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Learning and Memory (3)

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience or practice, encompassing various theories such as behaviorism, social learning, and cognitive models. Key concepts include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and the processes of memory and forgetting. The document also discusses different types of memory, reinforcement and punishment, and the theories behind forgetting information.

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WONDWOSSEN GASHAW
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4 views

Learning and Memory (3)

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience or practice, encompassing various theories such as behaviorism, social learning, and cognitive models. Key concepts include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and the processes of memory and forgetting. The document also discusses different types of memory, reinforcement and punishment, and the theories behind forgetting information.

Uploaded by

WONDWOSSEN GASHAW
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Learning

What is learning?
• Simply, learning is a relatively permanent
change in an organism’s behavior due to
experience/ practice.
– Change in behavior (good or bad),
– Relatively permanent/ enduring change,
– The result of Experience or Practice.
o Learning is
– - Active
– Adjustment - purposeful
– organizing Experience
– both Individual and Social
Theories/Approaches/ of
Learning

• Behaviourism
– Classical Conditioning
– Operant Conditioning
• Social learning
• Cognitive Model

3
Ivan Pavlov
▪ 1849-1936
▪ Russian
physician/
neurophysiologist
▪ Nobel Prize in
1904
▪ studied digestive
secretions
Classical Conditioning

Organism comes to associate two


stimuli; a neutral one and one that
already causes a reflexive response
Classical Conditioning
• Salivation is triggered by food in
animals.
• Their mouth starts watering before they
start eating.
• Can salivation be triggered by other
stimuli?
• Anything else that signals the delivery
of food?
• A signal that tells ‘food is coming!’
Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov
• A. Pavlov’s Dogs Experiment
(US) Unconditioned Stimulus
food
(UR) Unconditioned Response
saliva
(NS) Neutral Stimulus -
bell
(CS) Conditioned Stimulus -
bell
(CR) Conditioned Response -
saliva to bell
Pavlov’s Classical
Conditioning Experiment
▪ Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
▪ stimulus that unconditionally--
automatically and naturally--triggers a
response
▪ Unconditioned Response (UR)
▪ unlearned, naturally occurring
response to the unconditioned
stimulus
▪ salivation when food is in the
mouth
Pavlov’s Classical
Conditioning Experiment
▪ Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
▪ originally irrelevant stimulus that,
after association with an
unconditioned stimulus, comes to
trigger a conditioned response
▪ Conditioned Response (CR)
▪ learned response to a previously
neutral conditioned stimulus
Principles of classical conditioning

✏ACQUISIOIN: Learning
✏EXTINCTION:
When the CR gradually dies out after the CS
is repeatedly presented w/o the US
– SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY:
When the CR reappears after a rest period
following extinction.
✏GENERALIZATION:
Responding to a second stimulus similar to the
original CS
– DISCRIMINATION:
the ability to respond differently to
different stimuli
Operant /Instrumental/
Conditioning
• Skinner (1940s): sharply
distinguished between classical and
operant conditioning.
▪ Contrasted with animals’ behavior
in classical conditioning, in which
behavior is “elicited” rather than
chosen by the animal.
Operant Chamber
▪ Skinner Box
▪ chamber with a bar or key that
an animal manipulates to obtain
a food or water reinforcer
▪ contains devices to record
responses
The Skinner Box
Reinforcement/Punishment

Reinforcement - Any consequence


that increases the likelihood of the
behavior it follows.
Punishment - Any consequence that
decreases the likelihood of the
behavior it follows
The subject determines if a
consequence is reinforcing or
punishing
Types of reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement
– Strengthening (increasing) a behavior by
presenting a positive stimulus
immediately after the behavior has
occurred
• Negative reinforcement
– Strengthening (increasing) a behavior by
removing a negative stimulus immediately
after the behavior has occurred
✓ Reinforcement Schedules
1. 1. Continuous reinforcement
2. 2. Intermittent or partial reinforcement
o partial reinforcement can be divided into two as
interval and ratio.
– Interval schedule
Fixed Interval Variable Interval
– Ratio schedule
Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio
▪ Shaping – is the process of reinforcing
each small step of progress toward a
desired goal.
▪ The basic process in shaping is successive
approximation to the designed goal.
Punishment

An undesirable event following a


behavior
Behavior ends a desirable event
or state
Its effect is opposite that of
reinforcement – it decreases
the frequency of behavior
Types of punishment
• Presentation punishment (+ve)
– Weakening (decreasing) a behavior by
presenting an aversive stimulus
immediately after the behavior has
occurred
• Removal punishment (-Ve)
– Weakening (decreasing) a behavior by
removing a positive stimulus immediately
after the behavior has occurred
Social learning Theory
• Founder of social learning theory is A.
Bandura.

• He believed on the traditional behavioural


views of learning, while suggesting its accuracy
incomplete.

• This learning model is the function of 3


elements, the Person, Cognition, and
Environment - Reciprocal Determinism.
• Observational Learning/ Imitation/
Modeling
• Learning by observing others, either
– Through direct imitation of their behavior, or
– By Vicarious learning – observing their
behavior being reinforced.
• Social learning models involve four basic
steps:
– Attention
– Retention
– Reproduction
– Motivation (reinforcement)
Cognitive Theory
• View human beings as active beings

• Examples of Cognitive learning

– Cognitive map

– Latent learning

– Insight learning
MEMORY and FORGETTING
Memory
▪ It is a process of encoding, storing
and retrieving information
▪ Encoding (or acquisition) is a process
of acquiring information.
▪ Storage Retaining information over
varying periods of time .
▪ Retrieval is the process of getting at
and using information held in storage.
Stages of Memory

Keyboard Disk Monitor


(Encoding) (Storage) (Retrieval)
Sequential Process
3 Types of Memory

1.) Sensory Memory


▪ an initial process that receives &
holds environmental.
▪ In its raw form for a brief period
of time (a few seconds)
2) Short-Term Memory
Temporary storage (only) of
material for limited time

When we are actively working, we want


information to be immediately available to
us. In our brain, this happens in Working
(short-term) Memory.
3.) Long-Term Memory (LTM)
the process of storing almost unlimited
information over long periods of time
with the potential of retrieving in the
future.
It contains everything you know. It is
storage for information that is not
used right now but may be needed
later.
Content

2 Kinds of LTM
1.) Declarative (Explicit)
done with conscious recall &
processed in the hippocampus
▪ Involves memories for facts,
events, such as scenes, stories,
word, conversations, faces, or daily
events
2 Types of Declarative (explicit) Memories

a.) Semantic (Facts)


▪ involves knowledge of facts, concepts,
words, def’ns, & language rules
EX. What you can learn in classes

b.) Episodic(Personal)
▪ involves knowledge of specific events,
personal experiences, or activities
EX. What you did last Monday
2) Procedural Memory
(Implicit)
done without conscious recall
& processed in the
cerebellum
Theories of Forgetting
Forgetting is failure to recall information
1. Decay/disuse Theory:
memory degrades with time
2. Interference Theory: one memory
competes (interferes) with another
– Retroactive Interference (new
information interferes with old)
– Proactive Interference (old
information interferes with new)
Theories of Forgetting
(Continued)
3. Motivated Forgetting: motivation to
forget unpleasant, painful,
threatening, or embarrassing memories
4. Encoding Failure: information in STM
is not encoded in LTM
5. Retrieval Failure: memories stored in
LTM are momentarily inaccessible
(tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon)
Theories of Forgetting
(Continued)
6. Amnesia
– anterograde amnesia
inability to store new information and
events
– retrograde amnesia
inability to retrieve past information
and events
Thank you
Questions

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