periodic table 22/01/25, 6:18 PM

Formula sheet of
Classification of elements and periodicity in
properties
1. Classification of elements
a. Older models of periodic table
Periodic table classifies all the known elements in accordance with their properties in such a way that
the elements with similar properties are grouped together.
DOBEREINER’S TRIADS
He arranged similar elements in groups of three and showed that atomic weights are either
nearly the same or the atomic weight of the middle element is approximately the arithmetic mean of
the other two.
NEWLAND LAW OF OCTAVE
When lighter elements are arranged in order of their increasing atomic weight, the properties
of every eighth element is similar to the first, like the eighth node of a musical scale.
LOTHER MEYER ARRANGEMENT
By plotting the graph between atomic volume and atomic mass of an element, it was
observed that elements having similar properties occupy similar positions on the curve e.g. alkali
metals occupy maxima of the curve. Most electronegative elements found ascending portions of the
curve and it was found that physical properties are the periodic function of their atomic weights.

2. Mendeleev's classification
a. Salient features, merits and demerits
1. It has 9 vertical columns called groups I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII and zero group. Except VIII
and zero groups, each group is subdivided into two groups designated as A and B.
2. It has seven horizontal rows called periods. The I, II and, III periods are short periods, IV and V
periods are long periods and VI period is the longest period.

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Drawbacks of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

1. Position of H
2. Anomalous positions of some elements
3. Position of isotopes
4. No co-relation of elements in sub-groups
5. Position of lanthanides and actinides
6. Cause of periodicity

3. Long form/modern periodic table

a. Moseley's periodic law and Modern periodic table
Moseley’s periodic law and Modern periodic table
Moseley did an experiment in which he bombarded high speed electrons on different Metal
surfaces and obtained X-rays (electromagnetic rays). Thus, he conduced that atomic number
is more fundamental property than atomic weight.
Modern Periodic Table
The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic
number. So the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, the elements
with similar properties comes after regular intervals.

b. Classification of periods and groups

There are 7 periods(left to right) numbered as 1, 2,3,4,5,6 and 7.
Thus, 1st, 2nd and 3rd period are short periods, 4th and 5th periods are long and 6th
period is the longest and 7th period is incomplete.
There are 18 groups(top to bottom) numbered as 1,2,3,4,5, ................ 13, 14, 15,
16, 17, 18.

c. Nomenclature of recently discovered elements

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4. Classification in blocks and properties

a. S block elements and properties
When shells up to (n - 1) are completely filled and the last electron enters the s-orbital of
the outermost (nth) shell, the elements of this class are called s-block elements.
Group 1 & 2 elements constitute the s-block.

b. P block elements and properties

p-block elements and properties
When shells up to (n -1) are completely filled and differentiating electron
enters the p-orbital of the nth orbit, elements of this class are called p-
block elements.
i. Group 13 to 18 elements constitute the p-block.
ii. This block contains metals, non-metals, and metalloids.
iii. Group 16 elements are also known as chalcogens.
iv. Group 17 elements are also known as halogens.
v. Group 18 elements are also known as Noble gases.
c. D and F block elements and properties
D and F block elements and properties
d-Block Elements
1. When outermost (nth) and penultimate shells (n - 1)th shells are
incompletely filled and differentiating electron enters the (n -1) d.
2. Group 3 to 12 elements constitute the d-block.

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3. The general outer shell electronic configuration is (n – 1)d1-10 ns0-2

f-Block Elements
1. When n, (n-1), and (n -2) shells are incompletely filled and the last
electron enters into f-orbital of the penultimate i.e., (n-2)th shell, elements
of this class are called f-block elements.
2. All f-block elements belong to the 3rd group.
3. The general outer shell electronic configuration is (n – 2)f1-14 (n – 1)d0-1
ns2.

5. Diagonal relationship
a. Definition, reason for diagonal relationship
Definition, reason for diagonal relationship
The First Three Members of the second period(Li, Be, and B) not only show
similarities with the members of their own group but show similarities with
the elements diagonally placed in the higher groups.
This resemblance is termed as a diagonal relationship.

The diagonal relationship is due to

i. the polarizing power
ii. ionic charge/ionic radius
Therefore, similar for the diagonally placed elements.
b. Different pairs exhibiting diagonal relationship
Different pairs exhibiting diagonal relationship
Similarities between properties of Li and Mg and as follows
(A) Li and Mg both reacts directly with nitrogen to form lithium nitride
(Li3N) and magnesium nitride (Mg3N2) where other alkali metals of IA
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(Li3N) and magnesium nitride (Mg3N2) where other alkali metals of IA

group does not form nitride.

(B) Fluoride, carbonate and phosphate of Li and Mg are insoluble in water
whereas these compounds of other alkali metals are soluble.
(C) Li and Mg both are hard metals, whereas other metals of IA group are
soft.

Similarly, Be shows similarly to Al of the IIIA group compares to other

elements of the IIA group which are as follows.
(A) These both elements do not provide color to Bunsen burner
(B) They both are comparatively stable in air.
(C) Both are insoluble in NH3 therefore do not form blue colored solution.

6. Screening or shielding effect

a. Definition, Effective Atomic number (Zeff.) and its variation
Definition, Effective Atomic number (Zeff.) and its variation
Due to the screening effect, the valence electron experiences less attraction
towards the nucleus. This brings a decrease in the nuclear charge (Z) actually
present on the nucleus. The reduced nuclear charge is termed an effective
nuclear charge and is represented by Zeff.

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b. Screening ability of electrons in different subshells and application of

screening effect
Screening Effect Order of orbitals:-
ns > np > nd > nf

Variation of screening effect or s in the periodic table:

Greater is the magnitude of s, greater is the amount of shielding effect
caused by the intervening electrons on the valence shells electrons.
Since s increases both down the group (¯) of and along the period (®), so
the magnitude of screening effect also increases in the same direction.

7. Inert pair effect

a. Definition, explanation of inert pair effect
Definition, explanation of inert pair effect
In the case of lower valencies, only the electrons present on p~subshell are
lost and ns electrons remain intact.
The reluctance of the s-electron pair to take part in bond formation is
known as the inert pair effect.

b. Application of inert pair effect in group 13,14 and 15

In group 13, the stability of +3 state decreases while that of + 1 state increases
down the group.
In group 14, The stability of the +4 state decreases while that of the +2 state
increases down the group.
In group 15, The stability of the +5 state decreases while that of the +3 state
increases down the group.

c. Application of inert pair effect in other groups

Application of inert pair effect in other groups
In Group 16 , elements would be expected to have a maximum oxidation
state of +6 but the heavy elements show a lower oxidation state, i.e., +4,
because of the inert pair effect.
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because of the inert pair effect.

In Group 17, elements require only one electron to achieve stability inert
pair effect is not seen in this case.

8. Atomic radii
a. Definition, types of atomic radius
Atomic Radius
It is defined as the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outer
most shell containing electrons.
Type of Radius
1. Covalent radius
2. Vander Waal’s radius (collision radius)
3. Metallic radius
4. Ionic radius

b. Factors affecting atomic radius

Factors affecting atomic radius
1. Effective nuclear charge
2. Number of shells
3. Screening effect
4. Magnitude of +ve charge
5. Magnitude of -ve charge
6. Bond order
Example
N – N > N = N > N≡ N

9. Variation of atomic radius

a. In groups and periods
Variation of atomic radius : In groups and periods
1. In general, the atomic radii decreases with an increase in the atomic
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1. In general, the atomic radii decreases with an increase in the atomic

number in a period. It is because of an increase in the effective nuclear
charge throughout the period.
2. In general, the atomic radii increases from top to bottom within a group.
As we move down the group there is a progressive increase in the
principal energy level, which increases the distance between the nucleus
and outermost electron, and the size increases.
3.The atomic radius of inert gas (zero groups) is given the largest in a
period.

b. In D and F block elements

In d-Block elements
The value of radii decreases generally, on moving from left to right in the
period.
The radii of the elements from Cr to Cu, are very close to one another
because the successive addition of d-element screen the outer electrons
(4s) from the inward pull of the nucleus. As a result of this, the size of the
atom does not change much is moving from Cr to Cu.
In f-block elements
Lanthanoids contraction is seen from left to right in the 6th period.

10. Ionic radii

a. Cationic radii, Anionic radii and factors affecting ionic radii
Ionic radius is the distance from the nucleus of an ion up to which it has an influence on its
electron cloud.
The radius of the cation is always smaller than the atomic radius of its parent atom.
The radius of the anion is always larger than the atomic radius of its parent atom.

11. Trends of ionic radii

a. Among isoelectronic species and in periods and groups

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The ionic radii in a particular group increase in moving from top to bottom.
The ionic radii in a particular period decrease in moving from left to right.

12. Ianthaniod contraction

a. Definitions and applications
Lanthanide contraction:-
The atomic size or the ionic radii of tri positive lanthanide ions decrease steadily
from La to Lu due to increasing nuclear charge and electrons entering inner (n-
2)f-orbital. This gradual decrease in the size with an increasing atomic number is
called lanthanide contraction.
In vertical columns of transition elements, there is an increase in size from the first
member to the second member as expected but from the second member to the
third member, there is a very small change in size and sometimes sizes are the
same. This is due to Lanthanide contraction.

13. Ionization energy

a. Definition and successive ionization energies
Ionization energy is the amount of energy required in kilojoules needed to
knock out one mole of electrons from one mole of isolated gaseous atoms.
More energy is required to remove every subsequent electron, hence IE1 < IE2 <
IE3..........

b. Factors affecting ionization energy

(A) Size of Atom: Ionization energy decreases with an increase in atomic size.
(B) Nuclear Charge: The ionization energy increases with an increase in the nuclear
charge.
(C) Shielding effect: The larger the number of electrons in the inner shells, the greater is
the screening effect and the smaller the force of attraction, and thus (IE) decreases.
(D) Penetration Effect of the Electron: The ionization energy increases as the penetration
effect of the electrons increases.
(E) Electronic Configuration: If an atom has exactly half-filled or completely filled orbitals,

then such an arrangement has extractability. The removal of an electron from such an atom
requires more energy than expected.

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c. Variation of ionization energy in periodic table

Generally, IE increases across a period and decreases down a group.

14. Applications of ionization energy

a. Electropositive character and reducing ability
Electropositive character and reducing ability
A + B → A + + B-
A is a reducing agent (which give e-)
B is a oxidizing agent (which gain e-)
In a group from top to bottom the ionization energy decreases which
results in an increase in electron-donating tendency and thus increasing
the reducing character.
Na < K < Rb < Cs < Li
Li has the highest I.E. in alkali metals, yet it act as the best reducing
agent.
b. Ionic character of compounds
Ionic character of compounds
The extent of covalent character in ionic bond depends on the polarising
power of cation & polarizability of anion which are decided on the set of
rules called Fajan Rules.
Condition for covalent character in ionic compounds:
i. The smaller the size of the cation
ii. larger the size of anion
iii. High charge density

Therefore, greater will be the covalent character of an ionic bond.

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Condition for pure ionic compounds:

i. Smaller the size of ions (small cation + small anion)
ii. Higher charge density
Greater will be interionic attraction and hence, more will be the value of
lattice enthalpy.
For example:

15. Electron gain enthalpy/electron affinity (EA)

a. Definition and successive electron gain enthalpies
When an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom (X) to convert it into a
negative ion, the enthalpy change accompanying the process is defined as the
electron gain enthalpy.

b. Factors affecting electron affinity

Factors affecting electron affinity
(i) Electron affinity ∝

(ii) Electron affinity ∝ Effective nuclear charge (Zeff)

(iii) Electron affinity ∝

(iv) Stability of filled and completely filled orbitals of a subshell is

comparatively more and the added of an extra electron to such an system
is difficult and hence the electron affinity value decreases.
c. Variation of electron affinity in groups and periods
Variation of electron affinity in groups and periods
Across a period, with an increase in atomic number, electron gain enthalpy
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Across a period, with an increase in atomic number, electron gain enthalpy

becomes more negative because left to right across a period effective nuclear
charge increases and consequently it will be easier to add an electron to a small
atom.

As we move in a group from top to bottom, electron gain enthalpy becomes less
negative because the size of the atom increases and the added electron would be
a larger distance from the nucleus.

d. Application of electron affinity

Application of electron affinity
i. Noble gases have large positive electron gain enthalpies.
ii. Negative electron gain enthalpy of O or F is less than S or Cl.
iii. Electron gain enthalpies of alkaline earth metals are very less or
positive.
iv. Nitrogen has very low electron affinity.

16. Electronegativity
a. Definition and scales of electronegativity
The ability of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself is
known as electronegativity.
(i) Electronegativity of inert gases is 0.
(ii) It is not a property of an isolated atom but rather a property of an atom in a
molecule.
(iii) Because of electronegativity covalent molecule acquire some ionic character.
(iv) Fluorine is the most electronegative element of the periodic table.

b. Factors affecting electronegativity

Factors affecting the magnitude of electronegativity:-
Atomic radius
Effective nuclear charge
The oxidation state of the atom
Hybridization state of an atom in a molecule
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Hybridization state of an atom in a molecule

17. Applications of electronegativity

a. Polarity and strength of bonds
Polarity and strength of bonds
i. If the difference of electronegativities of the two elements is 1.7 or more,
then the ionic bond is formed between them whereas if it is less than 1.7,
then the covalent bond is formed.
ii. Bond strength and stability of A-B increases on an increase in the
difference of electronegativities of atoms A and B bonded A-B.
Percentage of ionic character = 16 (XA - XB) + 3.5 (XA – XB)2
where,
XA is electronegativity of element A
XB is electronegativity of element B
b. Acidic and basic character
Acidic and basic character
The Value of difference in electronegativity of oxygen and elements in
oxide is less than 2.3 than acidic nature and greater than 2.3 than basic
nature.
i. If oxides of the same elements are given then, the acidic character
increases as the oxidation number increases.
ii. A.S. ∝ Ka ∝ 1/ pKa
Example:
HClO (+1) < HClO2 (+3) < HClO3 (+5) < HClO4 (+7)
HOI < HOBr < HOCl < HOF

18. Hydration energy

a. Definition and Variation
Hydration enthalpy is the change in enthalpy when one mole of gaseous ion under a
standard condition of 1 bar pressure dissolves in a sufficient amount of water to form an
infinitely dilute solution (infinite dilution means a further addition of solute will not cause any
heat change.)
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heat change.)

b. Applications of hydration energy

Ionic motilities in the electric field of s-block ions:
Charge densities of (group 1 and 2) ions decrease down the group, so their mobilities in the
electric field increase in the aqueous solution down the group.
Reducing nature in an aqueous solution of group 2 elements: Group 2 is also a strong
reducing agent but their reducing power is less than those of their corresponding group 1
element.
i. If hydration energy > lattice energy, salt dissolves.
ii. If hydration energy < lattice energy, salt is insoluble.

19. Lattice energy

a. Definition, Variation of lattice energy
The energy released when the requisite number of positive and negative ions are
condensed into the crystal to form one mole of the compound is called lattice
energy.
The lattice energy can also. be defined as the energy required to separate one-
mole crystal of an ionic compound into gaseous ions.
The value of lattice energy depends on the charges present on the two ions and
the distance between them.

b. Application of Lattice energy

The stability of the ionic compound and the strength of the ionic bond depends on
the value of F. Higher the value of F(force of attraction), the greater shall be the
stability of the ionic compound and hence greater shall be the strength of the
ionic bond.

20. Oxidation Number

a. Oxidation number of S-Block, P-Block, D-Block, & F-Block Elements
1. Alkali metals show a +1 oxidation state while alkaline earth metals show +2
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oxidation state.
2. p-block elements show different oxidation states because of inert pair effect.
3. d-block elements show different oxidation states.
4. The Lanthanides contain two ‘s’ electrons in the outermost shell, they are
therefore expected to exhibit a characteristic oxidation state of +2. But for
lanthanides the +3 oxidation is common.
The most common oxidation state shown by actinides is +3

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