FUNDAMENTALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

Objectives
By the end of this course, students will be able to:
1. Describe the chemical composition and structure of soil, including nutrient cycles and
the impact of pollutants.
2. Explain the composition and chemical processes in the atmosphere, including
greenhouse gases, ozone depletion, and photochemical reactions. 3. Analyze the
chemical properties of water, including pH, dissolved substances, and pollutants, and
understand water purification processes.
4. Evaluate the environmental and ecological impacts of chemical changes in soil,
atmosphere, and water.
5. Apply knowledge of environmental chemistry to real-world issues, such as soil
degradation, climate change, and water contamination.

1. Introduction
Environmental chemistry is the study of chemical processes occurring in the
environment, influenced by human activities and natural phenomena. It plays a crucial
role in understanding and solving environmental challenges, such as pollution, climate
change, and resource degradation.

This module will guide you through three essential components of environmental
chemistry: soil, atmosphere, and water. Each component serves as a fundamental
building block in ecosystems, supporting life and enabling biochemical interactions that
sustain natural processes. We’ll examine the chemical compositions, reactions, and
pollution effects within these areas, exploring how human activities influence their
balance and health.
Key areas include:
Soil Chemistry: Soil acts as a repository for nutrients and contaminants alike. We’ll
explore the processes that affect soil pH, nutrient availability, and the interactions of
chemicals in different soil types.
Atmospheric Chemistry: The atmosphere is a dynamic layer, where chemical reactions
determine air quality and influence climate. Topics covered include greenhouse gases,
ozone depletion, and the formation of acid rain and smog.

Water Chemistry: Water, vital for all life, interacts with various substances that influence
its quality and usability. We’ll discuss the impact of pollutants, the importance of
dissolved oxygen, and water treatment methods for safe consumption.

This material is structured to build your understanding progressively, from fundamental

concepts to complex interactions, with real-world examples that highlight the
environmental significance of each area. By the end, you’ll have a solid foundation in
environmental chemistry and the ability to analyze and approach environmental
challenges critically.

2. Chemistry and the Environment

a. Soil
Soil chemistry is the study of the chemical characteristics of soil, focusing
on its mineral and organic components and their interactions. Soil serves
as a medium for plant growth, a habitat for microorganisms, and a
reservoir for essential nutrients. Its chemistry is fundamental for
agriculture, ecology, and environmental health, especially as it relates to
nutrient cycling and pollutant retention.

i. Soil composition
Soil is composed of minerals derived from weathered rocks. These
minerals include silicates, carbonates, and oxides, which provide structural
support and are essential sources of nutrients.
Organic material, including decomposing plants, animals, and
microorganisms, contributes to soil fertility. It forms humus, which
enhances soil structure, water retention, and nutrient availability.
Soil contains pore spaces filled with water and air, essential for root
respiration and microbial activity. Soil water dissolves nutrients, allowing
plants to absorb them.

ii. Soil pH and Nutrient Availability

pH is a key factor in soil chemistry, influencing nutrient availability and
microbial activity. Acidic soils (pH < 7) are common in regions with high
rainfall, while alkaline soils (pH > 7) are typical in arid areas.

Many nutrients, like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, are more

available to plants at a neutral pH. Extreme pH levels can lead to nutrient
deficiencies or toxicities.

iii. Ion exchange and nutrient retention

Soil particles carry negative charges that attract positively charged ions
(cations) like calcium, magnesium, and potassium. The ability of soil to
 hold and exchange these cations is known as the cation exchange
capacity, which influences soil fertility.

Some soils can also retain negatively charged ions (anions), like nitrate,
though this capacity is typically lower than CEC.

iv. Soil contaminants and Pollution

Soil can accumulate heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium, and mercury,
through industrial activity, mining, and the use of certain pesticides. These
metals are toxic to plants and animals, posing health risks when they enter
the food chain.

Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals: Chemicals applied to crops can

persist in soil, affecting its chemistry and potentially contaminating
groundwater.

Industrial chemicals and waste products, like polychlorinated biphenyls

(PCBs), can also accumulate in soil, posing long-term risks due to their
persistence and bioaccumulation.
Case study:
Impact of Agricultural Chemicals on Soil Health
Agriculture relies on chemical fertilizers and pesticides to enhance crop
production. While these inputs increase yields, they also affect soil
chemistry and health. Nitrogen fertilizers, for example, increase soil acidity,
which can lead to nutrient imbalances and harm soil organisms.
Pesticides, though effective at controlling pests, can accumulate in the soil,
reducing biodiversity and contaminating groundwater.

Research suggests that sustainable agricultural practices, such as crop

rotation, organic fertilization, and reduced pesticide use, can mitigate these
effects, promoting healthier soils with better nutrient cycling and resilience.

b. Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a dynamic layer of gases surrounding Earth, essential
for life and heavily influenced by both natural processes and human
activity. Its chemistry determines air quality, influences climate, and affects
ecosystems through various chemical reactions and cycles.

i. Atmospheric Composition
and Structure

The atmosphere is primarily

composed of nitrogen (78%)
and oxygen (21%), with trace
amounts of argon, carbon
 dioxide (CO₂), water vapor,
and other gases.

The atmosphere is divided into

several layers: the troposphere
(where weather occurs),
stratosphere (containing the
ozone layer), mesosphere,
thermosphere, and exosphere.

ii. Greenhouse Gases and the

Greenhouse Effect

Key greenhouse gases include CO₂, methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O),
and water vapor. These gases trap heat in the atmosphere, maintaining
Earth's temperature within a range suitable for life.
Greenhouse gases absorb and re-radiate heat, warming the atmosphere.
While this effect is natural, increased concentrations of greenhouse gases
due to human activities (e.g., fossil fuel burning, agriculture) are
intensifying this warming, leading to climate change.

iii. Ozone and Ozone Depletion

The ozone layer, located in the stratosphere, absorbs harmful ultraviolet

(UV) radiation from the sun, protecting living organisms from DNA
damage.

Ozone-Depleting Substances
(ODS): Chemicals like
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
release chlorine and bromine
atoms when broken down by
UV light, which then react with
ozone (O₃), depleting it. This
process leads to the formation
of "ozone holes," particularly
over polar regions.

iv. Photochemical Reactions

and Smog Formation

Sunlight-driven reactions in the

atmosphere can produce
secondary pollutants. For
 example, nitrogen oxides (NOₓ)
and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react under sunlight to form
ground-level ozone, a major component of smog.

Urban and industrial emissions contribute to smog, a mix of ground-level

ozone, particulate matter, and other pollutants. Smog affects respiratory
health, visibility, and environmental conditions.

v. Acid Rain

Acid rain occurs when sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) are
released into the atmosphere (mainly from fossil fuel combustion) and
react with water vapor to form sulfuric and nitric acids.

Impact: Acid rain lowers the pH of soil and water bodies, harming aquatic
life, soil microorganisms, and plant health. It also accelerates the
weathering of buildings and structures.
Case Study:
Climate Change and the Effects of Increased CO₂ on Atmospheric
Chemistry

Human activities have significantly increased atmospheric CO₂ levels, a

major driver of climate change. Elevated CO₂ levels enhance the
greenhouse effect, leading to global warming, which is linked to rising sea
levels, extreme weather events, and shifts in ecosystems.

The increased CO₂ is also affecting the chemistry of oceans, where a

portion of this CO₂ is absorbed, leading to ocean acidification. This process
reduces carbonate ions, essential for marine organisms to build shells and
skeletons, thus impacting biodiversity and marine food webs.

Efforts to mitigate climate change focus on reducing CO₂ emissions,

advancing renewable energy, and enhancing carbon capture methods.
However, substantial reductions are needed to stabilize atmospheric CO₂
levels and curb the long-term impacts on the climate.

c. Water
Water is essential for all forms of life, and its chemistry plays a crucial role
in environmental processes. From rivers and oceans to groundwater and
rainfall, the chemical characteristics of water determine its quality, its
ability to support life, and its interactions with various environmental
components.

i. Composition and Properties of Water

Water (H₂O) is a polar molecule with a bent structure, resulting in unique
properties like high surface tension, solvent ability, and the capacity to
dissolve a wide range of substances.

The pH of water affects its chemical reactions and its ability to support
aquatic life. Pure water has a neutral pH of 7, but natural waters may vary
due to dissolved substances.

ii. Dissolved Substances and Water Quality

DO is crucial for aquatic organisms. Its levels depend on temperature,
salinity, and biological activity. Low DO levels can lead to hypoxic
conditions, harmful to fish and other organisms.

Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential for aquatic plant growth. However,
excess nutrients from fertilizers and wastewater can lead to
eutrophication, where rapid algae growth depletes DO, harming aquatic
life.

Industrial activities introduce metals like mercury, lead, and cadmium into
water systems. These contaminants are toxic and can accumulate in
organisms, posing health risks throughout the food chain.

iii. Water Pollution and Treatment

Water can be polluted by organic compounds (e.g., pesticides, oil),
inorganic compounds (e.g., heavy metals), pathogens (e.g., bacteria), and
nutrients. Pollutants affect water's quality and suitability for drinking,
agriculture, and recreation.
To ensure water safety, treatment processes include filtration,
sedimentation, and disinfection. Advanced treatments, like activated
carbon filtration and reverse osmosis, remove specific contaminants.

iv. Acid-Base Reactions in Water

Acidic precipitation, mainly caused by SO₂ and NOₓ emissions, lowers
water pH, harming aquatic ecosystems and affecting the chemistry of soils
and streams.

Water bodies have a buffering capacity, primarily due to bicarbonate ions,

which help stabilize pH. However, excessive acid inputs can overwhelm
this capacity, causing acidification.
Case Study:
Eutrophication and the Effects of Fertilizers on Aquatic Systems

Eutrophication occurs when nutrient-rich runoff from agricultural areas

enters water bodies, promoting excessive algal growth. When algae die,
decomposition consumes DO, leading to hypoxia or "dead zones," where
aquatic life cannot survive.

This process impacts biodiversity, fisheries, and water quality.

Management strategies include controlling agricultural runoff, using buffer
strips, and implementing sustainable farming practices to reduce nutrient
pollution.
3. Assessment
Encircle the letter that best describe the answer.
1. What is the primary component of soil that provides structural support and essential
nutrients?

A) Organic matter
B) Water
C) Mineral matter
D) Air

2. Which soil property primarily affects nutrient availability and microbial activity?
A) Soil color
B) Soil pH
C) Soil temperature
D) Soil depth

3. What does Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) measure in soil?

A) Soil acidity
B) Soil’s ability to retain water
C) Soil’s ability to retain and exchange cations
D) Soil’s organic content

4. Which of the following is a common source of heavy metal contamination in soil?

A) Erosion
B) Mining activities
C) Natural decomposition
D) Organic fertilizers
5. What is the main component of Earth's atmosphere?

A) Oxygen
B) Carbon dioxide
C) Nitrogen
D) Water vapor

6. Greenhouse gases contribute to which of the following effects?

A) Cooling of the Earth’s surface

B) The greenhouse effect
C) Increased oxygen levels
D) Ozone depletion

7. Which layer of the atmosphere contains the ozone layer?

A) Troposphere
B) Stratosphere
C) Mesosphere
D) Thermosphere

8. Which gas primarily contributes to the formation of acid rain?

A) Methane
B) Oxygen
C) Sulfur dioxide
D) Argon

9. Ozone depletion is primarily caused by which type of substance?

A) Carbon dioxide
B) Methane
C) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
D) Nitrogen dioxide

10. Photochemical smog formation involves which of the following pollutants?

A) Water vapor and oxygen

B) Nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds
C) Sulfur dioxide and particulate matter
D) Carbon monoxide and methane

11. What is the most common source of nitrogen and phosphorus that causes
eutrophication in water bodies?

A) Industrial runoff
B) Natural weathering of rocks
C) Agricultural fertilizers
D) Forest fires

12. Which property of water allows it to dissolve a wide range of substances?

A) Its non-polar structure

B) Its high temperature
C) Its high surface tension
D) Its polarity

13. Dissolved oxygen (DO) in water is important because it:

A) Reduces pH levels
B) Provides nutrients for plants
C) Supports aquatic life
D) Increases water temperature

14. What effect does acid rain have on aquatic ecosystems?

A) Increases water temperature

B) Raises water pH, making it more basic
C) Lowers water pH, making it more acidic
D) Increases the amount of dissolved oxygen

15. Which process is used to remove specific contaminants, such as pesticides, from
water?

A) Sedimentation
B) Filtration
C) Activated carbon filtration
D) Chlorination

16. What is eutrophication?

A) A process of natural decomposition

B) An increase in nutrients in water bodies leading to algae blooms
C) The removal of pollutants from water
D) The process of acidification in water

17. Which of the following is a primary effect of excessive nitrogen in water bodies?
A) Increased pH
B) Reduced levels of dissolved oxygen
C) Decreased water temperature
D) Increased oxygen levels
18. What type of pollution is caused by substances like polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) in water?

A) Nutrient pollution
B) Organic pollution
C) Thermal pollution
D) Pathogenic pollution

19. Why is groundwater contamination particularly concerning?

A) Groundwater has limited applications

B) It spreads very slowly
C) It is difficult to clean up once polluted
D) Groundwater is rarely used for drinking

20. Which of the following practices can reduce agricultural impact on soil health?

A) Using only synthetic fertilizers

B) Crop rotation and organic fertilization
C) Increasing pesticide application
D) Frequent tilling

4. References
● Manahan, S. E. (2017). Environmental Chemistry (10th Edition). CRC Press. ●
Sparks, D. L. (2003). Environmental Soil Chemistry (2nd Edition). Academic Press.
● Seinfeld, J. H., & Pandis, S. N. (2016). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From
Air Pollution to Climate Change (3rd Edition). Wiley.
● Miller, G. T., & Spoolman, S. (2019). Living in the Environment (20th Edition).
Cengage Learning.
● U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Groundwater and Drinking Water.
Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water ● World Health
Organization (WHO). Air Quality Guidelines Global Update 2021. Retrieved from
https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-pollution
● European Environment Agency (EEA). Soil Quality and Soil Pollution. Retrieved
from https://www.eea.europa.eu/
● UN Environment Programme (UNEP). Water Quality Monitoring and Assessment.
Retrieved from https://www.unep.org/