inspirational

species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

invertebrates
jiggling
jellyfish a guide to the jellyfish of New Zealand
Version 2, 2023

Diana Macpherson
Dennis Gordon
with Michelle Kelly & Blayne Herr

1
 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

JellySftis h
HOW TO TREAT A

1
ing Advice from the
NZ Ministry of Health

Get the person out of the water

2
and reassure them
DO NOT
PEE ON THE AREA!
This is not a reliable treatment
because the pH and chemical
Act quickly to flush the stung makeup of urine is not known
area with sea water (or fresh water if
sea water is unavailable) to remove the DO NOT
tentacles  APPLY VINEGAR OR Vinegar is only

3
METHYLATED SPIRITS effective for
as they can make the sting Australian or tropical
more painful box jellyfish.

Remove any remaining visible tentacles

4
using either using your fingers (with gloves if available) or tweezers

A shower
can be used for
stings to the torso.
Immerse the stung area in heated tap water You can repeat the immersion
for 15 to 20 minutes to deactivate the venom. for up to 2 hours after the
injury ... but be sure to limit the
Have it as hot as the person can bear without causing skin immersion periods to 15 to 20

5
burns (and no more than 45°C) minutes at a time with
breaks between to
allow cooling of
the skin

Treat discomfort Antihistamines

may be helpful in
If necessary, take pain relief such as paracetamol or
relieving itching
ibuprofen according to package instructions and swelling

Surf Lifeguards from 75 Surf Life Saving Clubs patrolling 80 locations

across New Zealand are trained and equipped to treat jellyfish stings

2
https://www.health.govt.nz/your-health/conditions-and-treatments/accidents-and-injuries/bites-and-stings/jellyfish-stings#treatblue
 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

about this guide

Jellyfish and other gelatinous planktonic creatures are a stunning and diverse group of marine invertebrates
found all over the world’s oceans, from the surface coastal waters of every maritime country to the deep
sea. The ‘true jellyfish’ (Class Scyphozoa) are well known, not only because some species sting, but also
because of their rhythmic and graceful pulsating movements in the water and their beautiful shapes and
colours. We hope you will enjoy reading and using this guide to help identify “Jiggling Jellies” in the wild.

JIGGLING JELLYFISH is a fully illustrated working e-guide to the most commonly encountered jellyfish and
other jelly-like species of New Zealand. It is designed for New Zealanders who live near the sea, dive and
snorkel, explore our coasts and make a living from it, and for those who educate and are charged with
kaitiakitanga, conservation and management of our marine realm. It is one of a series of e-guides on New
Zealand marine invertebrates that NIWA’s Coasts and Oceans group has recently developed.

The e-guide starts with a simple introduction to living jellies, followed by a morphology (shape) index,
species index, detailed individual species pages, and finally, icon explanations and a glossary of terms.
As new species are discovered and described, new species pages will be added and an updated version
of this e-guide will be made available.

Each species page illustrates and describes features that will enable you to differentiate the species from
each other. Species are illustrated with high quality images of the animals in life. As far as possible, we
have used characters that can be seen by eye or magnifying glass, and language that is non-technical.

We have added instructions on how to treat a jellyfish sting from the Ministry of Health website, and have
included a section on each species page as to it’s “sting status”.

Outlying island groups, banks, platforms and plateaus are shown on the maps as a two-letter code: Ak =
Auckland Islands; An = Antipodes Islands; Bo = Bounty Islands and platform; Ca = Campbell Islands and
platform; Ch = Chatham Islands and Chatham Rise; Cp = Challenger Plateau; Ke = Kermadec Islands
and the Southern Kermadec Ridge; Pb = Puysegur Bank; Sn = Snares Islands and platform. Information is
provided in descriptive text or quick reference icons that convey information without words. Icons are fully
explained at the end of this document and a glossary explains unfamiliar terms.

Diana Macpherson is a marine biology

technician and assistant collection manager at
the NIWA Invertebrate Collection, with interest in
jellyfish and hydroid parataxonomy, and collection
care.
Dennis P. Gordon
is an emeritus biodiversity
scientist at NIWA and
a distinguished global
authority on the biology,
paleontology, systematics
and evolution of phylum
Bryozoa.

For any ID advice on jellyfish you find,

please email your photos to [email protected] or [email protected]

cataloguing in publication
Macpherson, D., Gordon, D. (2023) Jiggling Jellyfish, a guide to the Jellyfish of New Zealand. Version 2, 29 pp.
https://niwa.co.nz/coasts-and-oceans/marine-identification-guides-and-fact-sheets
Series and managing editor - Michelle Kelly, NIWA
Technical editor - Sadie Mills, NIWA

3
 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

a typical species page layout

taxonomic name of species taxonomic authority

person(s) who first described this species

species images
common name inset images show
of species variations and/or
closeup detail

body plan icon

highlighting the basic
shape, or a special
characteristic, that
defines a group of
these organisms
species
classification life history icon
see species index for highlighting
arrangement geographic
distribution and other
life characteristics

typical size bar

indicating typical size
of the organism

quick id icons
highlighting
morphology, surface,
depth range
substrate and habitat
common depth range
around New Zealand

scale of
abundance
around New Zealand
information
details on external
and internal distribution
characters and section of coastline
habitat where species is most
commonly found

make notes of where

you encountered this
species and let us
know if you find it at a
new location

key taxonomic references It could also be ...

some species are difficult to tell apart without more
detailed information, so check the other species in
the guide listed here to make sure that you have the
correct species

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 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

JELLYFISH
STALKED JELLIES, BOX JELLIES, TRUE JELLIES, HYDROMEDUSA

Gelatinous animal plankton, for which we use the general term ‘jellies’ or ‘jellyfish’, encompasses a diverse range
of creatures in the open ocean (and some freshwater lakes), including jellyfish, comb jellies and salps. The most
familiar are jellyfish, which are commonly found in any nearshore environment throughout the world. They can
be seen washed ashore on beaches by strong onshore winds and storm surge, drifting in coastal currents, or just
bobbing along near the sea surface on a calm day.

Blooms of jellies commonly occur in the summer when the water temperature is at its warmest and when there
is plenty of food available. In spring, increasing daylength, light intensity and temperature lead to blooms of
microscopic plant plankton (phytoplankton), which attracts larger animal plankton (zooplankton) that feed on
it, in turn providing food for zooplankton predators like jellies. Some jellies at or near the sea surface can end
up being completely controlled by prevailing winds and currents that can gather them into a dense group and
strand them on beaches. Being often abundant, jellies play an important role in marine food webs as predators,
or prey, or as decomposing scraps of food for suspension feeders in the water or on the seafloor, where bacteria
finally process the products of decay.

jellyfish stings
Stinging is caused by the simultaneous discharge of thousands of microscopic
stinging capsules called nematocysts, located on the surface of the tentacles and,
in some species, the body as well. Upon contact, the nematocysts discharge their
mini-harpoons, loaded with venom, into the victim’s skin.

There are many different types of jellyfish in New Zealand and not all of them
sting, however, treatment of stings is exactly the same regardless of the type of
jellyfish involved.

Most stings in New Zealand waters are not serious and current advice for the
treatment of jellyfish stings can be found on the Ministry of Health website:
https://www.health.govt.nz/your-health/conditions-and-treatments/accidents-and-
injuries/bites-and-stings/jellyfish-stings#treatblue

Surf Lifeguards from 75 Surf Life Saving Clubs patrolling 80 locations across New
Zealand are trained and equipped to treat jellyfish stings.

5
 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

The term jellyfish is used broadly and groups together a wide and fascinating range of gelatinous creatures.
The next few pages will describe and differentiate the different types of jellies.

Phylum Cnidaria
Most jellyfish belong to the phylum Cnidaria (pronounced nye-derry-a). The name is derived from the Greek
word for nettle, cnida. Cnidarians have one thing in common – stinging cells, known as nematocysts, used for
defence and capturing prey. Cnidarian jellyfish are technically called medusae and are at the adult stage
of their life-cycle. They are a very diverse group and are spread across four taxonomic classes:

Class Staurozoa (stalked jellyfish)

These are the most primitive jellyfish, differing from all
others in having a stalk that attaches them to the sea floor.
Their life-cycle does not include a pelagic free-swimming
stage, and they are small cryptic animals that grow only
to a few centimetres tall. In New Zealand waters, they are
most commonly encountered on brown seaweeds, where they
are well camouflaged, but one whitish form is found on rock
walls at the Poor Knights Islands and in the southern fiords.
Individuals resemble inside-out umbrellas, with an adhesive
disc at the base of the stalk. They usually have eight arms
which each have a cluster of short tentacles at their tips. The
mouth is located at the apex of the umbrella. There are only
about 50 species worldwide. No stalked jellyfish are included
in this version of the guide.

Class Cubozoa (box jellyfish)

These are a small group of jellies separated into two orders – Carybdeida and Chirodropida. Box
jellyfish are characterised by their cube, or box-shaped bell, with single tentacles or clusters of long, thin
tentacles found attached to a pedalium (a muscular thickening) on each corner of the bell. Members of
Carybdeida only have one tentacle per pedalium, but may have more than one pedalium in each corner
of the bell. In contrast, members of Chirodropida have more than one tentacle on each pedalium, but
only one pedalium on each corner. Remarkably, box jellies contain sensory organs called rhopalia which
contain a number of light-sensitive cells in functional eyes, plus a balance organ (a statocyst) to help tell
the animal which way is up.

Box jelly tentacles are packed with nematocysts, and their venom is capable of causing pain and a rash.
One very well-known chirodropid box jelly in Australia, Chironex fleckeri, has a lethal sting. It is considered
to be one of the most dangerous animals in the world. Fortunately, no chirodropid box jellies are found
in New Zealand, and in fact there is only one tiny species known from New Zealand waters. There are
only 51 described species worldwide.

Class Scyphozoa (true jellyfish)

References to ‘jellyfish’ most often apply to this group because they are large, colourful, common and
have the traditional round jellyfish look and shape. Scyphozoan jellyfish have what is called tetraradial
symmetry – although circular, the body has four quadrants. They are characterised by a large body
(bell), which may or may not have a warty appearance, and gonads and a mouth located within the bell
area. The bell margin is scalloped into semi-circles called lappets, from which the tentacles emanate.
Nematocysts are found on the marginal tentacles and sometimes on the bell. The mouth contains four
corners with usually four oral arms dangling below it.

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 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

There are three main types of scyphozoan jellyfish - coronate (order Coronatae), semaeostome (order
Semaeostomeae) and rhizostome (order Rhizostomeae) jellyfish.

Coronate jellyfish are characterised by having a circular groove around the middle of the bell,
creating two distinct sections. Short tentacles can be found hanging from the bell margin between the
lappets. Coronate jellies are found mostly in oceanic
waters in the deep-sea, so are not mentioned in this
guide.

Semaeostome jellies (Order Semaeostomeae)

are characterised by long hollow tentacles located on
or near the bell margin, which is divided into lappets
(see image of Pelagia noctiluca on page 14). The bell
does not have a circular groove and it is large and
dome-shaped. The oral arms are also large and frilly,
around the central mouth.

Rhizostome jellies have one main characteristic

difference from the above groups – they do not have
tentacles on the bell margin. Also, the four corners
of the mouth are elongated and divide into eight
oral arms, called mouth-arms, with several mouth
openings on each mouth-arm. Some tropical species
have symbiotic algae; these ‘upside-down’ jellyfish live
in shallow water with the tentacles facing upwards so
the algae can photosynthesise.

There are only about 200 named species of ‘true’ (scyphozoan) jellyfish worldwide, but the real number
of species could be twice that. There is much variation in appearance, and gene sequencing could be
useful in determining the taxonomic importance of this variability, but there are surprisingly very few
jellyfish specialists around the world.

Class Hydrozoa hydroids, (hydromedusae)

Hydrozoa, including hydroids and hydromedusae, is the most diverse group of cnidarian animals. The
number of known species in the world currently is about 3,800. Hydroids are divided into two subclasses
– Hydroidolina and Trachylinae.

Hydroidoline hydroids are further split into three

orders – Siphonophorae (siphonophores, in this guide),
Anthoathecata (athecate hydroids and medusae, in this
guide) and Leptothecata (thecate hydroids and medusae).

Trachyline hydroids are split between a further

four orders - Limnomedusae (freshwater hydromedusae),
Actinulida, Narcomedusae and Trachymedusae.

Hydrozoans generally have two main life-cycle stages –

the polyp and the medusa. The polyp stage is normally
referred to as a hydroid and may be solitary or colonial.
The medusa stage (called a hydromedusa) is the sexual
Taken from Gershwin et al. 2014

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 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

phase. It resembles a small jellyfish (from about a millimetre to about 20 cm diameter). Its eggs and sperm
are released into seawater and the fertilised egg develops into a planula larva. This typically settles on
the seafloor and grows into a single feeding polyp or a colony of many tiny polyps. The polyp stage buds
off tiny medusae to complete the life-cycle. Depending on the order to which a hydrozoan species belongs,
one of these stages may be more dominant than the other, or one of them will be absent altogether. Some
anthoathecate families comprise calcified colonies that superficially resemble small stony corals. The best
known of these families in New Zealand is Stylasteridae.

Phylum Ctenophora
Comb jellies, or ctenophores (pronounced “teen-o-four”) are mostly planktonic. They are harmless to humans
because, unlike cnidarian jellyfish, they lack stinging cells. They are, however, voracious predators of other
plankton. Most (in class Tentaculata) catch their prey with sticky cells called colloblasts found on their tentacles
which helps to entangle small animals like crustaceans, fish and other zooplankton, while others (class Nuda)
lack tentacles, having instead a specialised mouth that allows them to bite jelly-like prey.

There are only about 100 – 150 species of comb jellies worldwide, but their lifestyle and body shapes are very
diverse, from round and oval to long wide ribbons. One group (order Platyctenida) is benthic and characterised
by a highly flattened body form that resembles some flatworms. All comb jellies except Platyctenida have radial
rows of ciliary combs – plates of cilia that move back and forth in a sweeping motion to propel the animal
through the water. This movement produces a beautiful shimmering rainbow effect as they diffract light. None
of these beauties grace this guide yet.

Phylum Chordata
Salps are planktonic relatives of sea squirts. In summer months, salps wash ashore on many New Zealand
beaches, and beachgoers wonder what they are and if they sting. They are completely harmless. Although
salps are gelatinous, they are chordates – having a dorsal nerve cord like a vertebrate. The barrel-like salp
body is commonly about a centimetre to several centimetres in length and wholly transparent except for the
stomach, which appears as a small brown blob inside the body. Salps are open at both ends and move by jet
propulsion using muscle contraction. Seawater is drawn in one end and exits at the other, with food particles
being trapped by a filter as the water passes through the body. Salps have a complex life-cycle and are found
together in long chains or as isolated individuals depending on the phase of growth. Salps can occur in such
numbers as to comprise a very important part of marine food webs.

Fire salps (pyrosomes) are a related group, but always colonial. The colony is hollow like a sock, with thousands
of connected individuals forming the sock, which can grow so massively in size as to allow a diver to fit inside.
Pyrosomes get their name from their ability to glow in the dark.

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 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

white-spotted jelly
moon jelly

15 17
Aurelia sp. Phyllorhiza punctata
mauve stinger

crystal jelly
colour index

16 21
Pelagia noctiluca Aequorea forskalea
lion’s mane jellyfish

speckled jelly

13 14
Cyanea rosea Desmonema gaudichaudi
by-the-wind-sailor
crimson jelly

19 20
Turritopsis rubra Velella velella

9
 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

box jellyfish
blue bottle

18 12
Physalia physalis Copula sivickisi
wheel salp

giant salp
colour index

22 23
Cyclosalpa affinis Pyrostremma spinosum
fire salp

24
Pyrosoma atlanticum

10
 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

species index
Class Cubozoa (box jellies)
Order Carybdeida
Family Tripedaliidae
Copula sivickisi (Stiasny, 1926) 12

Class Scyphozoa (true sea jellies)

Order Semaeostomeae
Family Cyaneidae
Cyanea rosea Quoy & Gaimard, 1824 13
Desmonema gaudichaudi (Lesson, 1832) 14
Family Ulmaridae
Aurelia sp. Lamarck, 1816 15
PHYLUM: CNIDARIA

Family Pelagiidae
Pelagia noctiluca (Forsskål, 1775)  16
Order Rhizostomeae
Family Mastigiidae
Phyllorhiza punctata von Lendenfeld, 1884 17

Class Hydrozoa (hydroids)

Subclass Hydroidolina
Order Siphonophorae (siphonophores)
Family Physaliidae
Physalia physalis (Linnaeus, 1758)  18
Order Anthoathecata (athecate hydroid medusa)
Family Oceaniidae
Turritopsis rubra (Farquhar, 1895) 19
Family Porpitidae
Velella velella (Linnaeus, 1758) 20
Order Leptothecata (thecate hydroid medusa)
Family Aequoreidae
Aequorea forskalea Péron & Lesueur, 1810 21

Class Thaliacea
Order Salpida (salps)
PHYLUM: CHORDATA
SUBPHYLUM: TUNICATA

Family Salpidae
Cyclosalpa affinis (Chamisso, 1819) 22
Order Pyrosomatida (Pyrosome fire salps)
Family Pyrosomatidae
Pyrostremma spinosum (Herdman, 1888) 23
Pyrosoma atlanticum Péron, 1804 24

11
 Family Tripedaliidae
classification
Order Carybdeida
Class Cubozoa Copula sivickisi (Stiasny, 1926)
box jellyfish

1-8 mm

morphology surface substrate habitat

Copula sivickisi is a small, transparent, box-shaped jellyfish with four banded yellow and
brown tentacles. The bell has four interradial corners; at each corner is a tentacle attached
to pedalia. Tentacles have nematocyst rings and terminal swellings. The bell is transparent
with white nematocyst spots on the outside, and its yellow to orange internal organs can be
seen: four stomach pouches, four pairs of gonads and four rhopalia. This species also has
four sticky pads on top of its bell which are used to attach itself to surfaces so it can rest.

Box jellyfish are known for their deadly stings, especially the deadly box jellyfish Chironex
fleckeri Southcott, 1956. It is found in northern Australia and causes several injuries and
fatalities, and several other box jellyfish species cause Irukandji syndrome. Fortunately, the
sting of Copula sivickisi is not known to be fatal to humans, although it can leave a blister-
like wound. Copula sivickisi is the only box jellyfish species known to reside in New Zealand
waters and so far has been recorded only from Te Whanganui-a-Tara (Wellington Harbour),
Wellington’s south coast and Kaikoura. It is also found in many other locations in the Indo-
Pacific: Hawai’i, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, and the Great Barrier Reef and
Tasmania in Australia. It is also found in the Caribbean. The depth range is unknown,
although these box jellyfish occur generally in shallow coastal waters but also travel
to greater depths in the open ocean.

It could also be……….

Turritopsis rubra

main image
Lewis, C., Long, T.A.F. (2005) Courtship and reproduction in Carybdea sivickisi (Cnidaria: Cubozoa). Marine Biology 147: 477-483.
Rob Stewart
inset image
Gershwin, L.-A. (2016) Jellyfish: a natural history. Ivy Press, 224 pp.
Rob Stewart
Crispin Middleton 12
 Family Cyaneidae
classification
Order Semaeostomeae
Class Scyphozoa Cyanea rosea Quoy & Gaimard, 1824
lion’s mane jellyfish

12 cm

morphology surface substrate habitat

This large jellyfish is typically translucent with a bright brownish-pink apex, and a creamy to
whitish, scalloped margin which is divided into 32 lappets. The outside of the bell is covered
in colourless raised warts, or papillae, mostly concentrated in the middle part. Gastrovascular
cavity is divided marginally divided into 16 pouches by straight radial septa. Just inside the
bell near the margin are eight clusters of tentacles, each cluster has hundreds of translucent
to whitish, short, curly tentacles arranged in several rows. There are four orals arms beneath
the bell, which are thick, short, extremely dense and frilly, that are peachy brown in colour.

Cyanea rosea is found around the entire coast of New Zealand, as far south as Campbell
Island, and also along the eastern Australian coastline. It is commonly encountered in coastal
areas, bays and harbours, as well as in the open ocean. Individuals occasionally swarm in
large numbers in warm summer months in bays and harbours when there is an abundance
of plankton to feed on. The genus Cyanea is found all over the world in polar, subpolar and
temperate seas, and less commonly in tropical seas.

It could also be……….

Desmonema gaudichaudi

main image
Grange, K. R., Watson, J., Cook S., de C., Barnett, T. J., Brook, F. J. & Cairns, S. D. (2009) Chapter 3 Phylum Cnidaria. In Cook S. de C. (ed.). New Zealand Coastal
Rob Stewart Marine Invertebrates Volume One, Canterbury University Press, p 137–248.
inset image
Rob Stewart Gershwin, L.-A. (2016) Jellyfish: a natural history. Ivy Press, 1–224 pp.
Crispin Middleton 13
 Family Cyaneidae
classification
Order Semaeostomeae
Class Scyphozoa Desmonema gaudichaudi (Lesson, 1832)
spotted or speckled jelly

12 cm

morphology surface substrate habitat

Desmonema gaudichaudi is a relative of the lion’s mane jellyfish (they belong to the same
family) and like Cyanea rosea can get quite large. It has a smooth bell which normally has
black spots on the surface, but this is a variable character. The colour of the bell is also
variable: either uniform white, white with dark patches or dark brown or purple. Sometimes
the patches look like leopard spots. Gastrovascular cavity divided into 16 pouches. The
margin of the bell is divided into 24 lappets, and eight clusters of long straight tentacles
hang in a single row from just inside the bell near the margin. There are four curtains of oral
arms with highly folded lips which hang below the centre of the bell.

Desmonema gaudichaudi lives in surface oceanic waters but can occur in shallow coastal
bays and harbours. Although not as abundant as the lion’s mane jellyfish, it is widespread,
having been recorded in waters around Leigh, the Firth of Thames, Auckland, Bay of Plenty,
Wellington, Nelson, Marlborough Sounds, West Coast South Island, Christchurch, Dunedin and
Stewart Island, and is a known cold-water species from the Southern Ocean and Antarctica.

It could also be……….

Cyanea rosea

images
Grange, K. R., Watson, J., Cook S., de C., Barnett, T. J., Brook, F. J. & Cairns, S. D. (2009) Chapter 3 Phylum Cnidaria. In Cook S. de C. (ed.). New Zealand Coastal
Serena Cox Marine Invertebrates Volume One, Canterbury University Press, p 137–248.
inset image
Serena Cox Jarms, G., Morandini, A. C., Haeckel, E., Schmidt-Rhaesa, A., Giere, O., Straehler-Pohl, I. (2019) World Atlas of Jellyfish: Scyphozoa Except Stauromedusae. Dölling
Oliver Duque und Galitz Verlag, 815 pp. 14
 Family Ulmaridae
classification
Order Semaeostomeae
Class Scyphozoa Aurelia sp. Lamarck, 1816
moon jelly

12 cm

morphology surface substrate habitat

Aurelia sp. is the most popular and beautiful of the jellyfishes to watch in aquariums. It has a
discus-like, ghostly whitish-transparent bell with a scalloped margin that bears hundreds of
short, fine tentacles. There are four conspicuous horseshoe-shaped internal rings inside the
upper part of the bell, usually mauve in colour, which are its gonads (reproductive organs). It
has four frilly oral arms that drape around the mouth beneath the gonads, projecting below
the margin of the bell.

Aurelia sp. is the commonest true jellyfish species in New Zealand and is found around the
entire coastline. It is most commonly encountered in shallow coastal water, usually bays and
harbours. Adult Aurelia feed on tiny phytoplankton organisms such as diatoms and other
microalgae, and zooplankton such as juvenile crustaceans and worms. Juvenile Aurelia will
feed on larval fish. Occasionally they bloom in large swarms, which poses potential problems
for salmon farms as they can cause mass fish kills. The genus Aurelia is found all over the
world in all coastal habitats, however it is unclear which species is present in New Zealand.
It has been suggested that Aurelia aurita and/or Aurelia labiata is the local species, but this
has not yet been confirmed.

images
Grange, K. R., Watson, J., Cook S., de C., Barnett, T. J., Brook, F. J. & Cairns, S. D. (2009) Chapter 3 Phylum Cnidaria. In Cook S. de C. (ed.). New Zealand Coastal
Chris Woods Marine Invertebrates Volume One, Canterbury University Press, p 137–248.

Gershwin, L.-A. (2016) Jellyfish: a natural history. Ivy Press, 1–224 pp.
15
 Family Pelagiidae
classification
Order Semaeostomeae
Class Scyphozoa Pelagia noctiluca (Forsskål, 1775)
mauve stinger; purple people eater

12 cm

morphology surface substrate habitat

Pelagia noctiluca has a hemispherical to flattened bell of thick jelly covered in colorful
nematocyst warts. The margin of the bell is divided into 16 rectangular-shaped lappets
with rounded corners, and there are eight long marginal tentacles alternating with eight
dark marginal statocysts. The colour of the bell is variable, most often brownish-yellow or
pinkish-purple. The tentacles and gonads are darker in colour than the bell. There are four
long, pointed, very frilly oral arms.

Pelagia noctiluca is a voracious predator that will eat almost anything. Its prey include
hydromedusae, ctenophores, small crustaceans and other plankton. It is usually found in
oceanic deep water away from the coast but can swarm in large numbers and drift to the
shore in late summer and winter around the northern waters of New Zealand, specifically
Northland’s east coast and the Bay of Plenty. This species is widely distributed in tropical
and subtropical waters around the world.

Interestingly, unlike most scyphozoan jellyfish, Pelagia noctiluca doesn’t have a polyp stage as
part of its life-cycle. Usually the planula larva settles onto the seafloor before developing
into a polyp which would then produce small jellyfish medusae by strobilation. Instead,
Pelagia noctiluca develops directly from planula larva into a larval medusa, or
ephyra, and the whole process takes only about 92 hours.

It could also be……….

Desmonema gaudichaudi

main image
Gershwin, L.-A. (2016) Jellyfish: a natural history. Ivy Press, 1–224 pp.
Crispin Middleton
inset image
Grange, K. R., Watson, J., Cook S., de C., Barnett, T. J., Brook, F. J. & Cairns, S. D. (2009) Chapter 3 Phylum Cnidaria. In Cook S. de C. (ed.). New Zealand Coastal
Malcolm Francis Marine Invertebrates Volume One, Canterbury University Press, p 137–248.
16
 Phyllorhiza punctata von Lendenfeld, 1884
white-spotted jellyfish or Australian spotted jellyfish
Family Mastigiidae
classification
Order Rhizostomeae
Class Scyphozoa

50 cm

morphology surface substrate habitat

Phyllorhiza puncata has a large hemispherical bell, about half as high as it is wide. The
surface of the bell is finely granulated with some raised warts. There are up to 112 lappets
around the bell margin. The bell is transparent blueish or yellow-brown, with white spots.
Being a rhizostome jellyfish, it has no marginal tentacles but it does have eight thick, fleshy,
branched mouth-arms, each with long terminal club-shaped appendages.

Originally described from southeastern Australia, its native distributional range is the western
Pacific from Japan to northern New Zealand but it is considered an invasive species in other
parts of the world. Rhizostome jellyfish are known as the upside-down jellyfishes. They are
plankton feeders and some tropical species have phytoplankton in the tentacles that they
expose to sunlight by lying face up in shallow water.

main image
Jarms, G., Morandini, A. C., Haeckel, E., Schmidt-Rhaesa, A., Giere, O., Straehler-Pohl, I. (2019) World Atlas of Jellyfish: Scyphozoa Except Stauromedusae.
Jennifer Beaumont Dölling und Galitz Verlag, 815 pp.
inset images
Crispin Middleton
Chris Woods 17
 Physalia physalis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Portuguese man-o’-war; blue bottle; katiaho
Family Physaliidae
classification
Order Siphonophorae
Class Hydrozoa

12 cm

morphology surface substrate habitat

Blue bottles appear as clear, bluish gas-filled floats floating on the water surface, with many
long bright-blue tentacles trailing behind the float under water. The float is smooth like a
balloon and has a crest, catching the wind and allowing the blue bottle to be transported
across the sea surface. Depending on whether the mass of tentacles is attached beneath the
float more to the right or the left affects the direction of drift. Individuals with the correct
alignment for an onshore wind then become stranded on land where they will likely die, but
are still capable of producing stings. Physalia is a siphonophore so each individual is actually
a colony of many smaller individuals. The tentacles are each a type of individual, called
a dactylozooid, that has a defensive role and also stings prey animals for food. Tentacles
can stretch out to 10 m or more in length. Between the tentacle bases are smaller tube-like
feeding and reproductive polyps (respectively gastrozooids and gonozooids). About 14%
of the gas in the float is carbon monoxide; other gases are atmospheric gases that diffuse
into the float.

Blue bottles live at the ocean surface and are found worldwide except for polar and subpolar
regions, but are mainly tropical/subtropical and warm-temperate. They are found in New
Zealand waters during warm summer months and often wash up on beaches. They
are preyed on by pelagic sea slugs (Glaucus spp.) and violet snails (Janthina spp.).

It could also be……….

Velella velella

main image
Gershwin, L.-A. (2016) Jellyfish: a natural history. Ivy Press, 1–224 pp.
Jennifer Beaumont
inset images
Grange, K. R., Watson, J., Cook S., de C., Barnett, T. J., Brook, F. J. & Cairns, S. D. (2009) Chapter 3 Phylum Cnidaria. In Cook S. de C. (Ed), New Zealand Coastal
Crispin Middleton Marine Invertebrates Volume One, Canterbury University Press, p 137–248.
Chris Woods 18
 Turritopsis rubra (Farquhar, 1895)
crimson jelly
Family Oceaniidae
classification
Order Anthoathecata
Class Hydrozoa

1 cm

morphology surface substrate habitat

These jellyfish are quite small (adults are only about 1–2 cm diameter), with a bell-shaped
umbrella that is taller than wide, with a fringe of up to 120 closely spaced long thin tentacles
around the margin of the umbrella. The tentacles can either be coiled up close to the umbrella,
or extended out in strings to catch food. The umbrella is transparent, allowing the bright-red
stomach and gonads to be seen. It is an energetic swimmer. Individuals are released from
the medusa bud of a tiny colonial polyp stage.

They can swarm around the coast in summer in shallow, coastal water. They contribute to the
food web as part of the coastal plankton, capturing small planktonic animals with their tentacles.
They have a South Pacific distribution and are found all around New Zealand, having been
recorded from Bream Bay, Hauraki Gulf, Goat Island Marine Reserve, Whangateau Harbour,
Waitemata Harbour, Wellington Harbour, Cook Strait, Hawke’s Bay and Otago Harbour.

A close relative, Turritopsis dohrnii, is known as the immortal jellyfish because of its ability as
an adult to reverse its lifecycle by turning back into a juvenile (polyp stage) instead of dying
when living conditions get tough. It then waits for conditions to improve before turning back
into an adult medusa. Essentially, T. dorhnii can escape death and potentially achieve
immortality, and this ability is unparalleled in the animal kingdom. It is currently not
known whether Turritopsis rubra can also reverse its lifecycle.

images
Schuchert, P. (1996) The Marine Fauna of New Zealand: Athecate Hydroids and their Medusae (Cnidaria : Hydrozoa). New Zealand Oceanographic Institute
Crispin Middleton Memoir 106: 1–159.

Grange, K. R., Watson, J., Cook S., de C., Barnett, T. J., Brook, F. J. & Cairns, S. D. (2009) Chapter 3 Phylum Cnidaria. In Cook S. de C. (ed.). New Zealand Coastal
Marine Invertebrates Volume One, Canterbury University Press, p 137–248. 19
 Velella velella (Linnaeus, 1758)
by-the-wind sailor; katiaho rere
Family Porpitidae
classification
Order Anthoathecata
Class Hydrozoa

2 cm

morphology surface substrate habitat

Velella velella is exquisitely bright blue, with a flat float in the form of a chitinous oval disc
that bears a vertical triangular sail. Its stinging tentacles dangle down from the margin of
the disc. Sails come in two forms — either oriented from left to right or right to left, which
affects the way that they catch the wind.

Velella velella is pelagic, meaing it lives at the sea surface, and is therefore carried by water
currents and wind. It feeds on pelagic organisms and has symbiotic algae (zooxanthelle) in
its tissues. Is is preyed on by pelagic sea slugs Fiona pinnata and Glaucus spp., violet sea
snail Janthina janthina, and the sunfish, Mola mola.

Velella velella is found on the surface of tropical to temperate waters around the world.
After a period of sustained onshore winds, it can be found washed up on beaches around
the country, sometimes in smelly mass strandings of millions of individuals.

See:
https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/97891177/bright-blue-stranding-of-millions-of-
creatures-on-wellington-beach

https://www.facebook.com/nzniwa/posts/1360314324079112

It could also be……….

Physalia physalis

images
Schuchert, P. (1996) The Marine Fauna of New Zealand: Athecate Hydroids and their Medusae (Cnidaria : Hydrozoa). New Zealand Oceanographic Institute
Diana Macpherson Memoir 106: 1–159.

Grange, K. R., Watson, J., Cook S., de C., Barnett, T. J., Brook, F. J. & Cairns, S. D. (2009) Chapter 3 Phylum Cnidaria. In Cook S. de C. (ed.). New Zealand Coastal
Marine Invertebrates Volume One, Canterbury University Press, p 137–248. 20
 Aequorea forskalea Péron & Lesueur, 1810
many-ribbed jelly or crystal jelly
Family Aequoreidae
classification
Order Leptothecata
Class Hydrozoa

13–18 cm

morphology surface substrate habitat

Aequorea forskalea is not a true jellyfish belonging to the class Scyphozoa, but the dominant
medusa phase of a species of class Hydrozoa (hydroids). Hydroids mostly form bushy colonies
of tiny polyps and some produce a minute sexual medusa phase. In the case of Aequorea,
the polyp is very tiny and insignificant and it is the sexual medusa phase that is encountered.
At more than 17 cm diameter, this is a giant among hydrozoan medusae and is the largest
in our waters. Technically it stings but the sting is so weak most humans don’t feel it.

Large, smooth, shallow-domed or saucer-shaped bell, thick in the centre and thinning towards
the margin. Around 60­–80 purple canals or ‘ribs’ radiate from the central manubrium to the
edge of the bell. Circular manubrium, about half as wide as the umbrella, surrounded by
short purple frilly lips. Gonads run along almost the whole length of the radial canals. Many
fine tentacles (30–160) hang from the edge of the bell.

Three species have been reported in New Zealand waters: Aequorea australis Uchida, 1947
(up to 2.5 cm diameter), Aequorea forskalea Péron & Lesueur, 1810 (to 17.5 cm) and Aequorea
macrodactyla (Brandt, 1835) (to 7.5 cm). Aequorea forskalea is the one commonly noted
because of its size and it commonly appears when the sea temperature is slightly higher
than normal. Depth range is relatively unknown.

Catches planktonic prey with its tentacles. This species is found worldwide
and it appears in New Zealand waters during warmer (La Niña) summers.

It could also be……….

Aurelia sp.

images
Bouillon, J.; Barnett, T.J. (1999) The marine fauna of New Zealand: Hydromedusae (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa). New Zealand Oceanographic Institute Memoir 113,
Alexandra Horsley 1–136.
inset image
Chris Woods
21
 Cyclosalpa affinis (Chamisso, 1819)
wheel salp
Family Salpidae
classification
Order Salpida
Class Thaliacea

8–15 cm

morphology surface substrate habitat

Salps belong to the phylum Chordata, which do not have nematocysts. Cyclosalpa affinis
forms a chain of up to 15 small individuals arranged radially in whorls, or circular clusters.
The chain is transparent apart from the small orange ring-shaped stomach and intestine near
the centre of each cluster.

Long chains of these clusters are produced by a much larger solitary parent individual. Muscle
bands in the body wall of individuals contract to draw water through the body, allowing
oxygen exchange, feeding and locomotion. They are eaten by other jellyfish, sea turtles,
marine birds and fish.

image
Gershwin, L., Lewis, M., Gowlett-Holmes, K., and Kloser, R. (2014) The pelagic tunicates. In: Pelagic Invertebrates of South Eastern Australia: A field reference
Crispin Middleton guide. Version 1. 1. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Hobart.

Kott, P., Bradford-Grieve, J., Esnal, G., Murdoch, R. (2009) Phylum Tunicata - sea squirts, salps, appendicularians. Pp. 411-432 In: Gordon, D.P. (Ed.), New Zealand
Inventory of Biodiversity. Volume One. Kingdom Animalia: Radiata, Lophotrochozoa, Deuterostomia. Canterbury University Press, Christchurch. 568 [+16] p. 22
 Pyrostremma spinosum (Herdman, 1888)
giant salp, fire salp
Family Pyrosomatidae
classification
Order Pyrosomatida
Class Thaliacea

upto 20 m

morphology surface substrate habitat

Salps belong to the phylum Chordata, which do not have nematocysts. Pyrostremma spinosum
is a species of pelagic tunicate commonly known as a pyrosome salp, giant salp, or fire salp
because of their bioluminesence - they can generate bright blue-green light when stimulated.

Each individual is a free-swimming colony comprising of many zooids that work together to
live. The colony is shaped like a large, long, hollow, cylindrical tube. Many individual zooids
can be seen as smooth sac-shaped projections on the surface of the tube, causing it to look
dimpled or bumpy. The zooids are arranged with their incurrent siphons facing outwards and
their excurrent siphons facing inwards, so when water is filtered through them collectively
this gives the colony jet propulsion, allowing it to move. Colonies can be pale pink, yellowish
or blueish.

They are called giant salps because they can grow up to 20 metres long and 2 metres wide
– large enough to accommodate a diver! These colonies therefore constitute the largest
planktonic organisms known and the largest free-living invertebrates apart from the giant squid.

Pyrostremma spinosum is a pelagic species found in temperate waters worldwide.

Pyrosomes are generally associated with tropical and warm temperate waters, and
are generally found in epipelagic or upper mesopelagic layers

It could also be……….

Pyrosoma atlanticum

image
Gershwin, L., Lewis, M., Gowlett-Holmes, K., and Kloser, R. (2014) The pelagic tunicates. In: Pelagic Invertebrates of South Eastern Australia: A field reference
Crispin Middleton guide. Version 1. 1. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Hobart.

Kott, P., Bradford-Grieve, J., Esnal, G., Murdoch, R. (2009) Phylum Tunicata - sea squirts, salps, appendicularians. Pp. 411-432 In: Gordon, D.P. (Ed.), New Zealand
Inventory of Biodiversity. Volume One. Kingdom Animalia: Radiata, Lophotrochozoa, Deuterostomia. Canterbury University Press, Christchurch. 568 [+16] p. 23
 Pyrosoma atlanticum Péron, 1804
Fire salp
Family Pyrosomatidae
classification
Order Pyrosomatida
Class Thaliacea

upto 60 cm

morphology surface substrate habitat

Salps belong to the phylum Chordata, which do not have nematocysts.

Pyrosoma atlanticum is a species of pyrosome salp commonly called fire salps because of their
bioluminesence - they can generate bright blue-green light when stimulated. Each individual is
a free-living colony comprising of many zooids that work together to live. The colony is shaped
like a cylindrical tube, or hollow sock; the opening is wide and the other end of the tube is
narrow and closed. Many individual zooids can be seen as smooth sac-shaped projections
on the surface of the tube, causing it to look dimpled or bumpy. The zooids are arranged
with their incurrent siphons facing outwards and their excurrent siphons facing inwards, so
when water is filtered through them collectively this gives the colony jet propulsion, allowing
it to move. Colonies can be pale pink, yellowish or blueish.

Pyrosoma atlanticum is a pelagic species found in temperate waters worldwide. They live and
move vertically through the warmer upper layers of the ocean and filter feed on phytoplankton.
Since they live at or near the sea surface they can end up being completely controlled by
prevailing winds and currents that can gather them into a dense group and strand them on
beaches. They do, however, have the abaility to move slowly through jet propulsion, by
moving water through individual zooids as they filter feed. They can play an important
role in marine food webs as predators, or prey, or as decomposing scraps of food
for suspension feeders in the water or on the seafloor, where bacteria finally
process the products of decay.

It could also be……….

Pyrostremma spinosum

images
Gershwin, L., Lewis, M., Gowlett-Holmes, K., and Kloser, R. (2014) The pelagic tunicates. In: Pelagic Invertebrates of South Eastern Australia: A field reference
Rachel Tan guide. Version 1. 1. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Hobart.

Kott, P., Bradford-Grieve, J., Esnal, G., Murdoch, R. (2009) Phylum Tunicata - sea squirts, salps, appendicularians. Pp. 411-432 In: Gordon, D.P. (Ed.), New Zealand
Inventory of Biodiversity. Volume One. Kingdom Animalia: Radiata, Lophotrochozoa, Deuterostomia. Canterbury University Press, Christchurch. 568 [+16] p. 24
 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

icon glossary
BODY PLAN
Jellyfish belonging to Class
jellyfish belonging to Class
Scyphozoa (true jellyfish), true jellyfish
true jellyfish Scyphozoa (true jellyfish) that
Order Rhizostomeae, no (short
(mouth-arm) have short tentacles and short
tentacles on the bell margin, tentacles)
oral arms
with elongated mouth-arms
Jellyfish belonging to Class
Hydrozoa. Hydroid medusa
jellyfish belonging to Class
with a transparent shallow
Hydrozoa. Hydroid medusae
dome-shaped umbrella
generally have a transparent Hydroid
through which the mouth
hydroid bell-shaped umbrella through medusa
area can be seen, along with
medusa (bell) which the gonads and mouth (shallow
purple ribs extending from
area can be seen, and dome)
the mouth towards the edge,
tentacles arising from the
and tentacles arising from
umbrella margin
the umbrella margin, as in
Aequorea forskalea
siphonophore jellyfish
jellyfish belonging to Class
hydroid belonging to Class Hydrozoa
Hydrozoa. Hydroid medusae
medusa (sail siphonophore that have a balloon-shaped
with a flattened oval float and
and float) float and long trailing
vertical sail, as in Velella velella
tentacles, as in Physalia physalis
jellyfish belonging to Class
Cubozoa. Bell is box shaped
box jellyfish pyrosome salp cylindrical/tubular in shape
with four tentacles arising from
pedalia.

A solitary individual releasing Class Scyphozoa (true jellyfish)

true jellyfish
wheel salp its aggregate form, arranged that have long trailing tentacles
(long tentacles)
in circular clusters. and long, big, frilly oral arms

LIFE HISTORY

naturally occuring around New

native antarctic Ross Sea and Southern Ocean
Zealand, endemic

naturally occuring around New

antipodean widespread species recorded globally
Zealand and Australia only

naturally occuring around New temperate

region between the Tropics of
southwest pacific Zealand, Australia and other tropical /
Cancer and Capricorn
pacific locations circumtropical

oosely defined as the region

encompassing the Western
Indo-Pacific Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia,
Oceania and the broader
Pacific

MORPHOLOGY
umbrella of a jellyfish or a
balloon-shaped float seen hydromedusa shaped like a
balloon float floating on the sea surface, disc or saucer flattened disc or saucer, the
Physalia physalis umbrella is wider than it is
tall
25
 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

umbrella of a jellyfish or a
flattened oval-shaped float
hydromedusa shaped like a
bell oval float seen floating on the sea
bell, the umbrella height is
surface, Velella velella
taller than the width

box true jellyfish

wheel salp pyrosome salp cylindrical/tubular in shape

SURFACE

organism is camouflaged
tough to the touch, horny colour-based at sea because of its bright
chitinous
texture, Velella velella camouflage blue appearance, Velella
velella and Physalia physalis

even, hairless, silky, can be soft to the touch, easily

smooth soft
slightly undulating compressible, elastic

gelatinous and see-through,

bumpy bearing small, rounded bumps transparent
translucent

bearing small flattened bumps thick skin, tough, flexible,

warty LEATHER leathery
or tubercles slightly elastic

SUBSTRATE

hard substrate such as

lives in the open ocean
water column rock mudstone, sandstone, basalt,
throughout the water column
compressed carbonates

HABITAT
bays and harbours, wind
and water currents transport
bays and sea surface found floating at the sea
organisms into them where
harbours pleustonic surface
they can remain stuck or
stranded

pelagic and/ shallow shallow waters around the

open ocean
or oceanic coastal waters coastline near land

zone below the low tide,

including rock flats, slopes,
walls, crevices, overhangs,
subtidal boulder fields, organisms
exposed to wave surge
and currents, and subdued
illumination 26
 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

glossary
bell see umbrella
cilia tiny hair-like structures used for propulsion or feeding
colloblasts adhesive cells unique to phylum Ctenophora, containing no venom
dactylozooid a type of zooid found in colony-forming organisms used for the capture of prey or defence
diatom a major group of microscopic unicellular algae that are a part of the phytoplankton
ephyra or larval medusa, the free-swimming larval medusa stage, a mini jellyfish just before it becomes an
adult medusa
gastrovascular of or relating to the stomach and radial canal system.

gastrovascular cavity main digestive space, stomach, sometimes subdivided by septa and studded with numerous digestive
filaments
gastrozooid a type of polyp found in colony-forming organisms used for feeding
gonad reproductive organ
gonozooid a type of polyp found in colony-forming organisms used for reproduction
lappets flap-like extension of the bell margin
lips lobe-like extension of the edge of the manubrium surrounding the mouth
medusa free floating, adult, sexual, pelagic stage in the lifecycle; typically has a disk-shaped body (bell) with
oral arms and tentacles
medusa budding asexual budding of medusae which give rise to a new juvenile medusa individual; in hydroids,
budding occurs on the colonial polyp
manubrium a projection from the underside of the bell which contains the stomach cavity, distally bearing the
mouth and proximally leading to the radial canals
mouth-arm four corners of the mouth are elongated and divide into eight oral arms, called mouth-arms, with
several mouth openings on each mouth-arm
nematocysts stinging organ unique to the phylum Cnidaria; typically, a capsule containing stinging cells which
penetrate tissue of prey to paralyse it, or used as defence
oral arm a structure that hangs from the mouth on the underside of the bell, usually four in number and can be
described as frilly and is generally thicker than a tentacle; contains stinging cells and used in food
capture
pedalium (pedalia) a fleshy muscular pad, one or more tentacles are attached to each pedalium
pelagic open body of water; open sea
phytoplankton tiny floating marine plants that carry out photosynthesis
plankton floating organisms found in the pelagic zone that are at the mercy of water movements, composed of
microscopic plants and animals, including the larvae or larger animals such as fish; see phytoplankton
and zooplankton
planula larva the free-swimming first larval stage of many types of jellyfish, before it settles and becomes a polyp
polyp In scyphozoans, the budlike part of the lifecycle after the planula stage that attaches to a hard
substrate; in hydrozoans the basic individual of hydroids, may be isolated or forming colonies, may
be of different types and perform different functions, but generally has tentacles and a mouth
rhopalium (rhopalia) a sense organ used for visual or light-sensing capabilities, and controls the pulsations of the bell and
balance
spermatophore sperm bundle
statocyst a sense organ used to detect movement, orientation and equilibrium
strobilation a form of cloning in scyphozoan jellyfish in which a polyp elongates and becomes segmented and
each segment develops into an ephyra
symbiosis (symbiotic) a relationship in which two different species live together
umbrella the main body of the medusa, or jellyfish, not including the manubrium or tentacles, generally
resembles the shape of a bell or an umbrella; the edge of the umbrella is called the margin
zooid an individual member of a colony forming organism such as a siphonophore, hydroid, salp or
pyrosome; each zooid has a particular function within the colony, e.g. zooids responsible for
reproduction (gonozooid and phorozooids) and feeding (trophozooids)
zooplankton tiny floating marine animals
zooxanthellae single-celled symbiotic algae called a dinoflagellate

27
 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

acknowledgements
Thanks to all those that have provided identifications and advice on the current taxonomy of the species included in this
guide, including Dr Gill Mapstone (Natural History Museum, London); Dr Lisa-ann Gershwin (Research Scientist), and Dr
Phil R. Pugh (National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, UK). Thanks to Dr Andrew Forsythe (NIWA Bream Bay) for
reviewing sting treatment advice. Thanks also to the photographers of the beautiful specimen images.

The preparation of this guide was funded by NIWA under Coasts and Oceans Research Programme 2 Marine Biological
Resources: Discovery and definition of the marine biota of New Zealand (2018/2019 SCI), and Protecting Marine
Biodiversity Programme, Documenting Marine Invertebrates project COBR22202 (2021/2022).

image credits
Permission to use the images from the following NIWA New Zealand photographers is gratefully acknowledged: Crispin
Middleton (NIWA Bream Bay); Chris Woods (NIWA Christchurch); Rob Stewart, Serena Cox, Malcolm Francis, Jennifer
Beaumont, Kate Neill, Lana Young (NIWA Wellington). Special thanks to the following citizen scientists who very kindly
allowed the use of their photos in this e-guide: Kim McFadden, Alexandra Horsley, Nicole Miller, Sietse Bouma, Sarah
Melville, Richel Tan and Oliver Duque.

further reading
Bouillon, J.; Barnett, T.J. (1999) The marine fauna of New Zealand: Hydromedusae (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa). New Zealand
Oceanographic Institute Memoir 113, 1–136.
Cairns, S.D., Gershwin, L., Brook, F.J., Pugh, P., Dawson, E.W., Ocaña, O.V., Vervoort, W., Williams, G., Watson, J.E.,
Opresko, D.M., Schuchert, P., Hine, P.M., Gordon, D.P., Campbell, H.J., Wright, A.J., Sánchez, J.A., Fautin, D.G. (2009)
Phylum Cnidaria – corals, medusae, hydroids, myxozoans. Pp. 59–101 In: Gordon, D.P. (Ed.), New Zealand Inventory
of Biodiversity. Volume One. Kingdom Animalia: Radiata, Lophotrochozoa, Deuterostomia. Canterbury University Press,
Christchurch. 568 [+16] p.
Cegolon, L., Heymann, W. C., Lange, J. H., Mastrangelo, G. (2013) Jellyfish stings and their management: A Review. Marine
Drugs 11, 523–550.
Dawson, M.N. (2005) Cyanea capillata is not a cosmopolitan jellyfish: morphological and molecular evidence for C. anaskala
and C. rosea (Scyphozoa: Semeostomeae: Cyaneidae) in south-eastern Australia. Invertebrate Systematics 19, 361–370.
Gershwin, L., Lewis, M., Gowlett-Holmes, K., and Kloser, R. (2014) The medusae. In: Pelagic Invertebrates of South-Eastern
Australia: A field reference guide. Version 1.1. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Hobart.
Gershwin, L., Lewis, M., Gowlett-Holmes, K., and Kloser, R. (2014) The pelagic tunicates. In: Pelagic Invertebrates of South-
Eastern Australia: A field reference guide. Version 1.1. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Hobart.
Gershwin, L., Lewis, M., Gowlett-Holmes, K., and Kloser, R. (2014) The ctenophores. In: Pelagic Invertebrates of South-Eastern
Australia: A field reference guide. Version 1.1. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research: Hobart.
Gershwin, L., Lewis, M., Gowlett-Holmes, K., and Kloser, R. (2014). The siphonophores. In: Pelagic Invertebrates of South-
Eastern Australia: A field reference guide. Version 1.1. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Hobart.
Jarms, G., Morandini, A. C., Haeckel, E., Schmidt-Rhaesa, A., Giere, O., Straehler-Pohl, I. (2019) World Atlas of Jellyfish:
Scyphozoa Except Stauromedusae. Dölling und Galitz Verlag, 815 pp.
Kott, P., Bradford-Grieve, J., Esnal, G., Murdoch, R. (2009) Phylum Tunicata - sea squirts, salps, appendicularians. Pp.
411-432 In: Gordon, D.P. (Ed.), New Zealand Inventory of Biodiversity. Volume One. Kingdom Animalia: Radiata,
Lophotrochozoa, Deuterostomia. Canterbury University Press, Christchurch. 568 [+16] p.
Mianzan, H., Dawson, E. W., Mills, C. E. (2009) Phylum Ctenophora – comb jellies. Pp. 49-58 In: Gordon, D.P. (Ed.), New
Zealand Inventory of Biodiversity. Volume One. Kingdom Animalia: Radiata, Lophotrochozoa, Deuterostomia. Canterbury
University Press, Christchurch. 568 [+ 16] p.
Ministry of Health (2019, December 4). Jellyfish stings. Retrieved October 18, 2021 from https://www.health.govt.nz/
your-health/conditions-and-treatments/accidents-and-injuries/bites-and-stings/jellyfish-stings#treatblue

28
 species index | about this guide | about Jellyfish | icon references | glossaries

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.
To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/.

All photographic images remain the copyright of the original credited photographers.

Produced for NIWA

by TC Media

29