RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Reflection: Bouncing back of a ray of light when it falls on a polished surface is called
reflection. The angle made by the incident ray with the normal is called the angle of
incident. The angle made by the reflected ray with the normal is called angle of
reflection.

Laws of Reflection

1. Angle of incidence i = angle of reflection r

2. The incident ray, reflected ray and normal all lie in one plane.
Basic terms related to ray diagram
1. The centre of curvature (C): is the centre of the sphere of which mirror is a
part.
2. The pole: is the geometric centre of the mirror, denoted by P
3. The radius of curvature (P): is the radius of the sphere of which mirror is a
part.
4. The principal axis: is the line passing through the centre of curvature C and
vertex P
5. The principle focus (F): is the point on the principle axis from which, a ray of
light travelling parallel to the principal axis after reflection, either converges or
appear to diverge.
6. The focal length (f): is the distance from the pole to the principal focus.

Focal length of spherical mirror: To show that 𝒇 = 𝑹/𝟐.

Consider the following diagram. Let C be the centre of

curvature of the mirror. MD be the perpendicular drawn
from M on the principle axis.
∠𝑀𝐶𝑃 = 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝑀𝐹𝑃 = 2𝜃
𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
tan 𝜃 = and tan 2𝜃 =
𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐷

For small θ, tan 𝜃~𝜃 and tan 2𝜃~2𝜃

𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
∴ =2
𝐹𝐷 𝐶𝐷
𝐶𝐷
𝐹𝐷 =
2
∴ 𝑓 = 𝑅/2
The mirror equation

Mirror formula is the relation between focal length

of the mirror and distances of object and image from
the mirror.
Let P be the pole, F, the principle focus and C the
centre of curvature of a concave mirror of small
aperture. Let PF= f be focal length and PC=R be
radius of curvature of the mirror.
From the figure, the two right angled triangles A’B’F
and MPF are similar. (For paraxial rays, MP can be
considered to be a straight line perpendicular to CP).
Therefore,
𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐹
=
𝑃𝑀 𝐹𝑃
Or,
𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐹
𝐵𝐴
= 𝐹𝑃
(1) (since PM=AB)

Since ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 = ∠𝐴′𝑃𝐵′, the right angled triangles A’B’P and ABP are also similar.
Therefore,
𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝑃
𝐵𝐴
= 𝐵𝑃
(2)

Comparing eqns (1) and (2) we get,

𝐵′ 𝐹 𝐵′ 𝑃 − 𝐹𝑃 𝐵′ 𝑃
= =
𝐹𝑃 𝐹𝑃 𝐵𝑃
Applying sign convention to the above equation, B’P= -v, FP= -f, BP= -u, we have
−𝑣 + 𝑓 −𝑣
=
−𝑓 −𝑢
𝑣−𝑓 𝑣
=
𝑓 𝑢
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ =
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇

This relation is known as the mirror equation.

Linear magnification: it is defined as the ratio of the height of the image (h’) to the
height of the object (h).

ℎ′
𝑚=
ℎ
In triangles A’B’P and ABP we have,
 𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝑃
=
𝐵𝐴 𝐵𝑃
−ℎ′ −𝑣
=
ℎ −𝑢
𝒉′ 𝒗
𝒎= =−
𝒉 𝒖

Note: the formulae for mirror formula and linear magnification are valid for concave as
well as convex mirror, whether the image formed is real or virtual.
Note: the image formed is real, if the rays actually converge to a point.
The image is virtual, if the rays do not actually meet but appear to diverge from the
point when produced backwards.

Refraction
Bending of a ray of light when it travels from one medium to another is called
refraction. The direction of propagation of an obliquely incident ray of light that
enters the other medium changes at the interface of the two media. This phenomenon
is called refraction.
Note: When ray of light travels from optically
rarer medium to optically denser medium, it always
bends towards the normal. When ray of light
travels from optically denser medium to optically
rarer medium, it always bends away from the
normal.
Snell experimentally obtained the following laws
of refraction
1. The incident ray, refracted ray and normal all
lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is
constant.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 = 𝒏𝟐𝟏
The above equation is the Snell’s law of refraction. 𝒏𝟐𝟏 is the refractive index
of medium 2 with respect to 1.
Refractive index(𝒏): Refractive index, also called index of refraction, measure of the
bending of a ray of light when passing from one medium into another.
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 2 (𝑛2 )
𝑛21 =
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1(𝑛1)
 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 (𝑐)
𝑛=
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 (𝑣)

Refractive index in terms of wavelength:

𝑛1 𝜆2
=
𝑛2 𝜆1

If 𝑛21 > 1, 𝑟 < 𝑖, the refracted ray bends towards the normal. In such a case medium 2
is optically denser than medium 1. On the other hand, if 𝑛21 < 1, 𝑟 > 𝑖, the refracted ray
bends away from the normal in this case incident ray is in a denser medium and refracts
into a rarer medium.

Some elementary results based on laws of refraction

1. For a rectangular glass slab, refraction takes

place at two interfaces (air-glass and glass-
air). The emergent ray, emerges out parallel
to the incident ray and there is no deviation.
It does suffer some lateral shift with
respect to the incident ray.

The lateral shift is given by,

𝑡
𝑑= sin(𝑖 − 𝑟)
cos 𝑟
Where t is the thickness of the slab. i and r represent the
angle of incidence and refraction respectively.
2. The bottom of the tank appears to be raised. It can be
shown that,
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝑂
= 𝑛21 = 𝐴𝐼
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

3. The sun is seen a little before it rises and for a short

while after it sets. This effect is due to atmospheric
refraction of light.
At the time of sunrise and sunset, the sun is just near the horizon. Near the
surface of the earth, air is little denser than the outer space. The refractive
index of earth near the surface of the earth is 1.00029 w.r.t. the outer space.
Therefore a ray of light travelling from the sun towards the earth, travels
through air which becomes more and more optically denser. It undergoes
refraction and therefore gradually deviates towards the normal. As a result for
an observer on the earth’s surface, the sun appears at s’. The apparent shift in
the direction of the sun is about 0.5˚ and the actual time difference between
the actual sunrise and the apparent sunrise is 2 minutes. Same thing also
repeats at sunset and hence day is prolonged by 4 minutes.
Total internal reflection

When light travels from optically denser medium to the rarer medium at the interface,
it is partially reflected back in the same medium and partially refracted in the second
medium. This reflected is called internal reflection.

When ray of light travels from optically denser medium to optically rarer medium, it
always bends away from the normal. As we go on increasing the angle of incidence in the
denser medium, the angle of refraction also goes on increasing, till for a particular
angle of incidence 𝑖𝑐 called critical angle, the refracted ray grazes along the separation
of the interface i.e. angle of refraction is 90֯.

Beyond this critical angle, refraction is not possible, so the entire incident ray is totally
reflected. This is called total internal reflection.

Definition: if a ray of light travelling from the denser medium to rarer medium at an
angle greater than the critical angle of incidence, then the ray is totally reflected back
in the same medium (denser). The phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

Critical angle: the critical angle for a pair of media may be defined as the angle of
incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90֯.

Relation between refractive index and critical angle

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
From Snell’s law, 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 = 𝒏

Where in this case medium 1 is denser medium and medium 2 is rarer medium.

For 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑐 , r =90֯
∴ 𝑛21 = sin 𝑖𝑐 , as sin 90 = 1
1
𝑛21 =
sin 𝑖𝑐

Technological and natural applications of total internal reflection are discussed below:
Mirage: it is an optical illusion in deserts
and coal tar roads on a hot day. The object
such as tree appears inverted and the
observer gets impression as if inverted
image has been formed by a pool of water.

Due to intense heat, the temperature of

the air near the surface of the earth is
maximum. The temperature of the other
layers of air goes on decreasing as one
goes up. Thus higher layers of air are denser than the lower layers.

A ray of light starting from point o passes through air which gradually goes on
becoming rarer and rarer, and hence get refracted more and more away from the
normal. At a layer where the angle of incidence becomes greater than the critical angle,
total internal reflection takes place. Then the ray of light starts traversing he layers
which go on becoming denser and denser and hence bends more and more towards the
normal. When it reaches the eye of the observer it appears to be coming from point I.
hence, the inverted image of the tree produces the impression of reflection from a
pond of water.

Brilliance of diamond

It is due to the total internal reflection of the light inside them. The critical angle for
diamond air interface is 24.4 is very small and hence light suffers total internal
reflection. By cutting the diamond suitably, multiple total internal reflections can be
made to occur.

Prisms

Prisms designed to bend the light by 90֯ or 180֯ make use of total internal reflection as
shown.

Optical fibres

Optical fibres make use of total internal reflection. They are fabricated with high
quality composite glass/quartz fibres. Each fibre consists of core and cladding. The
refractive index of the material of the core is higher than that of the cladding.
When a signal in the form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable
angle, it undergoes total internal reflection along the length of the fibre and finally
comes out at the other end, without appreciable
loss in the intensity of light signal.

1. Uses: they are used for transmitting and

receiving electrical signals which are
converted into light.
2. They are used in transmitting optical signals
and two dimensional pictures.
3. They are used in medical examinations.
4. Optical fibre sensors are used to measure temperature and pressure.

Refraction at spherical surfaces and by lenses

A refracting surface which forms a part of a sphere of transparent refracting material

is called a spherical refracting surface. There are two types of spherical refracting
surfaces. 1. Convex spherical refracting surface which is convex towards rarer
medium side and 2. Concave spherical refracting surface which is concave towards the
rarer medium side.

Refraction at a convex spherical surface

Consider a point object O, lying on the principal axis of a convex refracting surface of
small aperture. The object is in the rarer medium of refractive index n1. The image of
the object is produced at I in the denser medium of refractive index n2.

Draw MN perpendicular to the principal axis as shown in the figure.

𝑀𝑁
tan ∠𝑁𝑂𝑀 =
𝑂𝑀
𝑀𝑁
tan ∠𝑁𝐶𝑀 =
𝑀𝐶
𝑀𝑁
tan ∠𝑁𝐼𝑀 =
𝑀𝐼
Now for ∆𝑁𝑂𝐶, 𝑖 is the exterior angle. Therefore, 𝑖 = ∠𝑁𝑂𝑀 + ∠𝑁𝐶𝑀
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
𝑖= + (1)
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐶
Similarly, 𝑟 = ∠𝑁𝐶𝑀 − ∠𝑁𝐼𝑀
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
𝑟= − (2)
𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐼
Now, by Snell’s law,

𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟

Or for small angles,

𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟

Substituting i and r from equations (1) and (2),

𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
𝑛1 [ + ] = 𝑛2 [ − ]
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐼
On solving,
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
+ = (3)
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝐶
Applying sign convention to OM, MI and MC,

OM= -u, MI= +v, MC= +R

Substituting these in equation (3), we get

𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
+ =
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑅
On rearranging we get,
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
− =
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹

The above equation gives the relation between object distance, image distance in terms
of refractive index of the medium and the radius of curvature.

Lens Maker’s Formula

The figure shows the geometry of image formation by the double convex lens. The first
refracting surface ABC forms image I1 of the object. The image I1 acts as a virtual
object for the second surface ADC, that forms a
final image at I.

For interface ABC,

𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
+ = (1)
𝑂𝐵 𝐵𝐼1 𝐵𝐶1

For interface ADC,

𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
− + = (2)
𝐷𝐼1 𝐷𝐼 𝐷𝐶2

For a thin lens, 𝐵𝐼1 = 𝐷𝐼1. Adding eqs. (1) and (2) we get,
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
+ − + = +
𝑂𝐵 𝐷𝐼1 𝐷𝐼1 𝐷𝐼 𝐵𝐶1 𝐷𝐶2
𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
+ = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) [ + ] (3)
𝑂𝐵 𝐷𝐼 𝐵𝐶1 𝐷𝐶2

Suppose the object is at infinity, i.e., 𝑂𝐵 → ∞ and

𝐷𝐼 = 𝑓, then
𝑛1 1 1
= (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) [ + ] (4)
𝑓 𝐵𝐶1 𝐷𝐶2

By using sign convention, 𝐵𝐶1 = +𝑅1 and 𝐷𝐶2 = −𝑅2

𝑛1 1 1
= (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) [ − ]
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑛2
= (𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝟏) [ − ] 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛21 =
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑛1

The above formula is known as Lens Maker’s Formula.

Thin lens formula:

From eqns.(3) and (4) we have,

𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛1
+ =
𝑂𝐵 𝐷𝐼 𝑓

In the thin lens approximation, B and D are both close to the optical centre of the lens.
Applying the sign convention, BO= -u, DI= +v, we get

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− = 𝒐𝒓 = −
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇 𝒇 𝒗 𝒖

Image formed by a lens

Note: Magnification (m) produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the size of the
image to that of the object.
 ℎ′ 𝑣
𝑚==
ℎ 𝑢
m is positive for erect and virtual image formed by convex or concave lens. For inverted
and real image, m is negative.
Power of a lens

Power of a lens is defined as the ability of the lens to converge a beam of light falling
on the lens. It is also defined as the tangent of the
angle by which it converges or diverges a beam of
light falling at a unit distance from the optical centre.
ℎ 1 1
tan 𝛿 = , 𝑖𝑓 ℎ = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 tan 𝛿 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛿 =
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓

It is measured as the reciprocal of focal length.

1
𝑃=
𝑓

For a converging lens, power is taken as positive and for a diverging lens power is taken
as negative.

The SI unit of power is dioptre (D).

1 1
When 𝑓 = 1𝑚, 𝑃 = 𝑓 = 1 = 1 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑟𝑒

One dioptre is the power of a lens of focal length one metre.

Note: Power of a lens is positive for converging lens and negative for a diverging lens.
For a convex lens of focal length +40 cm, the power is +2.5 D.
For a concave lens of focal length -25 cm, power is -4 D.

Combination of thin lenses in contact

Consider two lenses A and B of focal lengths f1 and f2 placed in contact with each
other. Let the object be placed at a point O beyond the focus of the first lens A. the
first lens produces the image at I1. Since
the image I1 is real, it acts as the virtual
object for the second lens B, producing
the final image at I.

For the image formed by the first lens A

we get,
1 1 1
− = (1)
𝑣1 𝑢 𝑓1

For the image formed by the second lens B we get,

1 1 1
− = (2)
𝑣 𝑣1 𝑓2
Adding eqns. (1) and (2) we get
1 1 1 1 1 1
− + − = +
𝑣1 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣1 𝑓1 𝑓2
1 1 1 1
− = +
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓1 𝑓2

If the two lens system is regarded as equivalent to a single lens of focal length f, we
have
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
So that we get, + =
𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓

The derivation is valid for any number of lenses in contact. If several thin lenses of
focal length 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 , … are in contact, the effective focal length of their combination is
given by
1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3

In terms of power, the above equation can be written as,

𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯

Where P is the net power of the lens combination.

Total magnification m of the combination is a product of magnification of individual

lenses

𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚3 …

Refraction through a prism

Consider the refraction through a triangular

prism ABC. The angle between the emergent ray
RS and direction of the incident ray PQ is called
the angle of deviation 𝛿.

In the quadrilateral AQNR,

∠𝐴 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180°

From triangle QNR,

𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180°

Comparing these two equations we get

𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 𝐴
The total deviation 𝛿

𝛿 = (𝑖 − 𝑟1 ) + (𝑒 − 𝑟2 )

That is,
𝛿 =𝑖+𝑒−𝐴
𝛿 = 𝐷𝑚 , 𝑖 = 𝑒, 𝑟1 = 𝑟2
𝐴
2𝑟 = 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 =
2
In the same way

𝐷𝑚 = 2𝑖 − 𝐴, 𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = (𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚 )/2

The refractive index of the prism is

𝑛2 sin[(𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚 )/2]
𝑛21 = =
𝑛1 sin[𝐴/2]

For a small angle prism, Dm is also very small, we get

sin[(𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚 )/2] [(𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚 )/2]

𝑛21 = =
sin[𝐴/2] [𝐴/2]
𝐷𝑚 = (𝑛21 − 1)𝐴

This implies that prisms do not deviate much light.

Dispersion by a prism

It is the phenomenon of splitting of a beam of white light into its constituent colours
on passing through a prism. The order of the colour obtained is (VIBGYOR) Violet,
Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red.

When a narrow beam of white light is incident on a glass prism, the emerging light is
found to consist of seven different colours given by VIBGYOR.

The red light bends the least, while violet

bends the most. The pattern of colour
components of light is called the
spectrum of light.

In a classic experiment known for its

simplicity, Isaac Newton put another
prism but in inverted position and let the
emergent beam from the first prism fall on the second prism as shown in the figure.

The resultant emergent beam was found to be white light. The explanation was clear-
the first prism splits the white light into its component colours, while the inverted
prism recombines them to give white light. Thus, white light itself consists of light of
different colours, which are separated by the prism.
In the visible spectrum, red light is at long wavelength (~700 𝑛𝑚) while violet light is at
the shorter wavelength end ((~400 𝑛𝑚). Dispersion of light takes place when the
refractive index of the medium for different wavelengths is different. Violet
component deviates the most whereas the red colour deviates the least. Red light
travels faster than the violet light in the glass prism.

In vacuum, the speed of light is independent of the wavelength. Thus vacuum is a non-
dispersive medium in which all the colours travel with same speed. Thus sunlight
reaches us in the form of white light and not as the components.

Rainbow

A rainbow occurs due to the combined effect of dispersion, refraction and reflection of
sunlight by droplets of water. It appears when the sun is shining in one half of the sky
and rain falls on the other. .
Refraction occurs first when sunlight enters a raindrop. It causes the different
wavelengths of light to separate. Next, total internal reflection takes place when light
rays strike the inner part of the droplet. Here, the angle of refraction is greater than
the critical angle. Now, the reflected light gets refracted again while coming out of the
drop.
Thus, the different colours of light emerge at different angles and form a rainbow.

Scattering of light

As sunlight travels, it gets scattered by the particles present in the atmosphere. Light
of shorter wavelengths scatter more. The sky appears to be blue because blue has a
shorter wavelength and spreads more widely. .

At sunset or sunrise, the sunlight passes through a larger distance in the atmosphere.
Most of the shorter wavelengths are removed by scattering. The least scattered light
reaching our eyes is red. Therefore, the sun looks reddish in appearance near the horizon.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

The eye

The light enters the human eye through the cornea.

It passes through the pupil in the iris. Muscles can
control the size of the pupil. The light is focussed
by the eye lens on the retina, which is a layer of
nerve fibres on the rear surface of the human eye.
The retina then transmits electrical signals to the
brain through the optic nerve. The curvature and
focal length are modified by the ciliary muscles.
This property is termed as accommodation.
The least distance of distinct vision is the closest distance for which the lens can focus
light on the retina. The standard value for normal vision is about 25 cm. It increases with
age. It may be about 7 to 8 cm in a child and may increase to 200 cm at 60 years of age.

If an elderly person tries to read at a distance of about 25 cm from the eye, then the
image appears blurred. This condition is called Presbyopia.

Optical Defects of the Eye:

 Myopia: The light from an object kept at a distance arrives at the eye lens and
converges at a point in front of the retina. This defect is called near-sightedness
or myopia. To correct this, a concave lens is interposed between the eye and the
object.
 Hypermetropia: – When the light from an object kept at a distance arrives at the
eye lens and converges at a point behind the retina, it is called farsightedness or
hypermetropia. A converging lens is interposed between the eye and the object.
 Astigmatism: It occurs when the shape of the cornea is not spherical. Astigmatism
results in lines only in one direction being well focussed. However, it can be
corrected by using a cylindrical lens of the desired radius of curvature.
Simple microscope

A simple microscope is used for observing magnified images of tiny objects. It consists
of a converging lens of small focal length. A virtual, erect and magnified image of the
object is formed at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye held close to the
lens.
The linear magnification m, for the image formed at the near point D, by a simple
microscope can be obtained by using the relation
𝑣 1 1 𝑣
𝑚= = 𝑣 ( − ) = (1 − )
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓

According to sign convention, v is negative and equal in magnitude to D. thus

magnification is,
𝐷
𝑚 = (1 + )
𝑓

(Since D is about 25 cm, to have a magnification of six, one needs a convex lens of focal
length f= 5 cm.)

Simple microscope

Consider the ray diagram of simple microscope as shown. F, F are to principal foci and C
is the optical centre of the convex lens. An object AB is held between the optical
centre C and principal focus F of the lens perpendicular to the principal axis. A virtual,
erect and magnified image A’B’ is formed as
shown. The eye is held close to the lens and
CB’ = D, is the least distance of distinct
vision for the normal eye.

Magnifying power of the simple microscope

is defined as the ratio of the angles
subtended by the image and the object on
the eye, when both are at the least
distance of distinct vision.

Now, A’B’= d, ∠A’OB’= β, AB= A’’B’

∠A’’OB’ = α

By definition, magnifying power

𝛽
𝑚= (1)
𝛼
For small angles expressed in radians,

tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
𝛼 ≈ tan 𝛼 and 𝛽 ≈ tan 𝛽
tan 𝛽
∴𝑚= (2)
tan 𝛼
𝐴𝐵
In ΔABO, tan 𝛽 = 𝑂𝐵
𝐴′′𝐵′ 𝐴𝐵
In ΔA’’B’O, tan 𝛼 = =
𝑂𝐵′ 𝑂𝐵′

Putting in (2) we get

𝑂𝐵′ −𝑣 𝑣
𝑚= = =
𝑂𝐵 −𝑢 𝑢
Magnification when the image is at infinity. In this case we will have to obtain angular
magnification. Suppose the object has height h. the maximum angle it can subtend and
be clearly visible is when it is at the near point D.

The angle subtended is then given by,

ℎ
tan 𝜃0 = ≈ 𝜃0
𝐷
When the object is at distance u
ℎ
tan 𝜃𝑖 = ≈ 𝜃𝑖
−𝑢
The angular magnification
𝜃𝑖 𝐷
𝑚= =
𝜃0 𝑓

A compound microscope

A compound microscope is an optical instrument used for observing highly magnified

images of tiny objects. It consists of two converging lenses, an objective lens O of very
small focal length and short aperture and an eye piece E of moderate focal length and
large aperture. The two lenses are held co-axially at the free ends of a tube, at a
suitable fixed distance from each other.

Magnifying power of a compound microscope

Consider the ray diagram as shown. The linear magnification due to the objective
equals,

ℎ′ 𝐿
𝑚0 = =
ℎ 𝑓0

Here h’ is the size of the first image, h is the object size and 𝑓0 is the focal length of
the objective.

The distance L between the second focal point of the objective and the first focal
point of the eyepiece (focal length 𝑓𝑒 ) is called tube length of the compound
microscope.
𝐷
𝑚𝑒 = (1 + )
𝑓𝑒

As 𝐷 ≫ 1,
𝐷
𝑚𝑒 = ( )
𝑓𝑒

Total magnification,
𝐿 𝐷
𝑚 = 𝑚0 𝑚𝑒 = ( ) ( )
𝑓0 𝑓𝑒

Telescope

An astronomical telescope is an optical instrument which is used for observing distinct

images of heavenly bodies like stars, planets, etc. It consists of two lenses, the
objective lens O, which is of large focal length and large aperture and an eyepiece,
which has small focal length and small aperture. The two lenses are mounted co-axially
at the free ends of the two tubes.
Light from a distance object enters the objective and a real image is formed in the
tube at its second focal point. The eyepiece magnifies this image producing a final
inverted image. The magnifying power is the ratio of the angle β subtended at the eye
by the final image to the angle α which the object subtends at the lens or eye
𝛽 ℎ 𝑓0 𝑓0
𝑚≈ ≈ . =
𝛼 𝑓𝑒 ℎ 𝑓𝑒

In this case the length of the telescope is 𝑓0 + 𝑓𝑒

Reflecting telescope- Cassegrain Telescope

In such a telescope, objective lens is replaced by a concave parabolic mirror of large

aperture, which is free from chromatic and spherical aberrations. The image formed is
much brighter and the reflecting type microscope has much higher resolving power
compared to the refracting type microscope.

In normal adjustment, its magnifying power is given by

𝑓0 (𝑅⁄2)
𝑚= =
𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑒
Where R is the radius of curvature of concave reflector.
Following are some advantages of Cassegrainian reflector.
1. Since the working of this telescope is based on reflection, therefore there is no
chromatic aberration.
2. The spherical aberrations, due to two mirrors, are in opposite directions. So, the
net spherical aberration is negligibly small.
3. The length of the telescope is small as compared to other telescope.