Blood: Functions, Composition, and ABO/Rh Blood Groups

Blood is a specialized connective tissue critical for maintaining homeostasis. It circulates throughout the body, carrying
essential nutrients, hormones, gases, and waste products, while also playing a vital role in immunity and
thermoregulation.

1. Functions of Blood

A. Transportation

1. Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide:

• Oxygen: Hemoglobin in red blood cells (RBCs) binds oxygen in the lungs and transports it to tissues.

• Carbon Dioxide: Carries CO₂ from tissues to the lungs for exhalation, primarily in three forms:

• Dissolved in plasma.

• Bound to hemoglobin (as carbaminohemoglobin).

• As bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻) in plasma.

2. Nutrients:

• Delivers nutrients (e.g., glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins) absorbed from the digestive tract to
body cells.

3. Hormones:

• Transports hormones secreted by endocrine glands to target organs.

4. Waste Products:

• Removes metabolic byproducts (e.g., urea, creatinine, bilirubin) for excretion via kidneys, liver, and lungs.

B. Regulation
 1. Body Temperature:

• Distributes heat generated by metabolic activities to maintain a stable body temperature.

• Adjusts blood flow to the skin for heat dissipation or retention.

2. pH Balance:

• Maintains pH within the narrow range of 7.35–7.45 through buffer systems like bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻).

3. Fluid and Electrolyte Balance:

• Regulates fluid distribution between blood vessels and tissues through osmotic and hydrostatic pressure.

C. Protection

1. Immunity:

• White blood cells (WBCs) and antibodies defend against infections and foreign invaders.

• Complement proteins aid in destroying pathogens.

2. Clotting:

• Platelets and clotting factors (e.g., fibrinogen) form clots to prevent excessive bleeding.

2. Composition of Blood

Blood is composed of plasma and formed elements.

A. Plasma (55% of blood)

1. Description:

• The liquid component of blood that suspends cells and other substances.

2. Components:
 • Water (90–92%): Serves as a solvent and medium for transportation.

• Proteins (7–8%):

• Albumin:

• Maintains osmotic pressure to regulate fluid balance.

• Acts as a carrier protein for hormones and fatty acids.

• Globulins:

• Include alpha, beta, and gamma globulins.

• Gamma globulins function as antibodies (immunoglobulins).

• Fibrinogen:

• Essential for blood clotting, converted to fibrin during clot formation.

• Electrolytes:

• Sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), calcium (Ca²⁺), chloride (Cl⁻), bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) maintain
osmotic balance, pH, and nerve/muscle function.

• Nutrients:

• Glucose, lipids, amino acids, vitamins.

• Wastes:

• Urea, uric acid, creatinine, bilirubin.

• Hormones:

• Regulatory molecules secreted by endocrine glands.

B. Formed Elements (45% of blood)

1. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes):

• Biconcave discs lacking a nucleus in their mature form.

• Filled with hemoglobin, which binds oxygen and carbon dioxide.

• Function:

• Transport oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs.

• Lifespan:

• ~120 days; old RBCs are broken down in the spleen and liver.

• Production:

• Erythropoiesis occurs in the red bone marrow and is regulated by erythropoietin (EPO) from the
kidneys.

2. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes):

• Types:

• Granulocytes:

• Neutrophils: First responders to bacterial infections; phagocytose pathogens.

• Eosinophils: Combat parasitic infections and mediate allergic reactions.

• Basophils: Release histamine during allergic responses.

• Agranulocytes:

• Lymphocytes:

• T Cells: Mediate cellular immunity.

• B Cells: Produce antibodies.

• Monocytes: Differentiate into macrophages that engulf pathogens and debris.

• Function:

• Protect against infection, foreign invaders, and abnormal cells.

• Structure:

• Small, disc-shaped cell fragments derived from megakaryocytes in the bone marrow.

• Function:

• Aggregate at injury sites to form a platelet plug.

• Release chemicals that activate the clotting cascade, resulting in fibrin formation.

3. ABO and Rh Blood Groups

A. ABO Blood Group System

1. Determined by the presence or absence of antigens (A and B) on the surface of RBCs.

• Blood Types:

1. Type A:

• Antigen: A.

• Antibody: Anti-B.

2. Type B:

• Antigen: B.

• Antibody: Anti-A.

3. Type AB:

• Antigens: Both A and B.

• Antibody: None.

• Universal Recipient: Can receive blood from all ABO types.

4. Type O:

• Antigen: None.

• Antibodies: Both Anti-A and Anti-B.

• Universal Donor: Can donate blood to all ABO types.

B. Rh Blood Group System

• Basis:

• Determined by the presence or absence of the Rh factor (D antigen) on RBCs.

• Rh Positive (Rh⁺): D antigen is present.

• Rh Negative (Rh⁻): D antigen is absent.

• Blood Transfusion:

• Rh⁺ individuals can receive Rh⁺ or Rh⁻ blood.

• Rh⁻ individuals should only receive Rh⁻ blood to prevent immune reactions.

• Pregnancy:

• If an Rh⁻ mother carries an Rh⁺ fetus, her immune system may produce anti-Rh antibodies during
subsequent pregnancies, causing hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN).

• Prevention: Administering RhoGAM prevents maternal sensitization to Rh⁺ blood.

Key Disorders of Blood

1. Anemia:

• Definition: Reduced oxygen-carrying capacity due to low RBCs or hemoglobin.

• Types:

• Iron-deficiency anemia.

• Sickle cell anemia.

• Pernicious anemia (Vitamin B12 deficiency).

2. Leukemia:

• Definition: Cancer of the WBCs, leading to their uncontrolled production.

3. Hemophilia:
 • Definition: Genetic disorder impairing clotting factor production, leading to excessive bleeding.

Key Summary

1. Functions:

• Transport: Oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and wastes.

• Regulation: pH, temperature, and fluid balance.

• Protection: Immunity and clotting.

2. Composition:

• Plasma: Water, proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, and wastes.

• Formed Elements: RBCs (oxygen transport), WBCs (immunity), and platelets (clotting).

3. Blood Groups:

• ABO: Based on A and B antigens.

• Rh: Presence (Rh⁺) or absence (Rh⁻) of the D antigen.