called ordered pairs.
b) Two ordered pairs ( a , b) and ( c, d ) are said to be equal, written ( a , b) = ( c, d ) if a = c
and b = d .
c) If (𝑎, 𝑏)𝜖𝐴 × 𝐵, 𝑎 is called the first coordinate of (𝑎, 𝑏) and 𝑏 is called the second coor-
dinate of (𝑎, 𝑏).

Next we define three closely related terms: relation, relation from A into B and relation on A.

Definition 2 [relation]: A relation is a set of ordered pairs; that is., it is a set whose elements are
ordered pairs.

More precisely, we define a relation from a set into another set, as follows.
 Definition 3 [relation from A into B]:
Let 𝐀 and 𝐁 be any two sets. Then any subset R of 𝐀 × 𝐁 is called a relation from A into B.

If sets 𝑨 and 𝐁 are equal, we have the following special case.

Definition 4 [relation on A]: Let 𝐀 be any set. Then any subset 𝐑 of 𝑨 × 𝑨 called a relation on
A.
Notation:
i. If 𝐑 is a relation and (𝐚, 𝐛) ∈ 𝐑 , then we say a is related to b and we write "a R b."
More precisely, we can also say a is R-related to b.
ii. If (𝐚, 𝐛) ∉ 𝐑, then we say a is not related to b and we write 𝐚 𝐑 𝐛.
iii. For specific relations, the R in "a R b" can be replaced by specific symbols. For in-
stance:
- Relations between numbers: =, <, >, ≤, ≥, ≮, ≰, ≯, etc.
- Relations between lines: ∥(parallel to), ⊥ (perpendicular to)
- Relations between sets: ⊆, ⊇, ⊂, ⊃
- Relations between polygons: ∼(similar to), ≡ (congruent to)

Example 1: Let 𝐀 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔} and 𝐁 = {𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟐}.

Let 𝑅1 = {(1,4), (2,8), (3,12)}
𝑅2 = {(1,2), (2,4), (6,5)}
𝑅3 = {(1,1), (2,4), (7,6))}
Then
- 𝑅1 is a relation from 𝐴 into 𝐵.
- 𝑅2 is a relation but it is not a relation from A into B. Also, it is a relation on A.
- 𝑅3 is a relation but it is neither a relation on A nor a relation from A into B.

Remark 1: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. If 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝑚 and 𝑛(𝐵) = 𝑛, then we can define 2𝑚𝑛 number of
different relations from set 𝐴 into set 𝐵.
Remark 2: The definition of relation given thus far is for two sets. The definition can be extend-
ed to any number of sets. A relation between two sets is called a binary relation. In general, a
relation among 𝑛 sets is called n-nary relation.
Remark 3: Relations are useful in developing database applications.
Remark 4 [Methods of Describing Relations]:
a. Since a relation is a set, so we can describe a relation by:
- verbal method
- listing method
- set builder method
b. Additionally, we can also describe relations by pictorial methods:
- Arrow diagrams
- graphs
Representing a relation by an Arrow Diagram:
A relation 𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵 can be displayed by arrow diagrams called digraph (directed graph)
by representing:
- elements of A as points in a simple closed curve
- elements of B as points in another simple closed curve
- Elements of R as arrows from points of A to points of B.
Representing a Relation by a graph:
A relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 into 𝐵, where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are number sets, can also be displayed as a graph on
XY coordinate plane by plotting:
- Each element of 𝐴 as a point on a horizontal axis
- Each element of 𝐵 as a point on vertical axis
- each element (𝑥, 𝑦) of 𝑅 as the point whose directed distance from the 𝑦 and x-axis is x
units and y units respectively.

Example 2: Describe 𝑅 = {(1, 4) (2, 5) (3, 6) (4, 7) (5, 8) (6, 9)} by

(a) an arrow diagram and
(b) by a graph.
Figure 1: Representing a relation by an arrow diagram and by a graph

Next we define four important sets which are associated to any relation.

Definition 5[domain, range and co-domain]: Let R be a relation from A into B. Then, the set
a) 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑅): = {𝑎: (𝑎, 𝑏)𝜖𝑅 for some 𝑏𝜖𝐵} is called the domain of R.
b) 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑅): = {𝑏: (𝑎, 𝑏)𝜖𝑅 for some 𝑎𝜖𝐴} is called the range of R.
c) B is called the co-domain of R.
d) 𝑅 −1 : = {(𝑏, 𝑎): (𝑎, 𝑏)𝜖𝑅} is called the inverse of R.

The range of a relation is always a subset of the codomain. Observe that Dom( R) = Range ( R −1 )

and Range ( R) = Dom( R −1 ) .

Example 3: Let R be a relation on ℕ defined by 𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℕ, 𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 11}.

i) Describe R by complete listing method.

ii) Find (a) Dom (R ) (b) Range (R ) (c) R −1

Solution:
i) R = {( 9,1), (7,2), (5,3), (3,4), (1,5)} .

ii) Dom ( R ) = {1,3,5,7,9} ,

Range ( R ) = {1,2,3,4,5}

R −1 = {(1,9), (2,7), (3,5), (4,3), (5,1)} .

Example 4: Give the domain, range and inverse of 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 7 } and
sketch the graph of R and the graph of 𝑅 −1.

Solution:
Domain (R) =ℝ,
Range (R) =ℝ,
𝑹−𝟏 = {(𝒚, 𝒙) ≔ 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟕} or 𝑹−𝟏 = {(𝒙, 𝒚): 𝒙 = 𝟑𝒚 − 𝟕}

The graphs of R and 𝐑−𝟏 are sketched using online software located at GraphSketch.com.

Figure 2: Graphical representations of 𝑹 = {(𝒙, 𝒚): 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟕}(LEFT) and 𝑹−𝟏 (RIGHT)

Example 5: Give the domain, range and inverse of 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≤
3𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≤ −𝑥 + 4 }. Also sketch R and 𝑅 −1.
Solution: Note that every element (𝑥, 𝑦) of R must satisfy the system of inequalities below:

𝑦 − 3𝑥 ≤ 0
{
𝑥+𝑦−4≤0

By solving the simultaneous equation

𝑦 = 3𝑥
{
𝑦 = −𝑥 + 4
We get 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 3. The graph below suggests that 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑅) = ℝ and 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑅) =
(−∞, 3].
On the other hand the inverse of R is given by
𝑅 −1 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≤ 3𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≥ −𝑦 + 4}
Or
𝑅 −1 = {(𝑦, 𝑥): 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≤ 3𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≥ −𝑥 + 4}

Figure 3: 𝐑 = {(𝒙, 𝒚): 𝒙, 𝒚 ∈ ℝ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 ≤ 𝟑𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 ≤ −𝒙 + 𝟒 }

3.1.2 Types of Relations

In this subsection we consider different types of relations. Our classification could be based on
various issues.
Definition 6: A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is called
a) a universal relation if R = A  A
b) identity relation if R = {( a, a ) : a  A}
c) void or empty relation if R = 

The following definition also gives types of relations on a set from other perspective.

Definition 7: A relation R on a set A is said to be a

a) reflexive relation if 𝑎𝑅𝑎 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.

b) symmetric relation if 𝑎𝑅𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏𝑅𝑎, ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴

c) transitive relation if 𝑎𝑅𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑅𝑐 ⇒ 𝑎𝑅𝑐 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴

d) equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Example 6: Choose the correct answer: Let 𝑅 be a relation on the set ℕ of natural numbers de-
fined by
𝑛𝑅𝑚 if and only if 𝑛 divides 𝑚.
Then 𝑅 is:
(A) Reflexive and symmetric
(B) Transitive and symmetric
(C) Equivalence
(D) Reflexive, transitive but not symmetric
Answer: D

We can also classify relations into four categories as follows.

Definition 8: A relation R from a set A into a set B is said to be a

a) one to one if distinct elements of the domain are related to distinct elements of the range
and distinct elements of the range are related to distinct elements of the domain,
i.e.,(𝑥, 𝑧), (𝑦, 𝑧)∈R implies 𝑥 = 𝑦 and (𝑥, 𝑦), (𝑥, 𝑧)∈R implies 𝑦 = 𝑧.

b) one to many if at least one element of the domain is related to more than one element of
the range.

c) many to one if at least one element of the range is related to more than one element of the
domain

d) many to many if it is both one to many and many to one.

Next we define a very important type of relation called function, which includes exactly the one
to one and many to one relations. The terms "function" and "function from A into B" are slightly
different.
Definition 9 (Function):
A function is a relation 𝑓 in which no two distinct elements of 𝑓 have the same first coordinates.
More precisely, a set f is said to be a function if
(i) it is a relation
(ii) (𝑥, 𝑦), (𝑥, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑓 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑧.

Figure 4: Four types of Relations

Example 7: Determine whether the following relations are functions or not.
a) R = {( 5,−2), (3,5), (3,7)}
b) R = {( 5,−2), (3,5), (3,5)}
c) R ={(2,4),(3,4),(6,-4)}
 p  
d) R =  , p  : p, q  Z , q  0 .
 q  
e) R = {( mn, m + n) : m, n  Z } .
f) 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): x is a son of y and y is his father}.
g) 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): y is a son of x and x is his father}.
h) 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): xϵ[0, ∞)and y is a square root of x}.
i) 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): : xϵ[0, ∞) and y = √𝑥 }.

Answer: The relations in (b), (c), (f) and (i) are functions.

Definition 10 (Function from A into B): Let 𝑓 be a relation from A into B.

We say f is a function from A into B, written
f : A→ B or A ⎯⎯→ B
f

if
(i) 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = 𝐴
(ii) No two distinct elements of f have the same first coordinate,
i.e., (𝑥, 𝑦), (𝑥, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑓 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑧.

Remark 1: Thus, a set 𝒇 is said to be a function from A into B if it satisfies the following three
conditions:
(i) 𝑓 is a relation from 𝐴 into 𝐵, i.e., 𝑓 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵
(ii) 𝐴 is the domain of 𝑓.
(iii) No two distinct elements of 𝑓 have the same first coordinate
Remarks 2: Let 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩. Then the set:
(i) A is called the domain of f
(ii) B is called the codomain of f
 (iii) {𝑓(𝑥): 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴}is called the range of f.

Remark 3: If (𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝒇, we write 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) and we say

(i) 𝐲 is the image (value) of 𝒙 under 𝒇
(ii) 𝒙 is a pre-image (inverse image) of 𝒚 under 𝒇
(iii) f maps or transforms or carries 𝒙 into 𝒚 or 𝒙 is mapped to 𝒚 by 𝒇.
If 𝐶 is a subset of 𝐵, the set 𝑓 −1 (𝐶) ≔ {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝐶} is called the inverse image of 𝐶
under 𝑓.
Caution: Beware of the difference between 𝑓 and 𝑓(𝑥). The former is a function (hence a set);
the latter is an element of Y. But some authors also say "the function (𝑥) " mistakenly or by con-
vention.
Remark 4: The terms map, mapping, transformation, operator and correspondence are used as
a synonym for the word function.
Remark 5 (Function as a Rule): In mathematics, there are two common ways of defining the
term function: as a set and as a rule.

Definition of Function as a Rule: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be nonempty sets. A function from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a rule
that assigns to every element of A a unique element in 𝐵. We call 𝐴 the domain, and 𝐵
the codomain, of the function. If the function is called f, we write 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵

Remark 6( function as a machine): A function 𝑓 is like a machine that receives, as input, an

object 𝑥 from the domain of 𝑓, then manipulates it according to the design or the rule of 𝑓, and
outputs the value 𝑓(𝑥).

Figure 5: Function as a machine

Example 8: Let 𝐀 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒} and 𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟔, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟓}. Which of the following are functions
from 𝑨 to 𝑩?
a) f defined by f (1) = 1, f ( 2) = 6, f (3) = 8, f (4) = 8

b) f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 6, f (3) = 15

c) f defined by f (1) = 6, f ( 2) = 6, f (3) = 6, f ( 4) = 6

d) f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 6, f (2) = 8, f (3) = 8, f ( 4) = 11

e) f defined by f (1) = 1, f ( 2) = 8, f (3) = 11, f ( 4) = 15

Solution:
a) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element of
B.

b) f is not a function because there is no element of B which correspond to 4(  A).

c) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element
of B. In the given function, the images of all element of A are the same.
d) f is not a function because there are two elements of B which correspond to 2.
In other words, the image of 2 is not unique.
e) f is a function because to each element of 𝐴 there corresponds exactly one element
of B.
Remark 6 (different methods of describing functions): To describe a function means to give
a way of knowing its elements completely. We can describe (give) a function by using:
a. verbal method
b. listing method
c. set builder method:
d. visual methods(arrow diagram and graph)
e. tabular method
f. equation (formula)

Representing a Function by a Formula: The elements (𝐱, 𝐲) of a function 𝒇 can be de-

termined from an equation (formula) involving 𝒙 and 𝒚. Usually the formula has the
form:
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
 Where 𝒇(𝒙) is an expression in x. Moreover, a single function can be described by more than
one formula, i.e., the domain D is partitioned into disjoint subsets 𝑫𝟏 , … , 𝑫𝒏 and f(x) has differ-
ent formulas depending on to which of this subsets x belongs. More precisely, a function 𝒇 can
be defined by formulas of the form:

𝑓1 (𝑥), 𝑖𝑓 𝑥𝜖 𝐷1
𝑓(𝑥) ≔ { ⋮
𝑓𝑛 (𝑥), 𝑖𝑓 𝑥𝜖𝐷𝑛

Representing a Function by a Graph: The graph of a function 𝑓: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ ⇢ ℝ is the set of all

points (x, y) in the plane that satisfies the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). If the function is defined for only a
few input values, then the graph of the function is only a few points, where the x-coordinate of
each point is an input value and the y-coordinate of each point is the corresponding output value.

Vertical Line Test: If any vertical line intersects the graph of an equation more than once, then
the equation does not represent a function.

Example 9 [applying the vertical line test]: Which of the following graphs represents a func-
tion?

Figure 6: vertical line test

Answer: (a) and (b)

3.1.3 Real Valued Functions and their Properties

Functions can be classified in a number of ways. For instance: We can classify them as real val-
ued functions and non-real valued.
Definition 11: A function 𝑓 from set A to set B is called
a) a real valued function if 𝐵 ⊆ ℝ
b) a real function if both A and B are subsets of ℝ.

Example 10: Let 𝑓: ℂ → ℝ given by 𝑓(𝑧) ≔ |𝑧|.

Then 𝑓 is a real valued function; but it is not a real function.
We can do arithmetic operations with the images of real valued functions; because they are num-
bers.

Operations on Functions

Two real valued functions can be added like numbers to produce a new function f + g . Similarly
𝑓
we can produce new functions 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔 and 𝑔 from two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 as follows.

Definition 12[Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of two functions]:

Let 𝑓: 𝐷 → ℝ,𝑔: 𝐸 → ℝ andt 𝑘 be a constant. Then we can define five new functions
𝑓
f + g , 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, 𝑘𝑓 and ,
𝑔

respectively called the sum of f & g, the difference of f & g, the constant multiple f by k, the
product of f & g and the quotient of f & g , as follows:
a. 𝑓 + 𝑔: 𝐷 ∩ 𝐸 → ℝ given by (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) ≔ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
b. 𝑓 − 𝑔: 𝐷 ∩ 𝐸 → ℝ given by (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) ≔ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
c. 𝑓𝑔: 𝐷 ∩ 𝐸 → ℝ given by(𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) ≔ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
d. 𝑔
: 𝐷 ∩ 𝐸\{𝑥 ∈ 𝐸: 𝑔(𝑥) = 0} → ℝ given by (𝑔) (𝑥) ≔ 𝑔(𝑥)

e. 𝑘𝑓: 𝐷 ∩ 𝐸 → ℝ given by (𝑘𝑓)(𝑥) ≔ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓
Remark: The functions f + g , 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, 𝑘𝑓 and 𝑔
are sometimes called combinations of

functions.
Example 11[combinations of two functions given by listing method]:
Let 𝑓 = {(1,3), (2,4), (5.7)}
𝑔 = {(1,4), (2,0), (3.5)}=
Find
𝑓 𝑔
a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(2), (𝑓 − 𝑔)(2), (𝑓𝑔)(2), −5𝑓(2), −𝑓𝑔(2) and (2), (2)
𝑔 𝑓
𝑓 𝑔
b) 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔 , 𝑓𝑔, −5 𝑓, −5𝑔, and .
𝑔 𝑓

Example 12[arithmetic operations with two functions given by formual]:

f
Let 𝑓(𝑥)= 3𝑥 2 + 2 + and (𝑥)= 5𝑥 − 4 . Find f + g , f − g , f  g , and f 3 .
g
𝑓 4
Solution: The domains of 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔 and 𝑓 3 are ℝ and the domain of 𝑔 is ℝ \{ 5 }. More-

over, these functions are given by the following formulas:

(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2 + 5𝑥 − 4 = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2
(𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2 − [5𝑥 − 4] = 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6
(𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = [3𝑥 2 + 2][5𝑥 − 4] = 15𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 8
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 3𝑥 2 + 2
( ) (𝑥) = =
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥) 5𝑥 − 4
𝑓 3 (𝑥) = (5𝑥 − 4)3
There is yet another way of producing a new function from two given functions. The functions
being operated are not necessarily real valued, in this case.
Definition 13(Composition of functions): Given two functions 𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑓: 𝐵 → 𝐶 the
composition of 𝑓 and 𝑔, denoted by f  g ,is the function 𝑓𝑜𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐶 defined by:
( f  g )( x) := f [ g ( x)] .

( f  g )( x ) is read as " f composed with g of x ".

Remarks:
(a) In the above definition of 𝑓𝑜𝑔 co-domain of 𝑔 and domain of 𝑓 are the same. This is not
must. It suffices to assume that 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 ⊆ 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑓). Thus, in general, if 𝑔: 𝐴 →
𝐵 and 𝑓: 𝐶 → 𝐷 and if the range of g is a subset of C, we define 𝑓𝑜𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐷 by:
( f  g )( x ) = f [ g ( x )] .

(b) Note that 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑓𝑜𝑔) ⊆ 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑔). In fact,

 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑓𝑜𝑔) = 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑔) ∩ {𝑥: 𝑔(𝑥) ∈ 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑓)}
Example 13: Let 𝑓 = {(2, 𝑧), (3, 𝑞)} and 𝑔 = {(𝑎, 2), (𝑏, 3), (𝑐, 5)}. Then find
(a) (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(a) (b) 𝑓𝑜𝑔 (c) 𝑔𝑜𝑓
Solution:
(a) (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑎)) = 𝑓(2) = 𝑧
(b) 𝑓𝑜𝑔 = {(𝑏, 𝑞), (𝑎, 𝑧)}.
(c) 𝑔𝑜𝑓 is undefined.

Example 13: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 3. Then find

(a) (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(-2) (b) (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(2) (c) (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥)
(d) 𝑔𝑜𝑓
Solution:
(a) (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(−2) = 𝑓(𝑔(−2)) = 𝑓(4(−2) + 3) = 𝑓(−5) = 5(−5)2 − 3(−5) + 2 = 142 =
(b) (9𝑜𝑓)(2) = 𝑔(𝑓(2)) = 𝑔(5(2)2 − 3(2) + 2) = 𝑔(16) = 4(16) + 3 = 67
(c) (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(5𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2) = 4(5𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2) + 3 = 20𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 +
11
(d) 𝑔𝑜𝑓 is a set. We can describe it using set builder method:
𝑔𝑜𝑓 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 = 20𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 11

Example 14: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 where 𝑎, 𝑏 are constants and a ≠ 0. Find a function g so that
(𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥. Answer: ±1

Example 15: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 𝑘 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 1. Find k so that (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥).
3
Answer: 𝑘 = 2

Equality of Functions
Let f : A → B and g : A → B be two functions. Since f and g are sets, so it makes sense to
ask whether 𝑓 = 𝑔 or not
Definition 14: (Equality of functions):
Two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are said to be equal, written 𝑓 = 𝑔, if
i) 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑓) = 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑔),i.e., 𝑓 and 𝑔 have the same domain
ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) for every x i.e., 𝑓 and 𝑔 have the same rule.

In short, two functions are said to be equal if they have the same domain and the same rule.
(Compare the analogy with the definition of equal vectors: two vectors are equal if they have the
same magnitude and the same direction.).
Remark (consistency of this definition with equality of f and g as sets): Suppose 𝑓 = 𝑔; as
two sets. Then (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓 ⟺ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑔. This implies 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⟺ 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥). Thus (i) and (ii)
are satisfied. Conversely, if (i) and (ii) are satisfied, then it can be shown that 𝑓 = 𝑔 (in the sense
of equality of sets).
Example 16 (equal and non-equal functions):
𝑥 2 −1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
,

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1,
𝑥 2 −1
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 1
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥−1
2, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 1
𝑡(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ≠ 1
Then 𝑓 ≠ 𝑔 but 𝑔 = ℎ and 𝑓 = 𝑡 .

3.1.3 Injective Functions, Surjective Functions, Bijective Functions and Inverse Functions

In this section we shall study some important types of functions.

Definition 15: A function f : A → B is called

a) one to one (injective) if and only if for all x1 , x2  A , f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) implies x1 = x2 .

b) onto (surjective) if every element of B is an image of some element in A and
c) one to one correspondence (bijective) if f is both 1 – 1 and onto.
Remark [alternatives for the definition]]: A function f : A → B is:
(a) one to one if 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 implies𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2 ) . In words, no two distinct elements of A are
mapped to one element of B .
(b) onto 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑓) = 𝐵.

Example 17: Consider, 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4} and 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 such that

𝑓 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑐, 3)}

Then, the range of 𝑓 i.e., {1, 2, 3} ≠ co-domain of 𝑓 i.e., {1, 2, 3, 4}. Therefore, 𝑓 is NOT onto.
But, 𝑓 is one to one.

Inverse function

−1
Since a function is a relation, the inverse of a function f can also be denoted by f and is de-
fined by:
f −1 = {( y, x) : ( x, y )  f }
But the inverse of a function may not be a function. Thus every function 𝑓 has an inverse but it
may not have an inverse function. Even if it has an inverse function, the domain of the inverse
function need not be the codomain of 𝑓.
Question 1: What kinds of functions do have inverse functions?
Question 2: What kinds of functions 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵do have inverse functions 𝑓 −1 : 𝐵 → 𝐴?

Theorem 1: Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵. Then

a. 𝑓 −1 is a function iff 𝑓 is one to one.
b. 𝑓 −1 is a function from B into A iff 𝑓 is one to one and onto.

Remark: For a function f : A → B , notice the difference between the following three sentences.
i. 𝑓 has an inverse. (This always true).
ii. 𝑓 has an inverse function. (This is true only if 𝑓 is one to one).
iii. 𝑓 has an inverse function from 𝐵 to 𝐴. (This is true only if 𝑓 is bijective).
Example 18: Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝐵 = {2,4,6}.Then
a. The inverse of f = {( 2,4), (3,6), (1,2)} is a function. Furthermore, it is a function from B
into A.
b. The inverse of 𝑓 = {(2,4), (3,6)} is a function but it is not a function from B into A.
c. The inverse of f = {( 2,4), (3,6), (5,4)} is not a function.

Remark: Beware of the difference between 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)&[𝑓(𝑥)−1 ]. The latter is the reciprocal of
𝑓(𝑥). That is:
1
f −1 ( x ) 
f ( x)

Steps for finding the inverse of a function f:

1. Replace 𝑓(𝑥) by 𝑦 in the equation describing the function.

2. Interchange x and y. In other words, replace every 𝑥 by a 𝑦 and vice versa.

3. Solve for 𝑦.

4. Replace y by 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).

5𝑥+3
Example 19: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 1−2𝑥, then find a formula for 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).

Solution:
Let
5𝑥 + 3
𝑦= .
1 − 2𝑥
Replacing every 𝑥 by 𝑦 and 𝑦 by 𝑥, we get that
5𝑦 + 3
𝑥= .
1 − 2𝑦
This implies
𝑥(1 − 2𝑦) = 5𝑦 + 3
And this in turn implies
𝑥−3
𝑦=
5 − 2𝑥
Replacing 𝑦 by 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) gives:

𝑥−3
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 5−2𝑥 //

Exercise 3.1

1. Represent each of the following relations from 𝐴 ={1,2,3,6} to 𝐵 ={1,2,3,6}by using

roster method and an arrow graph.

a. 𝑹 = {(𝒙, 𝒚) ∣ 𝒙𝟐 ≤ 𝒚}
b. 𝑹 = {(𝒙, 𝒚) ∣ 𝒙 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝒚}
c. 𝑹 ={(𝒙, 𝒚) ∣ 𝒙 + 𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 }
2. For each of the relations in Problem No.1, find domain, codomain, range and inverse.
3. Let 𝐴 = {2,3,4,7} and 𝐵 = {1,2,3, … ,12}. Define 𝑎𝑆𝑏 if and only if 𝑎 ∣ 𝑏. Use the roster
method to describe S.

4. Find the domain and range of the relation {( x, y ) : x + y  2} .

5. If 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ Z, x 2 + y 2 ≤ 4} is a relation on Z, then find the domain D of R.
6. Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {3,5,6,8} . Which of the following are functions from A to B ?
a) f = {(1,3), ( 2,3), (3,3)} c) f = {(1,8), (2,5)}
b) f = {(1,3), ( 2,5), (1,6)} d) f = {(1,6), (2,5), (3,3)}
7. Determine the domain and range of the following relations.

a) {( −4,−3), (2,−5), (4,6), (2,0)} d) {( − 2 , 6 ), ( −1,1), ( 3 , 8 )}

1 1 1 1

b) {(8,−2), (6,− 2 ), ( −1,5)}

3
e) {( 0,5), (1,5), (2,5), (3,5), ( 4,5), (5,5)}

c) {( − 3,3), ( −1,1), (0,0), (1,1), ( 3,3)} f) {(5,0),(5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5)}

Determine whether each of the above relations is a function or not.
8. Find the domain and range of the following functions.

a) f ( x) = 1 + 8x − 2 x 2 c) f ( x ) = x − 6 x + 8
2

1 3x + 4, − 1  x  2
b) f ( x) = d) f ( x ) = 
x − 5x + 6
2
1 + x, 2  x  5
 3x − 5, x  1
9. Given f ( x ) =  2 .
 x − 1, x  1
Find a) f (−3) b) f (1) c) f (6)

10. Choose the correct answer: Set A has 3 elements and the set B has 4 elements. Then the
number of injective mappings that can be defined from A to B is:
(A) 144 (B) 12 (C) 24 (D) 64
11. Let 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔 ∶ 𝐵 → 𝐶 be the given functions such that 𝑔 𝑜 𝑓 is onto. Show
that 𝑔 is onto.
12. Let 𝑓 ∶ A → B and g : B → C be the given functions such that g o f is one-one. Then
show that f is one-one.
13. If 𝑓 ∶ X → Y, g : Y → Z and h : Z → S are functions, then show that h o (g o f) = (h o g)
o f.
14. Let 𝑓 ∶ A → B and g : B → C be the given functions such that g o f is one-one. Then f is
one-one
15. Let 𝑓 ∶ X → Y and g : Y → Z be two invertible functions. Then show that g o f is also
invertible and (𝑔 𝑜 𝑓)−1 = 𝑓 −1 o 𝑔−1 .
16. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2 and 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 6𝑥 + 5, then find 𝑔(𝑥).
2𝑥
17. Given (𝑥) = 𝑥+3 , find (a) 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and (b) range (𝑓).

3.2 Common Mathematical Functions

In this section we consider the definition and basic properties of specific classes of mathematical
functions which frequently occur as mathematical models of real-life situations.

3.2.1 Polynomial Functions

 A. Definition and Basic Properties

Definition 1: Let 𝑎0 , … , 𝑎𝑛 be real numbers, 𝑥 be a real variable and 𝑛, 𝑛 − 1, … , 0 be whole

numbers. Then a function of the form
p( x) = a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 +  + a1 x + a0 , where 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, (1)

is called a polynomial function. More precisely it is called a polynomial function of degree n

in x ( over ℝ). The numbers 𝑎0 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are called the coefficients of the polynomial. In partic-
ular 𝑎𝑛 is called the leading coefficient and 𝑎0 is called the constant term.

Remark:
1. Notice that every polynomial function is a sum of finite terms and every term has the
form:
(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)(𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒)𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

2. Types of Polynomials based on coefficients: A polynomial function 𝑝 is called a

- polynomial over ℂ if all coefficients are complex numbers.
- polynomial over ℝ if all coefficients are real numbers
- polynomial over ℚ if all coefficients are rational numbers..
- polynomial overℤif all coefficients are integers, and etc.
3. Types of polynomials based on degree:
- A polynomial function that has no degree is called zero function.
- A polynomial function of degree 0 is called constant function.
- A polynomial function of degree 1 is called a linear function.
- A polynomial function of degree 2 is called a quadratic function.
- A polynomial function of degree 3 is called a cubic function.
- Likewise we can define quartic function, quantic function and etc.

Definition 2[zero of a function]: A real number 𝑟 is said to be a root [zero] of a real

function 𝑓 if 𝑓(𝑟) = 0.
Thus we have the following equivalent statements:
 𝑟 is a root of 𝑓 ⇔ 𝑟 𝑖s a zero of 𝑓 ⇔ 𝑟 is a solution of the equation 𝑓(𝑥)=0.

Example 1 [Identifying Polynomials]: Which of the following functions are polynomials? For
those which are polynomials, find their degrees.

A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + √𝑥 + 17
17
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 +
𝑥
3
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 18
D. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 [𝑥 2 + 𝑥 −2 − 17]
E. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2
3
F. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 + √𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2
𝑥 2 −7𝑥+12
G. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3
𝑥 2 −7𝑥+12
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 4
H. 𝐹(𝑥) = { 𝑥−4
1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 4
I. 𝐹(𝑥) = 18
J. 𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑥(−6𝑥 + 10)3 .

B. Some Important Properties of Polynomial Functions

Let
p( x) = a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 +  + a1 x + a0 , a n  0

be any polynomial function. Then p satisfies the following properties.

1. Domain: The domain of 𝑝 is ℝ. (This follows from the Closure properties of ℝ under
addition and multiplication).
2. Range: If the degree of 𝑝 is odd, then the range of 𝑝 is ℝ. If the degree of 𝑝 is even, then
its range is a semi-infinite interval, that is an interval of the type [𝑎, ∞) or (−∞, 𝑎].
3. End Point Behavior: As x gets very large, the function 𝑝 behaves like the function
𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 . (This follows from the fact that 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 [1 + + + ⋯ + 𝑥 𝑛0 ]
𝑥 𝑥2
and the expression in bracket tends to 1 as x gets very large.). We call this property
the end point behavior of the function.
The end behavior of a polynomial function is determined by its degree and leading coefficient:
✓ Even degree and positive leading coefficient: Both ends of the graph point up
✓ Even degree and negative leading coefficient: Both ends of the graph point down
✓ Odd degree and positive leading coefficient: The right end of the graph points up
 4. Continuity: The graph of p is a continuous curve. The term continuous means the graph
has no hole, no gap and no jump. We call this property the continuity properties of p.
5. Smoothness: The graph of p is a smooth curve. The word smooth means that the graph
does not have any sharp corners; the turning points are not sharp. We call this the
smoothness properties of p.
6. X-Intercepts: The function 𝑝 has at most n zeros (x-intercepts).
7. Turning Points: The graph of 𝑝 can have at most n − 1 turning points.

Figure 7: End behavior of polynomials

C. Some Important Theorems about Polynomials

We now learn 9 important theorems about polynomials, namely:

- Euclidean division algorithm for
polynomials - Fundamental theorem of algebra
- Remainder theorem - Linear factorization theorem
- Factor theorem - Conjugate root theorem
- Location theorem - Rational root theorem
- Vieta’s Formulas
 Theorem 1[Polynomial Division Theorem]
Let p (x ) and d ( x ) be polynomials with d ( x )  0 , and with the degree of d ( x ) less than or
equal to the degree of p (x ) . Then there are polynomials q(x ) and R (x ) such that

p( x) = d
 ( x) + R
( x). q  ( x) , where either R ( x ) = 0 or the degree of R (x ) is less than degree
dividend divisor quotient remainder

of d ( x ) .

Note: Dividend = (Divisor × Quotient) + Remainder

Example 2: Use long division method to find the remainder 𝑟(𝑥) and quotient 𝑞(𝑥) when 2𝑥 3 −
3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 5 is divided by 𝑥 + 2.

With the aid of the division algorithm, we can derive the next two important theorems that will
allow us to recognize the zeros of polynomials.

Theorem 2[The Remainder Theorem]

When a polynomial p (x ) of degree at least 1 is divided by the linear factor 𝑥 − 𝑎, then the re-
mainder is 𝑝(𝑎).

Proof: By the division algorithm where the divisor, if d ( x ) = x − r ), we get

p ( x) = ( x − a )q ( x) + r

Note that since the divisor is of the first degree, the remainder r, must be a constant. If we now
substitute 𝑥 = 𝑎, into this equation, we get
P(a) = (a − a)q(a) + r = 0  q(a) + r

Therefore, p(a) = a . ∎

Example 3 [on remainder theorem]: Find the remainder 𝑟 when

 a. 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 is divided by 𝑥 − 2.
b. 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 is divided by 𝑥 + 1.
c. p(x):= 6x4 - x3 + 2x2 - 7x + 2 is divided by the polynomial 2x + 3..

Solution:
(a) 𝑟 = 𝑝(2) = 9
(b) 𝑟 = 𝑝(−1) = −6
𝑦 4 𝑦 3 𝑦 2 𝑦
(c) Put 2𝑥 =: 𝑦 and let 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦). Then 𝑓(𝑦) = 6 ( ) − ( ) + 2 ( ) − 7 ( ) + 2.
2 2 2 2
203
It follows that 𝑟 = 𝑓(−3) = 4
.

Theorem 3[The Factor Theorem]

𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor of p (x ) if and only if 𝑝(𝑎) = 0.

Proof: If 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor of p (x ) , then the remainder R must be 0 (by definition of factor).

Conversely, if the remainder R obtained when p(x) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑎 is 0, then
p( x) = ( x − a )q ( x) . Hence, 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor of p (x ) .
The next theorem, called location theorem, allows us to show that a given polynomial has a root
in some interval (𝑎, 𝑏).
The next diagram summarizes the relationship between the last two theorems.

𝑟 is a root of 𝑝 ⇔ 𝑝(𝑟) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 − 𝑟 is a factor of p.

Example 4: Use factor theorem to verify if 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2 is divisible 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 or not.

Theorem 4[The Location Theorem]

Let f be a polynomial function and a and b be real numbers such that a  b . If f ( a ) f (b)  0 , then
there is at least one zero of f between a and b .
Example 5: Show that there is a root of the equation 𝟐𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐 = 𝟎 over the interval (-2, -
1).

Does every polynomial have a zero? Our answer depends on the number system in which we are
working. If we restrict ourselves to the set of real number system, then we are already familiar
with the fact that the polynomial p( x ) = x 2 + 1 has no real zeros. However, this polynomial does
have two zeros in the complex number system. (The zeros are i and − i ). Carl Friedrich Gauss
(1777-1855), in his doctoral dissertation, proved that within the complex number system, every
polynomial of degree  1 has at least one zero. This fact is usually referred to as the Fundamen-
tal theorem of Algebra

Theorem 5[The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra]

If p (x ) is a polynomial of degree 𝑛 ≥ 1 whose coefficients are complex numbers, then p (x )

has at least one zero in the complex number system.

Note that since all real numbers are complex numbers, a polynomial with real coefficients also
satisfies the Fundamental theorem of Algebra. As an immediate consequence of the Fundamental
theorem of Algebra, we have

Theorem 6[The linear Factorization Theorem]

If p( x ) = a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 +  + a1 x + a0 , where 𝑛 ≥ 1 and an  0 , then there exist n complex

number 𝑟1 , … , 𝑟𝑛 (not necessarily distinct)such that

p( x) = an ( x − r1 ) ( x − r2 ) ( x − rn ) .

From the linear factorization theorem, it follows that every polynomial of degree n  1 has ex-
actly n zeros in the complex number system, where a root of multiplicity k counted k times.

From the quadratic formula for quadratic equations we know that if a complex number is a root
of the equation, so is its conjugate. For example, the roots of x 2 − 2 x + 5 = 0 are 1+ 2i and
1− 2i . This property extends to all polynomial equations with real coefficients.
 Theorem 7 [The Conjugate Roots Theorem]

Let p (x ) be a polynomial with real coefficients. If the complex number a + bi is a zero of

p (x ) , then so is its conjugate a − bi .

Example 6: Let f ( x) = x 4 + 2 x 3 − 9 x 2 + 26 x − 20. Given that 1 − 3 i is a zero, find all zeros of

f (x) .

Solution: According to the Conjugate Roots Theorem, if 1 − 3 i is a zero, then its conjugate,

1 + 3 i must also be a zero. Therefore, x − (1 − 3 i ) and x − (1 + 3 i ) are both factors of

f (x) , and so their product must be a factor of r ( x ) . That is, [ x − (1 − 3 i )] [ x − (1 + 3 i )] =

x 2 − 2 x + 4 is a factor of f (x) . Dividing f (x) by x 2 − 2 x + 4 , we obtain

f ( x) = ( x 2 − 2 x + 4)( x 2 + 4 x − 5) = ( x 2 − 2 x + 4) ( x + 5) ( x − 1).

Thus, the zeros of f (x) are 1 − 3 i , 1 + 3 i , − 5 and 1.

The theorems we have discussed so far are called existence theorems because they ensure the
existence of zeros and linear factors of polynomials. These theorems do not tell us how to find
the zeros or the linear factors.

The rest of this subsection is devoted to developing some special methods for finding the zeros
of a polynomial function.

As we have seen, even though we have no general techniques for factorizing polynomials of de-
gree greater than 2, if we happen to know a root, say r , we can use long division to divide p (x )
by x − r and obtain a quotient polynomial of lower degree. If we can get the quotient polynomial
down to a quadratic, then we are able to determine all the roots. But how do we find a root to
start the process? The following theorem can be most helpful.

Theorem 8 [The Rational Root Theorem]

 Suppose that f ( x ) = a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 +  + a1 x + a 0 , where n  1, an  0 is an n th degree poly-

p
nomial with integer coefficients. If is a rational root of f ( x ) = 0 , where p and q have no
q

common factor other than  1 , then p is an integer factor of a0 and q is an integer factor of

an .

3
To get a feeling as to why this theorem is true, suppose is a root of
2
a3 x 3 + a 2 x 2 + a1 x + a 0 = 0 .
3 2
 3  3  3
Then, a 3   + a 2   + a1   + a 0 = 0 which implies that
2 2 2
27a3 9a 2 3a1
+ + + a0 = 0 multiplying both sides by 8
8 4 2
27a3 + 18a 2 + 12a1 = −8a 0 ...................................................(1)

27a3 = −18a 2 − 12a1 − 8a 0 ...................................................(2)

If we look at equation (1), the left hand side is divisible by 3, and therefore the right hand side
must also be divisible by 3. Since 8 is not divisible by 3, a 0 must be divisible by 3. From equa-

tion (2), a 3 must be divisible by 2.

Note: The rational root theorem is useful in finding the roots of some polynomial functions.
Example 7: Use the Rational root Theorem to find all roots of:
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 23𝑥 − 12.

Our last theorem on polynomials is called Vieta's formula; it relates the coefficients of
a polynomial to sums and products of its roots.

Theorem 9 [Vieta’s Formulas]: Suppose that f ( x ) = a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 +  + a1 x + a 0 , where

n  1, an  0 is an n th degree polynomial with roots 𝑟1 , … , 𝑟𝑛 . Then

 𝑎𝑛−1
a) 𝑟1 + ⋯ + 𝑟𝑛 = − 𝑎𝑛

(−1)𝑛 𝑎0
b)𝑟1 𝑟2 … . 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛

Final Remark on zeros of polynomials:

a. Like quadratic formula, solution formulas for cubic and quartic equations with real coeffi-
cients do exist, but they are complicated.
b. In1826 a Norwegian mathematician called Abel proved that there cannot be a formula for
finding the roots of a polynomial of degree 5 or more in terms of the coefficients.
Example 8: If 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 33 = 0, determine the value of:
1 1
𝑥2
+𝑥 .
1

1 1 𝑥1 +𝑥2 9
Solution: 𝑥2
+𝑥 = 𝑥1 𝑥2
= − 33. //
1

3.2.2 Rational Functions and Their Graphs

n( x )
Definition 1: A rational function is a function of the form f ( x) = where both n(x) and d(x)
d ( x)

are polynomials and d ( x)  0 . (See the analogy of this definition with the definition of rational
number).

For easy memorization:

𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙
Rational function = 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜−𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙

3 x −1
Example 1 (Identifying rational functions): The functions f ( x) = , f ( x) = 2 and
x+5 x −4
x5 + 2x3 − x + 1 3
f ( x) = are examples of rational function. But The functions f ( x) = ,
x + 5x x +5
x −1 𝑥
f ( x) = −2
and 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 3 −4| are not rational functions.
x −4
 n( x )
Note that the domain of the rational function f ( x) = is {x : d ( x)  0}
d ( x)

Asymptotes

In general, an asymptote is a line (or a curve) that the graph of a function gets close to but does
not touch. Below, the three main types of asymptotes for rational functions are defined.

𝑛(𝑥)
Definition 2: Let 𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑥) be a rational function in simplified form, i.e., N and D have no

common factor. Furthermore, let q be the quotient of N(x) divided by Q(x).

a) If 𝑑(𝑎) = 0, then the vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is called a vertical asymptote (VA) of f(x),
b) If 𝑞 is constant, the horizontal line 𝑦 =q is called horizontal asymptote (HA) of f(x) and
c) If 𝑞 is a linear function, then the slant (oblique) line 𝑦 = 𝑞(𝑥) is called an oblique as-
ymptote (OA) or slant asymptote of f(x).

Remarks [on asymptotes of rational functions]:

1. A rational function can have at most one horizontal asymptote.
2. A rational function can have at most one oblique asymptote.
3. A rational function can have any number of vertical asymptotes.
4. A rational function can have both a vertical and a slant asymptote, or both a vertical and
horizontal asymptote, but it cannot have both a horizontal and slant asymptote.
5. A rational function can have an asymptote which is not vertical asymptote, horizontal as-
ymptote or oblique asymptote.
Procedures for sketching the graph of a Rational Function R(x)

1. Identify the domain of 𝑅 and, if possible, also the range of R.

2. Find the intercepts of the graph of R as follows.

- To find x-intercepts (XI) , set 𝑦 = 0 and solve for x. If 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a solution, then
(𝑎, 0) is an XI.
- To find y-intercepts (YI), set 𝑥 = 0 and solve for y. If 𝑦 = 𝑏 is a solution, then (0, b)
is a YI.
3. Find all asymptotes and sketch them as broken lines.
4. If there is vertical asymptote and if there is an x intercept, then use the vertical asymptote(s )
and the x-intercept(s) to divide the x-axis into intervals. Then determine whether 𝑅(𝑥) is pos-
itive or negative on each of these intervals by using test points.
5. If there is a horizontal or an oblique asymptote, then the graph of R(x) will approach the as-
ymptote (s) as 𝑥 gets large positive or large negative. Use the results in step 4 to determine
whether the graph approaches from above or below.
6. If there is no horizontal or oblique asymptote, the highest degree term “takes over.” If you
form the ratio of the numerator’s leading term to the denominator’s leading term and reduce
this ratio to its lowest terms, f(x) will look very much like this function when x is very small
or very large (note that this ratio will have degree 2 or greater when there is no horizontal or
oblique asymptote).
7. Determine the behavior of 𝑓(𝑥) as x approaches each vertical asymptote, both from the left
side and from the right side. The function has to either get really big or really small, and the
results from step 4 will tell you which.
𝑥 2 +1
Example 2 [graph of a rational function that intersects its VA]: Sketch 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +𝑥−2

Solution:

Step 1: Reduce the rational function to lowest terms and check for any open holes in the graph.

This function cannot be reduced any further. This means that there will be no open holes on this
graph.

Step 2: Find all of the asymptotes and draw them as dashed lines.

So now we want to find where the denominator is equal to 0:

There are two vertical asymptotes: x = -2 and x = 1.

Horizontal Asymptote: Since the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denomi-
nator, then there is a horizontal asymptote at

Slant Asymptote: Since the degree of the numerator is NOT one degree higher than the degree
of the denominator, there is not slant asymptote.

Step 3: Determine the symmetry.

Since
,
the function is neither even nor odd.

Step 4: Find and plot any intercepts that exist.

x-intercept: Put y=0 in the equation of the function and find x.

This means there is NO x-intercept.

y-intercept: Put x=0 in the formula for the function and find y.

The y-intercept is (0, -1/2)

Step 5: Find and plot several other points on the graph.

Note that the vertical asymptotes section the graph into three parts. We compute values of the
function at some sample points. Let us evaluate it at two x values that are to the left of x = -2, one
in between x = -2 and x = 1, and two that are to the right of x = 1.

x -4 -3 -1 2 3
f(x) 17 5 −1 3 1
2
10 4

Step 6: Draw curves through the points of step 5 and through intercepts, in such a way that the
curve is approaching the asymptotes eventually
 Figure 8: A rational function whose graph intersects with its HA

𝑥3
Example 3 [graph with no HA and no OA]: Sketch 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−2

Figure 9: Graph of a rational function with no OA and no HA

Acknowledgement: The graph is plotted by a free online software located at
https://www.symbolab.com/

3.2.3 Exponential Functions

A. Exponents and Radicals
 Definition 1 [natural integer exponent]: Let 𝑛 be a natural number and 𝑥 a real number. We
define the phrase x raised to n (𝑛𝑡ℎ power of x), written 𝑥 𝑛 , by:
xn = x 
 
xx
n factors each equal to x

In the expression x n , x is called the base and n is called the exponent and 𝑥 𝑛 itself is called
power.

We can extend the definition of exponents to include 0 and negative exponents.

Definition 2(Zero and Negative integer Exponents)

Definition of zero Exponent Definition of Negative Exponent

x 0 = 1 ( x  0) x −n =
1
( x  0)
xn
Note: 0 0 is undefined.
1
As a result of the above definition, we have −n
= x n . We have the following rules of exponents
x
for integer exponents:
Theorem 1 [Rules for Integer Exponents]:
1. x n  x m = x n + m 4. ( xy) n = x n y n

xn
2. ( x ) = x
n m nm
5. m = x n −m
x
n
x xn
3.   = n ( y  0)
 y y

Example 1:

a) 2 = 2  2  2  2  2 = 32 .
5

1
b) 2 −5 = .
32
Next we extend the definition of exponents even further to include rational number exponents.
To do this, we assume that we want the rules for integer exponents also to apply to rational ex-
ponents and then use the rules to show us to define a rational exponent. For example, how do we
1 1
define a 2 ? Consider 9 2 .

If we apply rule 2 and square 9 2 , we get 9 2

1
( ) =9
1 2 1
2
1
= 9 . Thus, 9 is a number that, when squared,
2

yields 9. There are two possible answers: 3 and – 3, since squaring either number will yield 9. To
1
avoid ambiguity, we define a 2 (called the principal square root of a ) as the non-negative quanti-
1
ty that, when squared, yield a . Thus, 9 2 = 3 .

1 1
We will arrive at the definition of a 3 in the same way as we did for a 2 . For example, if we cube
1
8 3 , we get 8 3 ( ) =8
1 3 3
3
1
= 8 . Thus, 8 is the number that, when cubed, yields 8. Since 2 3 = 8 we
3

have 8 3 = 2 . Similarly, (− 27)3 = −3 . Thus, we define a 3 (called the cube root of a ) as the
1 1 1

quantity that, when cubed yields a .

1
Definition 3 (Rational Exponent a n )
1
If n is an odd positive integer, then a n = b if and only if b n = a
1
If n is an even positive integer and a  0 , then a n = b if and only if b n = a

1 1
We call a n the principal n th root of a . Hence, a n is the real number (nonnegative when n is
even) that, when raised to the n th power, yields a . Therefore,

(16)
1
2
= 4 since 4 2 = 16

(− 125) = −5 since ( −5) 3 = −125

1
3

1 4
 1 4 1 1 1
  = since   =
 81  3  3 81
1
27 3 = 3 since 33 = 27

(− 16)
1
4
is not a real number
 1
Thus far, we have defined a n , where n is a natural number. With the help of the second rule for
m
m
exponent, we can define the expression a n , where m and n are natural numbers and n is re-
duced to lowest terms.
m
Definition 4 (Rational Exponent a n )
1
If a n is a real number, then a n = a n
m
( ) (i.e. the n
1 m
th
root of a raised to the m th power)

We can also define negative rational exponents:

a
− mn
=
1
m
(a  0)
a n

Example 2: Evaluate the following

2
− 12 − 53
a) 27 3 b) 36 c) ( −32)

Solution: We have
2
a) 27 3 = 27 3 ( ) =31 2
2
=9
− 12 1 1
b) 36 = 1
=
36 2 6

− 53 1 1 1 1
c) ( −32) = = = =−
( −32)
3
5
((−32) ) 1
5
3
( −2) 3
8

Radical notation is an alternative way of writing an expression with rational exponents. We de-
fine for real number a , the n th root of a as follows:

1
n
Definition 5( n th root of a ): a = a , where n is a positive integer.
n

n
The number a is also called the principal n th root of a . If the n th root of a exists, we have:
 For a a real number and n a positive integer,
 a , if n is even
n
an = 
a, if n is odd

For example, 3
53 = 5 and 4
( −3) 4 = 3 .

B. Exponential Functions

In the previous sections we examined functions of the form f ( x ) = x n , where n is a constant.

How is this function different from f ( x ) = n x .

Definition 6: A function of the form y = f ( x ) = b x , where b  0 and b  1 , is called an expo-

nential function.
x
1
Example 3: The functions f ( x ) = 2 , g ( x ) = 3 and h( x ) =   are examples of exponential
x x

2
functions.
As usual the first question raised when we encounter a new function is its domain. Since rational
exponents are well defined, we know that any rational number will be in the domain of an expo-
nential function. For example, let f ( x ) = 3 x . Then as x takes on the rational values x = 4, – 2 ,
1 4
2 and 5 , we have

f (4) = 34 = 3  3  3  3 = 81 f ( −2) = 3−2 = 312 = 19

1 4
f ( 12 ) = 3 2 = 3 f ( 45 ) = 3 5 = 5 34 = 5 81

5
Note that even though we do not know the exact values of 3 and 81 , we do know exactly
what they mean. However, what about f ( x ) for irrational values of x ? For instance,

f ( 2) = 3 2
=?
We have not defined the meaning of irrational exponents. In fact, a precise formal definition of
2
b x where x is irrational requires the ideas of calculus. However, we can get an idea of what 3

should be by using successive rational approximations to 2 . For example, we have

1.414  2  1.415

Thus, it would seem reasonable to expect that 31.414  3 2

 31.415 . Since 1.414 and 1.415 are ra-
tional numbers, 31.414 and 31.415 are well defined, even though we cannot compute their values by

hand. Using a calculator, we get 4.7276950  3 2

 4.7328918 . If we use better approximations

to 2, we get 31.4142  3 2
31.4143 . Using a calculator again, we get

4.7287339  3 2
 4.7292535 . Computing 3 2 directly on a calculator gives 3 2
 4.7288044 .
This numerical evidence suggests that as x approaches 2 , the values of 3 x approach a unique
2
real number that we designate by 3 , and so we will accept without proof, the fact that the do-
main of the exponential function is the set of real numbers.

The exponential function y = b x , where b  0 and b  1 , is defined for all real values of x .
In addition all the rules for rational exponents hold for real number exponents as well.

Before we state some general facts about exponential functions , let’s see if we can determine
what the graph of an exponential function will look like.

Example 4: Sketch the graph of the function y = 2 x and identify its domain and range.
Solution: To aid in our analysis, we set up a short table of values to give us a frame of
reference.
 x y

−3 2 −3 = 81 y

−2 y = 2x
2 −2 = 1
4

−1 2 −1 = 1
2 2 (1,2)
1
0 20 = 1
O 1 x
1 21 = 2
2 22 = 4
3 23 = 8

With these points in hand, we draw a smooth curve through the points obtaining the graph ap-
pearing above. Observe that the domain of y = 2 x is IR , the graph has no x − intercepts, as
x → + , the y values are increasing very rapidly, whereas as x → − , the y values are getting

closer and closer to 0. Thus, x − axis is a horizontal asymptote, the y − intercept is 1 and the

range of y = 2 x is the set of positive real numbers.

x
1
Example 5: Sketch the graph of y = f ( x ) =   .
2

Solution: It would be instructive to compute a table of values as we did in example 1 above (you
are urged to do so). However, we will take a different approach. We note that
x
1 1
y = f ( x ) =   = x = 2 − x . If f ( x ) = 2 x , then f ( − x ) = 2 − x . Thus by the graphing principle for
2 2

f ( − x ) , we can obtain the graph of y = 2 − x by reflecting the graph of y = 2 x about the y − axis .

(−1,2) 2
1

−1 O 1 x
Here again the x − axis is a horizontal asymptote, there is no x − intercept, 1 is y − intercept
and the range is the set of positive real numbers. However, the graph is now decreasing rather
than increasing.

The following box summarizes the important facts about exponential functions and their graphs.

Theorem [Properties of The Exponential function 𝒚 = 𝒃𝒙 where b≠ 𝟎]:

1. The domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers
2. The range of the exponential function is the set of positive real numbers
3. The graph of y = b x exhibits exponential growth if b  1 or exponential decay if
0  b  1.
4. The y − intercept is 1.
5. The x − intercept is a horizontal asymptote
6. The exponential function is 1 – 1. Algebraically if b x = b y , then x = y

Example 6: Sketch the graph of each of the following. Find the domain, range, intercepts, and
asymptotes.
a) y = 3 x + 1 b) y = 3x +1 c) y = −9 − x + 3

Solution:
a) To get the graph of y = 3 x + 1 . We start with the graph of y = 3 x , which is the basic ex-
ponential growth graph, and shift it up 1 unit.

From the graph we see that

y=3x+1
10 - Dom ( f ) = 
- Range ( f ) = (1, )
- The y − intercept is 2
2
y=1
1 - The line y = 1 is a horizontal
1 2 asymptote
 b) To get the graph of y = 3x +1 , we start with the graph of y = 3 x , and shift 1 unit to the left.

From the graph we see that

y=3x+1
- Dom ( f ) = 
9
- Range ( f ) = (0, )
- The y − intercept is 3
- The line y = 0 is a horizontal as-
1 ymptote

c) To get the graph of y = −9 − x + 3 , we start with the basic exponential decay y = 9 − x . We

then reflect it with respect to the x − axis , which gives the graph of y = −9 − x . Finally,

we shift this graph up 3 units to get the required graph of y = −9 − x + 3 .

y y
y
(−1,9) 9 1
y=3
−1 1 x 3

2
y = −9− x +3
−1 y= −9− x 1
y = 9− −1
x
1 x
−1 O 1 x (−1,−9)
−9

From the graph of y = −9 − x + 3 , we can see that Dom (h ) =  , Range (h ) = ( −,3) , the line

y = 3 is a horizontal asymptote, 2 is the y − intercept and x = − 12 is the x − intercept.

Remark: When the base b of the exponential function f ( x ) = b x equals to the number e , where
e = 2.7182, we call the exponential function the natural exponential function
Applications:
Figure 10: Compound interest formula

3.2.4 Logarithmic Functions

The exponential function is one to one; hence, it has an inverse function. The inverse of
f ( x ) = b x is called logarithmic function.
A. Logarithms and their Properties
Definition 1: For b  0 and b  1 , we write y = log b x to mean y is the exponent to which

b must be raised to yield x . In other words,

x = b y  y = log b x

We read y = log b x as “ y equals the logarithm of x to the base b ”.

REMEMBER: y = log b x is an alternative way of writing x = b y

Example 1:
1. Write each of the following in exponential form.
1

a) log 3 9 = −2 b) log 16 2 = 1
4

1 1
Solution: We have a) log 3 9 = −2 means 3−2 = 1
9 and b) log 16 2 = 1
4 means 16 4 = 2
 2. Write each of the following in logarithmic form.
2
a) 10 −3 = 0.001 b) 27 3 = 9

Solution: We have a) 10 −3 = 0.001 means log 10 0.001 = −3

2
b) 27 3 = 9 means log 27 9 = 2
3

3. Evaluate each of the following.

1
a) log 3 81 b) log 8 64

Solution:
a) To evaluate log 3 81 , we let t = log 3 81 , and then rewrite the equation in exponential

form, 3t = 81 . Now, if we can express both sides in terms of the same base, we can
solve the resulting exponential equation, as follows:
Let t = log 3 81 Rewrite in exponential form

3t = 81 Express both sides in terms of the same base

3t = 3 4 Since the exponential function is 1 – 1
t =4
Therefore, log 3 81 = 4 .
b) We apply the same procedure as in part (a).
Let t = log 8 1
64 Rewrite in exponential form

8t = 1
64 Express both sides in terms of the same base

8 t = 8 −2 Since the exponential function is 1 – 1

t = −2
Therefore, log 8 1
64 = −2 .

Example 2: Given f ( x ) = log 5 x , find

a) f ( 25) b) f ( 251 ) c) f (0) d) f (−125)

Solution:
a) f (25) = log 5 25 = 2 (since 52 = 25 )
 b) f ( 251 ) = log 5 1
25 = −2 (since 5−2 = 1
25 )

c) f (0) = log 5 0 is not defined (what power of 5 will yield 0?). We say that 0 is not in the

domain of f .
d) f ( −125) = log 5 ( −125) is not defined (what power of 5 will yield -125?). We say that -

125 is not in the domain of f .

The Two Special Logarithms: Common Logarithm and Natural Logarithm

The logarithmic function was introduced without stressing the particular base chosen. However,
there are two bases of special importance in science and mathematics, namely, b = 10 and b = e
Definition 2: (Common Logarithm)
f ( x ) = log 10 x is called the common logarithm function. We write log 10 x = log x .

The inverse of the natural exponential function is called the natural logarithmic function and has
its own special notation.

Definition 3: (Natural Logarithm)

f ( x ) = log e x is called the natural logarithmic function. We write log e x = ln x .

Laws of Logarithms
Theorem [Basic Laws of Logarithms]: Assume that 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑏 are positive and b  1 . Then

a. log 𝑏 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 + log 𝑏 𝑦 [product Rule]

𝑥
b. log 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑦 [Quotient Rule]
c. log 𝑏 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 [Logarithm of power]
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 𝑥
d. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 = log 𝑏 [change of logarithmic base]
𝑐

Proof: Exercise
Example 3: Evaluate
(a) log 9 13122 − log 9 2
 5
(b) log log 2 √16

Example 4: Rewrite the expression as a single logarithm: 3 log 4 5 + log 4 10 − log 4 7

Example 5: If log 625 = 2.796, then which one of the following is not true?

a. log 6.25 = 0.796 b. log 0.625 = 0.398 + (−2)

3 1
c. log √5 = 0.233 d. log = −1.398
25

Example 6: Given that log 5 = 𝑏, then log 5 4 is equal to:

𝑏 𝑏−1 𝑏 1−𝑏
a. 2(𝑏−1) b. 2( ) c. 2(1−𝑏) d. 2( )
𝑏 𝑏

Example 7: Express in terms of simpler logarithms.

a) log b ( x 3 y ) b) log b ( x 3 + y ) c) log b ( )

xy
z3

Solution:
a) log b ( x 3 y ) = log b x 3 + log b y = 3 log b x + log b y
b) Examining the properties of logarithms, we can see that they deal with log of a prod-
uct, quotient and power. Thus, log 3 ( x 3 + y ) which is the log of a sum cannot be sim-
plified using log properties.
c) We have

log b ( ) = log
xy
z 3 b xy − log b ( z 3 ) = log b ( xy) 2 − 3 log b z = (log b x + log b y ) − 3 log b z .
1 1
2

Example 8: Evaluate log 1000

Solution: Let a = log 1000 . Then, a = log 10 1000 = log 10 (10 3 ) = 3 .

B. The graph of 𝐲 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒙

Theorem [Properties of the Logarithmic Function y = log b x ]

1. Its domain is the set of positive real numbers

 2. Its range is the set of real numbers.
3. Its graph exhibits logarithmic growth if b  1 and logarithmic decay if 0  b  1 .
4. The x − intercept is 1. There is no y − intercept.
5. The y − axis is a vertical asymptote.

Example 9: Sketch the graph of the following functions. Find the domain and range of each.
a) y = log 3 x b) y = log 1 x
2

Solution: Since y = log 3 x is the inverse of y = 3 x , we can obtain the graph of y = log 3 x by

reflecting the graph of y = 3 x about the line y = x , as shown below. To get the graph of

y = log 1 x , we reflect the graph of y = ( 12 )x about the line y = x as shown below. Taking note of
2

the features of the two graphs we have the following important information about the graph of
the log function:

y=x

1
1 x

1 x
1
y = log3x

y = 3x y=x
y

Example 10: Sketch the graph of f ( x ) = 1 + log 3 ( x − 2) . Find the domain, range, asymptote and
intercepts.
Solution: We can obtain the graph of y = 1 + log 3 ( x − 2) by applying the graphing principle to
shift the basic logarithmic growth graph 2 units to the right and 1 unit up.

y
x= 2

y = 1+ log3(x−2)
1

1 2 3 x

We have Dom ( f ) = {x : x  2} , Range ( f ) =  and the graph has the line x = 2 as a ver-
tical asymptote. To find the intercept, we set y = 0 and solve for x . Setting y = 0 and
solving for x , we will obtain x = 73 . Thus, the x − intercept is 7
3 .

Example 11: Find the inverse function of f ( x ) = e x + 1 .

Solution: Let y = ex +1 Interchange x and y

x = ey +1 Solve for y

x −1 = e y Rewrite in logarithmic form

y = ln( x − 1)

Thus, f −1 ( x ) = ln( x − 1) .

3.4.5 Trigonometric Functions

None of the functions discussed so far can model regular periodic phenomena. Trigonometric
functions (also called circular functions) are useful in describing periodic phenomena.
The term trigonometry was derived from the Greek terms trigono (meaning triangle) and
metron (meaning to measure) Originally, trigonometry was concerned with the study of the rela-
tionships between the measurements of the different parts of a triangle (in particular its angles,
sides and area). These seven elements are called the basic parts of a triangle. Given the
measures of some parts of a triangle, trigonometry helps us to find the missing or unknown
parts. Today, trigonometry is more than the study of the relationships among parts of a triangle.
Rather it is the study of specific functions of angles (called trigonometric functions) and their
applications. Before we present the definition of these functions we need to review the notion of
angle and angle measurement.

A. Angle and measurement of angles

An angle is the figure formed by two half-lines or rays with a common end point. The common
end point is called the vertex of the angle. The rays are called the arms or sides of the angle.

Figure 11: Parts of an angle

The measure of an angle is the amount of opening between its sides. There is a problem with this
definition. Since there are two different openings that are associated with an angle, so there are at
least two different measures which we can assign to an angle. Alternatively, we can define the
measure of an angle as the amount of rotation from one of its sides (called initial side) to the oth-
er side (called terminal side). This definition allows us to assign even infinitely many measures
to the same angle. If the rotation is in a counter clockwise direction, we call the angle positive
angle, and if the rotation is in a clockwise direction, we call the angle negative angle.
 Figure 12: Terminal and initial sides of an angle; positive and negative angles

Units of Measurement for Angle: Degree and radian

There are two commonly used units of measurement for angles. The more familiar unit of meas-
urement is that of degrees. The second one is that of radians.

How much is 1 degree?

One degree, written 1º, is the central angle subtended by one of 360 equal divisions of a full cir-
cle. Thus a full circle (one revolution) constitutes 360 degrees; half of a revolution (a straight
angle) measures 180∘, a quarter of a revolution (a right angle) measures 90∘ and so on.

Figure 13: An angle of 1 degree measure

Given any angle 𝜃 and any circle C with center at the vertex of 𝜃, the ratio of the intercepted arc
to the radius is constant (it does not depend on the size of circle C) but it depends on the size of
the angle. Consequently this ratio can be used to indicate the size of an angle. This system of
measurement of angles is called radian measure.
How much is 1 radian?
One radian, written 1 Rad, is equal to the central angle of any circle whose intercepted arc has
the same length as the radius of the circle. Thus for an angle with radian measure 1 rad, the ratio
of intercepted arc to radius is 1. Accordingly, the radian measure of a complete revolution is 2𝜋
radians because the ratio of the length s of the circle to the radius R of the circle is 2𝜋.

Figure 14: An angle of 1 radian measure

Conversions between Degrees and Radians:

Let 𝜃deg and 𝜃rad be the degree measure and the radian measure of angle 𝜃 respectively: Then,
we have the following conversion formula:
1. From Degree Measure to radian Measure
𝜃𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝜃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
180

2. From radian measure to degree measure

180 × 𝜃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜃𝑑𝑒𝑔 = 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
𝜋

Example 1:
(i) Convert each of the following radian measures to degrees.
 3
a) 6 b) 5

 
Solution: a) By the conversion formula, we have = 6
, which implies that  = 30  .
180 

 3
Again using the conversion formula, we get = 5
, which implies that  = 108 .
180 

 (ii) Convert the following degree measures to radian measures
a) 90 b) 270

Solution: a) Let  represent the radian measure of 90 . Using the conversion formula, we
 90 
obtain: =  , which implies that
= .
 180 2

b) Rather than using the conversion formula, we notice that 270 = 3(90 ) . In part (a) we found
 

 3
that 90 = , and so we have 270 =
 
.
2 2

B. Definition of Trigonometric Functions Using Right Triangles

There are two main ways in which trigonometric functions are defined: in terms of right trian-
gles and in terms of circles. The right-angled triangle definition of trigonometric functions is
applicable only to acute angles. The circle definition is applicable to any angle..

If 𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a right triangle with right angle at C, hypotenuse 𝑐 = 𝐴𝐵 and legs 𝑎 = 𝐵𝐶 and 𝑏 =
𝐴𝐶, we can form the six ratios:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐 𝑐 𝑏
, , , , and
𝑐 𝑐 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Figure 15: Trigonometric ratios

These ratios are called trigonometric ratios. Each of these ratios does not depend on the overall
size of the triangle but they depend only on the magnitude of the angles included between the
numerator and denominator. Thus these ratios are functions of angles. Note that each angle of a
right triangle is an acute angle. We can extend the definition of trigonometric ratios from acute
angles to other angles (non-acute angles).

C. Definition of Trigonometric Functions using circles

To define the trigonometric functions of an arbitrary angle 𝜃, we first put the vertex of the angle
at the origin and its initial side on the positive x axis. An angle is said to be put in standard po-
sition if its vertex is placed at the origin and its initial side is placed along the positive axis. If an
angle is at the standard position, the location of its terminal side depends, of courses, on the size
of the angle.

Figure 16: An angle in standard position

If an angle is at the standard position, the acute angle formed by the x-axis and the terminal side
of the angle is called the reference angle of the angle.
 Figure 17: Some angles at the standard position and their reference angles
Example 2: Draw the following angles and find their reference angles.

a) 210º
b) -72º
c) 510º

The right triangle formed by dropping a perpendicular from a point on the terminal side of 𝜃 to
the x axis is called the reference triangle of 𝜃.

Figure 18: Reference triangle of an angle

Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be any point (other than the origin) on the terminal side of angle 𝜃 and let r be the
distance from origin to P. Note that r is always positive. Then we name, denote and define the six
trigonometric functions of angle 𝜃 as follows:
 Definition:
Name of function Abbreviation Definition
y
Sine  sin  sin  =
r
x
Cosine  cos cos  =
r
y
Tangent  tan  tan  =
x
r
Cosecant  csc  csc  =
y
r
Secant  sec  sec  =
x
x
Cotangent  cot  cot  =
y

Example 3(evaluating trigonometric functions at special acute angles): The angles with
measure 0, 30, 45, 60 and 90 degrees are called special angles. The values of each of the six trig
functions at each of the special angles are given in the next table.

Figure 19: The values of the basic trigonometric functions at special acute angles

Example 4 (evaluating trigonometric functions at quadrantal angles): A quadrantal angle

is an angle in the standard position and has a measure which is a multiple of 900 or π/2 radians. It
is an angle in standard position whose terminal ray lies along one of the axes.

Trigonometric values of obtuse angles

 To find the value of a trigonometric function 𝑓 at an angle 𝜃 between 90° and 360° we

• find the reference angle 𝜃𝑅 of the angle,

• evaluate the trigonometric ratio of the reference angle𝜃𝑅 ,i.e., evaluate 𝑓(θR ). Note that
f(θR ). is always positive.
• Then 𝑓(𝜃) = ±𝑓(𝜃𝑅 ). We attach sign to 𝑓(θR ). to obtain 𝑓(𝜃) according to the following
rules.

Example 5 (evaluating trigonometric functions of 𝜽 where 0 < 𝜽 < 𝟑𝟔𝟎): Find the exact
value of:

a sin 120 ° b 𝑐𝑜𝑠 150° c tan 300 ° d cos 240

Trigonometric functions of angles of any magnitude):

To find the value of a trigonometric function 𝑓 at an angle 𝜃 with 𝜽 > 𝟑𝟔𝟎:

• First, find numbers 𝑛&𝛽 such that 𝜃 = 𝑛 360 + 𝛽 and 0 ≤ 𝛽 < 360.
• Then 𝑓(𝜃) = 𝑓(𝛽).

Example 6: Find the exact value of sin 480°.

If two angles in standard position have the same terminal side, they are called coterminal angles.

D. Properties and Graphs of the six basic trigonometric Functions

In this subsection we present the properties and sketch the graphs of the six basic trigonometric
functions. To that end we first define certain vocabularies of trigonometric graphs.

Definition (Periodic Function): A function y = f (x ) is called periodic if there exists a number p

such that f ( x + p ) = f ( x ) for all x in the domain of f . The smallest such number p is called the
fundamental period (or just the period) of the function.
 The Period is the horizontal distance between two adjacent maximum points or between two
adjacent minimum points.

Definition (Amplitude of a periodic function): The amplitude A of a periodic function f (x ) is

the number:
1
A = [ maximum value of f (x ) − minimum value of f (x )]
2

The Amplitude is the height from the center line (middle line) to the peak (or to the trough).
The midline (base line, central line) of a sinusoidal function is the horizontal center line about
which the function oscillates above and below. For 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐱, the midline is 𝑦 = 0 (the x-
axis). The midline is parallel to the x-axis and is located half-way between the graphs maximum
and minimum values.

Definition (Frequency of a periodic function): The number of complete cycles a sine or cosine
graph makes on an interval of length equal to 2 is called its frequency. Thus:
2𝜋
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦: =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

Example 7:
a. The functions 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥, 𝑐𝑠𝑐 x, and sec x all have the same period: 2π radians. Thus, the
functions tan x and cot x have a period of π radians.
b. Any real number p is a period of the constant function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 and no real number is the
fundamental period.
c. What is the period of f(x) = sin 2x?
d. The amplitudes of the functions 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 & 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 are 1.

In order to sketch the graphs of the basic trigonometric functions we first list some of their key
properties.
 Properties of Sine Function:
2. Domain(f) = ℝ
3. Range(f) = [−1,1]
4. Maximum and minimum values:
Maximum value of f is 1.
Minimum value of f is -1.
5. Period = 2𝜋
6. Intercepts
x- Intercepts are the points (𝑘𝜋, 0): 𝑘𝜖ℤ
y- Intercept = (0,0)
7. Symmetry: sine function is odd. Its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.
8. Monotonicity Properties[Intervals of increase and decrease]
𝜋
- As x increases from 0 to 2 , Sin𝑥 increases from 0 to 1
𝜋
- As x increases from to 𝜋, Sin𝑥 decreases from 1 to 0
2
3𝜋
- As x increases from 𝜋 to 2
, Sin𝑥 decrease from 0 to -1
3𝜋
- to 2𝜋, Sin 𝑥 increases from -1 to 0
2

Graph of y= sin(x)

The next graph illustrates how the circle definition of sine function can help in sketching the
graph of sine.
The next graph illustrates how the circle definition of sine function can help in sketching the
graph of sine.
The next graph illustrates how the circle definition of sine function can help in sketching the
graph of sine.

Figure 20: how the unit circle wraps into sine curve

Properties of Cosine Function

1. Domain(f) = ℝ
2. Range(f) = [−1,1]
3. Maximum and minimum values:
Maximum value of f is 1.
Minimum value of f is -1.
4. Period = 2𝜋
5. Intercepts
(2𝑘+1)𝜋
x- Intercepts are the points ( 2
, 0): 𝑘𝜖ℤ
𝜋
y- Intercept = (0, 2 )

6. Symmetry: cosine is an even function. Its graph is symmetric with respect to y axis.
7. Monotonicity Properties[Intervals of increase and decrease]
𝜋
- As x increases from 0 to 2 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 decreases from 1 to 0
𝜋
- As x increases from to 𝜋, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 decreases from 0 to -1
2
3𝜋
- As x increases from 𝜋 to , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 increases from -1 to 0.
2
3𝜋
- As x increases from to 2𝜋, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 increases from 0 to 1.
2
 Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒙)

Figure 21: The graph of 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒙)

Properties of tangent function
𝜋
1. Domain(f) = ℝ\{(2𝑘 + 1) 2 : 𝑘𝜖ℤ}

2. Range(f) = ℝ
3. Maximum and minimum values: none
4. Period = 𝜋
5. Intercepts
x- Intercepts are the points (𝑘𝜋, 0): 𝑘𝜖ℤ
y- Intercept = (0,0)
6. Symmetry: tangent is an odd function. Its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.
7. Monotonicity Properties[Intervals of increase and decrease]: It is decreasing on each in-
(2𝑘−1)𝜋 (2𝑘+1)𝜋
terval ( , ),𝑘 ∈ ℤ
2 2

Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝒙)
 Figure 22: The graph of y=tan(x)

Properties of Cosecant Function

1. Domain(f) = ℝ
2. Range(f) = (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
3. Maximum and minimum values: It has no max and no min value.
4. Period = 2𝜋
5. Intercepts
x- Intercepts are the points (𝑘𝜋, 0): 𝑘𝜖ℤ
y- Intercept = none
6. Symmetry: cosecant is an odd function. Its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.
7. Monotonicity Properties[Intervals of increase and decrease]
𝜋
- As x increases from 0 to 2 , 𝐶𝑠𝑐 𝑥 decreases from ∞ to 1
𝜋
- As x increases from to 𝜋, 𝐶𝑠𝑐 𝑥 increases from 1 to ∞
2
3𝜋
- As x increases from 𝜋 to , 𝐶𝑠𝑐 𝑥 increases from −∞ to -1
2
3𝜋
- As x increases from 2
to 2𝜋, 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 decreases from -1 to -∞
 Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒔𝒄(𝒙)

Figure 23: The graph of 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒔𝒄(𝒙) (RED) and the graph of 𝒚 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒙)(BLUE)
 Properties of Secant Function

i. Domain(𝑓) = ℝ
ii. Range(𝑓) =(−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
iii. Maximum and minimum values: It has no max and no min value.
iv. Period = 2𝜋
v. Intercepts
(2𝑘+1)𝜋
x- Intercepts are the points ( 2
, 0): 𝑘𝜖ℤ
𝜋
y- Intercept = (0, 2 )

vi. Symmetry: secant is an even function. Its graph is symmetric with respect to y axis.
vii. Monotonicity Properties[Intervals of increase and decrease]
𝜋
- As x increases from 0 to 2 , 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 increases from 1 to ∞ .
𝜋
- As x increases from to 𝜋, 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 increases from - ∞ to -1
2
3𝜋
- As x increases from 𝜋 to 2
, 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 decreases from −∞ to -1.
3𝜋
- As x increases from 𝜋 to 2
to 2𝜋, 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑥 decreases from -1 to -∞.

Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄(𝒙)

Figure 24: The graph of 𝒚 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄(𝒙) (BROWN) and the graph of 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒙)(PURPLE)
 Properties of Cotangent Function

i. Domain(f) = ℝ\ {𝑘𝜋: 𝑘𝜖ℤ}

ii. Range(f) = ℝ
iii. Maximum and minimum values: It has no max and no min value.
iv. Period = 2𝜋
v. Intercepts
(2𝑘+1)𝜋
x- Intercepts are the points ( 2
, 0): 𝑘𝜖ℤ

y- Intercept = none
vi. Symmetry: cotangent is an odd function. Its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.
vii. Monotonicity Properties[Intervals of increase and decrease]: It is decreasing on each interval
(2𝑘𝜋, (2𝑘 + 1)𝜋), 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
viii. Vertical Asymptotes: The lines 𝜃 = 𝑘𝜋, Where 𝑘 is any integer, are vertical asymptotes of f.

Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒕(𝒙)

Figure 25: The graph of 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒕(𝒙)

 Figure 26: Graphs of the six basic trigonometric functions (all together)

E. Properties and Graphs of General trigonometric Functions: Sinusoi-

dal Functions

A sinusoid is the name given to any curve that can be written in the form:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin(𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶) + 𝐷
The cosine wave is also said to be sinusoidal because of the relationship
𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) = sin (𝑥 + )
2
In order to understand such a function it is useful to first understand the properties of functions
of the forms:
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 + 𝐷, 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(𝑥 + 𝐶), 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝐵𝑥
We illustrate the behaviors of the later functions by examples. Before that we consider some ad-
ditional trigonometric graphs vocabularies:

The Phase Shift (horizontal shift) of a sinusoid is how far the function is shift-
ed horizontally from the usual position (that of sine).
The Vertical Shift of a sinusoid is how far the central line of the graph of the function is shift-
ed vertically from the usual central position (that of sine).
Example 8: Find the domain, range, amplitude, period and frequency of 𝑦 = 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and
sketch it.
Solution: If a constant is added or subtracted to a trigonometric function, this will affect the 𝑦 −
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 of the function If we consider the function 𝑦 = 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, then each of the standard y -
values would have 2 added to it. This would shift the graph up 2 units.

Figure 27: The graph of y= 2+sinx

Example 9: Find the domain, range, amplitude, period and frequency of y = sin 2 x and sketch
it.
Solution: We can obtain this graph by applying our knowledge of the basic sine graph. For the
basic curve, we have

sin 0 = 0 sin 2 = 1 sin  = 0 sin 3

2 = −1 sin 2 = 0
These quadrantal values serve as guide points, which help us draw the graph. To obtain similar
guide points for y = sin 2 x , we ask for what values of x is

2x = 0 2 x = 2 2x =  2x = 3
2 2 x = 2

and we get
x =0 x = 4 x = 2 x= 3
2 x =
Thus, y = sin 2 x will have the values 0, 1, 0, − 1 , 0 at x = 0, 4 , 2 , 34 , and  , respectively. The

graph of y = sin 2 x will thus complete one cycle in the interval [0,  ] , and will repeat the same
values in the interval [ ,2 ] .
From this graph we see that y = sin 2 x has an amplitude of 1, a period  , and a frequency of 2.

Figure 28: The graph of 𝒚 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝟐𝒙)

𝜋
Example 10: Find the domain, range, amplitude, period and frequency of 𝑦 = sin (𝑥 − 2 ) and

sketch it.

𝝅
Figure 29: The graph of 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝒙 − 𝟐 )
Example 11: Find the domain, range, amplitude, period and frequency of 𝑦 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and sketch
it.

Solution:

• amplitude is 2
• period is 2𝜋
• frequency is 1
• phase shift is 0
• vertical shift is 0

Properties of the sinusoidal Function: 𝒚 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝑩(𝒙 + 𝑪)) + 𝑫

• amplitude is A
𝟐𝝅
• period is
𝑩

• frequency is B
• phase shift is C (positive is to the left)
• vertical shift is D (positive is up)
Figure 30: amplitude, frequency, h/shift and v/shift of a sinusoid
 F. Trigonometric Identities
The reciprocal Identities:
1
1. 𝐶𝑠𝑐(𝑥) = sin(𝑥)
1
2. 𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑥) =
cos(𝑥)
1
3. 𝐶𝑜𝑡(𝑥) =
tan(𝑥)

The quotient Identities:

sin 𝑥
4. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥) = cos(𝑥)
cos 𝑥
5. 𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑥) = sin(𝑥)

Co-terminal Relations:

6. sin x + cos x = 1
2 2
The Pythagorean Identities

7. tan x + 1 = sce x
2 2

8. 1 + cot 2 x = csc 2 x

The addition formula 9. (a) sin( x + y ) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

(b) sin( x − y ) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y
10. (a) cos( x + y ) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y
(b) cos( x − y ) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
tan x + tan y
11. (a) tan( x + y ) =
1 − tan x tan y
tan x − tan y
(b) tan( x − y ) =
1 + tan x tan y

The double angle formula 12. sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x

13. cos 2 x = cos 2 x − sin 2 x = 1 − 2 sin 2 x = 2 cos 2 x − 1
2 tan x
14. tan 2 x =
1 − tan 2 x
 x 1 − cos x
The half-angle formula 15. sin =
2 2

x 1 + cos x
16. cos =
2 2

x 1 − cos x
17. tan =
2 1 + cos x
G. Applications of Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometry and its functions have an enormous number of uses in our daily life. For instance,
it is used in:
- astronomy to measure the distance between stars or planets;
- geography to measure the distance between landmarks (an object or a place that is
easily recognized specially one that is used to judge where you are),
- Criminology to investigate the source place of a criminal act (eg. To locate the source
of a fired armament)
- Music to develop computer programs that synthesize music
- Artillery science
- Construction to calculate the following: Measuring fields, lots and are-
as; Making walls parallel and perpendicular; Installing ceramic tiles;
Roof inclination; measuring the height of a building and many others
-
Many of the above applications rely on two mathematical skills: solving triangles or modeling
periodic phenomena such as sound by sinusoidal functions.

Applications I: Indirect Measurements and solving triangles

Trigonometry was first developed to measure heights and distances that were inconvenient or
impossible to measure directly (eg. Distance between stars). This activity usually involves find-
ing the measurements of the missing elements of some triangle, given the measurements of the
other elements of the triangle. The process of finding the missing elements (sides, angles or area)
of a triangle when the other elements are given is called solving the triangle.
The following vocabularies are useful in connection with this.
The line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point in the object viewed
by the observer.
The angle of elevation of the point viewed is the angle formed by the line of sight with the hori-
zontal when the point being viewed is above the horizontal level,
The angle of depression of a point on the object being viewed is the angle formed by the line of
sight with the horizontal when the point is below the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we low-
er our head to look at the point being viewed.
We can solve a triangle by using Pythagoras Theorem, the Law of Cosines and the Law of Sines.
The process of solving triangles can be categorized into several distinct groups. The following is
a listing of these categories along with a procedure to follow to solve for the missing parts of the
triangle.
• SSS: If the three sides of a triangle are known, first use the Law of Cosines to find one of
the angles. It is usually best to find the largest angle first, the one opposite the longest
side. Then, set up a proportion using the Law of Sines to find the second angle. Finally,
subtract these angle measures from 180° to find the third angle.
• SAS: If two sides and the included angle of a triangle are known, first use the Law of Co-
sines to solve for the third side. Next, use the Law of Sines to find the smaller of the two
remaining angles. This is the angle opposite the shortest or shorter side, not the longest
side. Finally, subtract these angle measures from 180° to find the third angle. Again, you
can use the Law of Cosines to find the two missing angles, although a solution using the
Law of Cosines is usually more complex than one using the Law of Sines.
• ASA: If two angles and the included side of a triangle are known, first subtract these an-
gle measures from 180° to find the third angle. Next, use the Law of Sines to set up pro-
portions to find the lengths of the two missing sides. You can use the Law of Cosines to
find the length of the third side, but why bother if you can use the Law of Sines instead?

• AAS: If two angles and a non-included side of a triangle are known, first subtract these
angle measures from 180° to find the third angle. Next, use the Law of Sines to set up
proportions to find the lengths of the two missing sides. The given side is opposite one of
the two given angles. If all that is needed is the length of the side opposite the second
 given angle, then use the Law of Sines to calculate its value.

• SSA: This is known as the ambiguous case. If two sides and a non-included angle of a
triangle are known, there are six possible configurations, two if the given angle is obtuse
or right and four if the given angle is acute.

Example 12(SSS) Find the difference between the largest and smallest angles of a triangle if the
lengths of the sides are 10, 19, and 23.

Figure 31: Solving a triangle where the given parts are SSS
Solution:
232 = 102 + 192 − 2(10)(19)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛽).⇒ 𝛽 = cos −1(−0.1789) ≈ 100.30
Next, use the Law of Sines to find the size of the smallest angle (α), which is opposite
the shortest side (10)..
sin (𝛼) sin (100.30 ) 0.9839
≈ ≈
10 10 23
.⇒ 𝛼 = sin−1(−0.4278) ≈ 25.330
Thus, the difference between the largest and smallest angle is100.30 − 25.330 = 74.980 .//

Example 13(SAS): The legs of an isosceles triangle have a length of 28 and form a 17° angle.
What is the length of the third side of the triangle?
 Figure 32: Solving a triangle where the given parts are SAS

Solution:
𝑐 2 = 282 + 282 − 12(28)(28)𝑐𝑜𝑠170 .⇒ c ≈ 8.278.

Example 14: (ASA) Find the value of d in Figure 6 .

Figure 33: Solving a triangle where the given parts are ASA

First, calculate the sizes of angles α and β. Then find the value of a using the Law of Sines. Fi-
nally, use the definition of the sine to find the value of d.
Finally,

Example 15: (AAS) Find the value of x in Figure 7 .

Figure 34: Solving a triangle where the given parts are AAS

Solution: First, calculate the size of angle α. Then use the Law of Sines to calculate the value
of x.
Example 16(SSA): One side of a triangle, of length 20, forms a 42° angle with a second side of
the triangle (8). The length of the third side of the triangle is 14. Find the length of the second
side.

Figure 35: Solving a triangle where the given parts are SSA

The length of the altitude (h) is calculated first so that the number of solutions (0, 1, or 2) can be
determined.

Because 13.38 < 14 < 20, there are two distinct solutions.

Solution 1: Use of the Law of Sines to calculate α.

Use the fact that there are 180° in a triangle to calculate β

Use the Law of Sines to find the value of b.

Solution 2: Use α to find α′, and α′ to find β′

Next, use the Law of Sines to find b′.

Applications II: Modeling Periodic Phenomena

Because of their periodic nature, trigonometric functions are used to model phenomena
that occur again and again. This includes vibratory or oscillatory motions, such as the motion of
a vibrating guitar string, the swinging of a pendulum, or the bobbing of an object attached to a
spring. Trigonometric functions are also used to describe radio waves, television waves, seismic
waves, sound waves, etc.
To see how trigonometric functions are used to model vibratory motion, consider a ball
attached to a spring hung from the ceiling. You pull the ball x units down or push (compress) x
units up and then release it. If we neglect the effects of friction and air resistance, the ball will
continue bobbing up and down on the end of the spring. This up-and-down motion is an example
of a simple harmonic motion.
An object that moves on a coordinate axis, say x-axis, is said to be in simple harmonic motion if
its directed distance x from the point 𝑥0 , at time 𝑡 is given by either
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥0 + 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) 𝑜𝑟 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥0 + 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) ;
where
- 𝑥0 is the initial position of the object
- A is the maximum displacement
2𝜋
- 𝜔:= 𝑇 is the angular frequency in radians per second.

- T is the period, i.e., the time it takes the object to complete one oscillation and re-
turn to the starting position
1
- The inverse of the period is called the frequency = 𝑇 . The frequency of the mo-

tion gives the number of complete oscillations per unit time

The derivation of this equation requires the theory of differential equations. If we assume that the
initial position of the object is the origin, then the equations reduce to

𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕)
 Figure 36: A single vertical spring mass system

Figure 37: Forces acting on a mass attached to a vertical

spring

Example 17: A ball on a spring is pushed 4 inches from its rest position and then released. The
period of the motion is 6 seconds. Write the equation for the ball’s simple harmonic motion.
Solution: We need to write an equation that describes the distance 𝑥(𝑡) of the ball from its rest
position, after t seconds. When the object is released the ball’s distance from its rest position is 4
inches down. Let us assume that the vertical axis is x-axis with positive x axis pointing up. Be-
cause it is down 4 inches and x is negative: At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = −4. Notice that the greatest distance
from rest position occurs at 𝑡 = 0. We will use the equation
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕)
to model the ball’s simple harmonic motion. Let us find A and 𝜔.
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥(0) = 𝐴. ⇒ 𝐴 = −4.
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
The period of 𝑥(𝑡) is 𝑇 = 𝜔
. ⇒ 6 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 𝜔
. ⇒𝜔= 6
=3 .

The equation for the ball’s simple harmonic motion is

𝜋
𝑑 = −4 cos ( 3 𝑡 )
 3.4.6. Hyperbolic Functions
A. Introduction

While there are many motions that oscillate in a circle and can be mathematically described with
a sine or cosine wave, there are other motions that oscillate in a hyperbola. The so called hyper-
bolic functions capture the oscillatory movement around a hyperbola. The basic hyperbolic func-
tions are ℎ(𝑥), 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥), and 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑥). Unlike their traditional counterparts, the hyperbolic func-
tions take an area as an argument, not an angle. The diagram below shows how an area relates to
a hyperbola, and the following sections explore the hyperbolic trig functions and their inverses in
greater detail.

B. Definitions of the basic hyperbolic functions

The hyperbolic functions are certain combinations of exponential functions. Two of them, called
the hyperbolic sine and the hyperbolic cosine functions, are defined as follows:
Definition 1:
1. The hyperbolic sine function is denoted by 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ and it is defined by:
e x − e−x
sinh x =
2
The domain of sinh x is ℝ.

2. The hyperbolic cosine function is denoted by 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ and defined by:

 e x + e−x
cosh x =
2
The domain of cosh x is alsoℝ.

The other hyperbolic functions are defined as follows:

Definition 2:
We define four functions called hyperbolic tangent, hyperbolic cotangent, hyperbolic secant and
hyperbolic cosecant functions respectively by the following formulas:
sinh x e x − e − x
a) tanh x = = (The domain of tanh x is ℝ ).
cosh x e x + e − x
cosh x e x + e − x
b) coth x = = (The domain of coth x is ℝ\{0} )
sinh x e x − e − x
1 2
c) sec h x = = x (The domain of sec hx is ℝ)
cosh x e + e − x
1 2
d) csc h x = = x (The domain of csc h x is ℝ\{0} )
sinh x e − e − x

Example 1 [evaluating hyperbolic functions]: Find the exact numerical value of

a) sinh(ln 2) b) cosh( − ln 3) c) tanh( 2 ln 3)

Solution:

𝑒 𝑙𝑛(2) −𝑒 −𝑙𝑛(2) 1 1 3
(a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑙𝑛 2) = 2
= 2 (2 − 2) = 4
𝑒 𝑙𝑛(3) +𝑒 −𝑙𝑛(3) 1
(b) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(−𝑙𝑛 3) = cosh(𝑙𝑛3) = = 2 (3 + 1/3)
2
1
sinh(𝑙𝑛9) 𝑒 𝑙𝑛(2) − 𝑒 −𝑙𝑛(9) 9− 80 40
(c) 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(2𝑙𝑛 3) = tanh(𝑙𝑛9) = cosh(𝑙𝑛9)= = = 9
1 = 82 = 41 //
𝑒 𝑙𝑛(2) + 𝑒 𝑙𝑛(9) 9+
9
 C. Hyperbolic Identities
The hyperbolic functions satisfy identities which closely resemble those of the trig functions.

Theorem 1 [Hyperbolic Identities]

cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1
1 − tanh 2 x = sec h 2 x
coth 2 x − 1 = csc h 2 x
sinh( x + y ) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y
cosh( x + y ) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y

Proof: Exercise
Remark [some Properties of the hyperbolic Functions]:
1. Since e − x  0 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, we see that cosh x  sinh x for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ .
2. The range of 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥) is [1,∞) and that of sinh(x) is ℝ.
3. 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ is an even function and is 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ is an odd function.
4. In contrast to sine and cosine, the hyperbolic functions are not periodic.

The graph of y=cosh(x)

Since cosh x is an even function, its graph is symmetric about the y − axis . Its y − intercept is

e x e−x
(0,1) , because cosh( 0) = 1 . As x tends to infinity, cosh x = + tends to infinity because
2 2
ex e−x
goes to infinity and approaches to 0. When x is a large negative number cosh x acts
2 2
e−x ex
like , because gets close to 0. Thus the graph of y = cosh x looks like:
2 2
 −x
This graph can also be obtained by geometrically adding the two curves y = e and y = e ,
x

and taking half of each resulting y − value .

The graph of y=sinh(x)

Since sinh x is an odd function, its graph is symmetric about the origin. The graph passes
ex
through the origin because sinh( 0) = 0 . As x gets large sinh x acts like and when x is a
2
e−x
large negative number, sinh x acts like − . Thus, the graph of y = sinh x looks like:
2

3.2.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

[Read]
Exercise 3.2
𝑥 2 −1
1. Sketch 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2(𝑥+1).

2. Find the domain of the given function.

1 1
a) f ( x ) = b) g ( x ) = 3 + 1 c) h( x ) = 2 − 8 d) f ( x ) =
x x

6x 2 −2
3x

3. Sketch the graph of the given function. Identify the domain, range, intercepts, and asymp-
totes.
a) y = 5− x b) y = 9 − 3 x c) y = 1 − e − x d) y = e x −2
4. Solve the given exponential equation.

a) 2 x −1 = 8 b) 32 x = 243 c) 8 = 2 d) 16 3a − 2 =
x 1
4

5. Let f ( x ) = 2 x . Show that f ( x + 3) = 8 f ( x ) .

 1
6. Let g ( x ) = 5 x . Show that g ( x − 2) = g ( x) .
25
f ( x + 2) − f ( 2)
7. Let f ( x ) = 3 x . Show that = 4( 3 x ) .
2
8. Evaluate the given logarithmic expression (where it is defined).
a) log 2 32 c) log 3 ( −9) e) log 5 (log 3 243)
log 5
b) log 1 9 d) log 6 1
6
f) 2 2
3

9. If f ( x ) = log 2 ( x 2 − 4) , find f (6) and the domain of f .

10. If g ( x ) = log 3 ( x 2 − 4 x + 3) , find f ( 4) and the domain of g .

11. Show that log 1 x = − log 6 x

6

12. Find the inverse function for

a) y = f ( x ) = 3x + 4 b) y = g ( x ) = log 3 ( x − 2) 32
13. Identify the domain, range, intercepts and asymptotes of the following functions and
sketch the graph of each function.
a) f ( x) = log 2 ( x − 3) b) f ( x) = −3 + log 2 x c) f ( x) = − log 3 ( − x ) d) f ( x ) = 3 log 5 x

14. Find the inverse of f ( x ) = e ( 3 x −1) .

15. Let f ( x) = e x . Find a function g so that ( f  g )( x ) = ( g  f )( x ) = x .

16. Convert the given angle from radians to degrees
a) 
3 b) − 52 c) − 43
17. Convert the given angle from degrees to radians
a) 315 b) − 40 c) 330
18. Find the exact value of:
(a) cos (750 ) (b) cos (7950 ) (c) cos (−2850 ) (d) sin (150 )
19. If sin 3A = cos (A-26°), where 3A is an acute angle, find the value of A.
20. Sketch the graph of
a) f ( ) = sec  c) f ( ) = csc  e) f ( ) = cot 

b) f ( x ) = 1 + cos x d) f ( x ) = sin( x + 2 ) f) f ( x ) = tan 2 x

21. Verify the following identities:
 a) (sin x − cos x )(csc x + sec x ) = tan x − cot x

b) sec 2 x − csc 2 x = tan 2 x − cot 2 x

22. Explain how to find one of the acute angles of a right triangle if two sides are known. 20.
23. Describe a situation in which a right triangle and a trigonometric function are used to
measure a height or distance that would otherwise be inconvenient or impossible to
measure.
24. Given tan  = 1
2 and sin   0 , find cos .
25. Sketch the graphs of
a) f ( x ) = tanh x c) f ( x ) = csc hx
b) f ( x ) = sec hx d) f ( x ) = coth x
26. Prove the following identities:
a) sinh( x − y ) = sinh x cosh y − cosh x sinh y
b) cosh y ( x − y ) = cosh x cosh y − sinh x sinh y
27. Find the period of 𝑦 = cos 6𝑥 + sin 4𝑥.
28. Find the amplitude, period, and phase shift of y = 3 cos (2x − π).
π
29. Find the amplitude, period, and phase shift of y = −2 sin (3x + 2 ).

30. Write an equation of a sine function with amplitude 5, period 3, phase shift 2
, and ver-

tical shift 2.
31. Graph 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥. (Hint: First graph 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 on the same axes.
Then add the corresponding ordinates of the functions. Finally, sketch the graph.)
32. A ball on a spring is pulled 4 inches below its rest position and then released. Its ampli-
tude is 4 inches and its period is 6 seconds. Find the equation of the ball’s simple har-
monic motion.
33. An on object moves in a simple position harmonic function according to the function
𝜋
x(t)=-8cos( 2 𝑡), where t is measured in seconds and 𝑥 in inches. Find the

a) maximum displacement
b) frequency
c) period (the time required for one cycle)