UNIT 1 ENVRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPTS

Mining And Ecologically Sustainable Development

Governments and the mining industry have embraced the concept of sustainable development as
defined in the Brundtland Report (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987),
i.e. "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs". The concept was further refined at the 1992 Rio Earth
Summit, which retained a commitment to ecological integrity but also incorporated social and
economic dimensions of sustainability

It is important to recognize the fundamental importance of the health of the natural environment
as an underpinning to future economic, social and ecological well being, this has led to the
development a strategy entitled Ecologically Sustainable Development, or ESD. The goal of ESD
is to achieve development that improves the total quality of life, both now and in the future, in a
way that maintains the ecological processes on which all life depends. The objectives of ESD are
to:

• enhance individual and community well-being and welfare by following a path of

economic development that safeguards the welfare of future generations;

• provide for equity within and between generations; and

• protect biological diversity and maintain essential ecological processes and life support
systems.

The challenge for governments and the mining industry stated in the national strategy for ESD is
"to develop further the mining industry and efficiently manage the renewable and non-renewable
resources on which it depends, in accordance with the principles of ESD". Governments are
committed to achieving this by pursuing a number of strategic approaches and initiatives to
ensure that sound environmental practices are used and promoted throughout all sections of the
mining industry.

Accompanying strategies that are necessary components of ESD are:

• integration of long and short term economic, environmental, social and equity goals in
policies, actions and activities;

• ensuring that environmental assets are appropriately valued;

• gaining involvement and prior informed consent of communities regarding all decisions
and actions that affect them;

• developing environmentally sound international competitiveness and an economy that

can enhance environmental protection; and

• Recognizing the global dimension of the environment and impacts on it.

Mining and The Environment

When minerals and energy resources were being developed and exploited over forty years ago,
environmental issues were not a major consideration for the resources sector or the community.
However, the community now expects the resources sector to apply high standards of
environmental management to all projects.
The community expects and demands that the mining industry integrates environmental
considerations into every development, even at sites remote from settlement. It also expects that
no legacy of environmental damage is left after mining ceases, and that no liability is transferred
to it or the government for the costs of repairing environmental damage or restoring the mined
area to a safe condition which may be suitable for some subsequent beneficial land use.
Increasingly, industry is accepting responsibility for and demonstrating that it can protect the
environment during and after mining operations.

Minimising environmental damage by improving environmental planning, management and

rehabilitation throughout the mining and energy industries, and communicating the industries'
environmental achievements to the public, is an important part of achieving ecologically
sustainable development. Some mining companies demonstrate their commitment to
environmental protection by participating in or initiating environmental restoration projects
related to non-mining impacts in partnership with local communities.
Potential Impacts From Mining
Successful environmental management in the resources sector is dependent on recognising, and
avoiding or minimising, environmental impacts. Protection of the environment requires careful
planning and commitment from all levels and groups within a mining company. Best practice
environmental management in mining demands a continuing, integrated process through all
phases of a resource project from the initial exploration, through construction, operation,
decommissioning and closure. Mining and energy extraction, and associated processing, have the
potential to cause a number of environmental problems if projects are not properly planned and
managed.

Potential problems include:

• Wind and water erosion (erosion may increase sediment loads and decrease water quality
in streams, reduce the productivity of the soil and create a dust nuisance);
• Contamination of surface or ground water by sediment, mobilisation of salt, release of
toxic elements from overburden, tailings or wastes, or spills of oil, chemicals or fuel as
surface runoff or as underground seepage;
• Changes to surface and ground water flows and levels;
• Damage to soils including salination, acidification, pollution and compaction or loss of
soil structure;
• Dust or noise nuisance, vibration and a reduction of visual landscape values;
• Generation of tailings and other wastes that may release toxic elements or be mobilised
by erosive forces;
• Gaseous emissions from mineral processing, methane emissions from mine openings,
fumes from coal seam fires;
• Possible sudden failure of engineered containment structures such as tailings dam
embankments, settling and holding ponds, resulting in release of high concentration/high
volume contaminants;
• Acid mine drainage (tailings, ore and waste dumps, and old mining areas which contain
sulphur or sulphides such as iron sulphide, can generate acid through bacterial oxidation
when exposed to moisture and oxygen - this acid leachate may then mobilise heavy
metals that can be released into the environment;
• Loss of flora including direct losses through clearing and indirect effects due to the
spread of plant pathogens and weeds;

• Loss of fauna including direct losses through vegetation clearing and the indirect effects
on species through the reduction and fragmentation of habitat and the introduction of
feral animals;

• Damage to heritage sites; and

• Destruction of adjacent habitats arising from the development of camps, towns and
services stimulated by the mining project.

Mining and energy extraction may also have substantial social impacts and lead to land use
conflicts, difficulties in relationships with neighbours and local communities, and debate on
resource use issues. Many of the land use conflicts can be managed by recognising that mining
and energy extraction are temporary land uses that may be integrated with many (but not all)
current or future land uses. The potential for these impacts to occur can be minimised by
improving environmental planning, management and rehabilitation knowledge and techniques.
Some land use conflicts can be managed by recognising that mining and energy extraction are
temporary land uses that can be integrated with a current or future land use. Initiating community
consultation programs and taking account of community needs can improve relationships with
neighbours and local communities.

In order for the capacity for effective environmental protection to improve and spread through
the mining and energy industries, information on environmental issues and effective techniques
to address them must be readily available to mining industry staff at all levels, including
executive managers, environmental managers and all other employees. The same information
should also be available to the affected communities to ensure they are adequately informed and
to build mutual understanding and trust. The BPEM booklets are designed to make information
readily accessible to all mining industry staff as well as to interested stakeholders.

Recognising Improvements In Environmental Performance

Companies are more motivated to seek out and utilise information on best practice
environmental management in mining if they can see evidence that other companies are applying
best practice and reaping benefits from it. Other stimuli include formal and public recognition
and the rewarding of outstanding examples of best practice. Industry representative bodies can
also be very influential by showing leadership in encouraging all mining companies to commit to
best practice ideals; eg. by the development of voluntary guidelines, codes, collating information
and holding conferences on best practice.
UNIT 2: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
A society's national income and economic well-being depend on its wealth—produced assets,
natural capital, and human capital. A widely accepted concept of economic sustainability
requires that national wealth is non decreasing over time (e.g., Hartwick, 1977; Pearce et al.,
1989; Solow, 1974, 1986). Although natural capital is a large component of wealth, it has not yet
been included in the national economic accounts of most countries, even though the 1993
revision of the System of National Accounts (SNA) recommends this (UN, 1993a).1 In the case
of minerals, a non-renewable resource, exploitation inevitably results in depletion of those assets.

By omitting mineral depletion, the national accounts provide a distorted picture of a country's
economic health: the accounts record mineral exploitation as a contribution to GDP and income,
but do not record the simultaneous loss of wealth due to depletion. Environmental accounts,
properly constructed, correct this omission by estimating the economic value of the mineral
assets and the cost of depleting minerals, thus providing a more accurate assessment of economic
performance and sustainable development (United Nations, 1993b, 2001).

Sustainable development requires that depletion of mineral assets be offset by a compensating

increase in other forms of capital. The transformation of mineral assets into other forms of
capital raises two related issues: what share of the resource rent generated by mineral extraction
should be reinvested to offset depletion, and are the alternative investments as productive as the
mineral assets they replace? In most countries, the government is the owner of sub-soil assets. As
the owner, government has the right, just like any other owner, to be paid for this resource, but it
also bears the responsibility for reinvesting some portion of the revenues in other assets.

Governments are frequently under considerable pressure to spend mineral revenues on current
consumption rather than to reinvest revenues. This is particularly the case in developing
countries, where many basic needs remain unmet, and rent-seeking behaviour by individuals and
interest groups may be especially difficult to resist. As a result, mineral wealth can detract from,
rather than enhance, economic performance.

Researchers have found that, as a group, resource-rich developing countries have performed
worse, economically, than resource-poor developing countries over the past 30 years2, a
phenomenon known as the "resource curse" (Auty and Mikesell, 1998; Sachs and Warner, 1995).
One way to manage this political pressure to consume resource rent is through credible
commitment to formal guidelines for reinvestment of rent. Some theoretical guidance regarding
the share of resource rent that must be reinvested has been provided in the literature (e.g.,
Hartwick, 1977; El Serafy, 1989). In each of these approaches, the policy objective has been to
maintain assets at their current level for all time. These rules, if implemented, would provide a
significant improvement over past practice in many resource-rich countries.

However, these rules are not sufficient for economic development in relatively poor developing
countries because they do not take into account the need to increase national wealth in order to
improve material standards of living. Pezzey (1992; 2002) recognised this when he proposed that
the definition of sustainability impose a minimum ‘suvivability’ level of consumption.
Appropriate indicators of sustainability for resource-rich countries are based on aggregate
measures of wealth and changes in wealth (e.g., Dasgupta and Maler, 2000; Heal and Kristrom,
2001). However, these rules alone are not sufficient for monitoring sustainable development, for
at least two reasons. First, two major forms of capital are often omitted: human capital and net
foreign financial assets. The problems measuring the former have already been mentioned. The
latter can be easily included. In small countries with limited domestic opportunities for
investment in manufactured capital, government foreign financial assets may constitute a
particularly important and productive component of the asset portfolio. A more useful definition
of wealth would include both financial and non-financial assets. Hamilton (2000) provides an
indicator, Genuine Savings, which tries to take both of these into account. But this indicator
measures year-to-year change in wealth rather than wealth itself, and it is not clear how to assess
trends that show positive savings in some years and negative savings in other years. More
importantly, it is not adjusted for changes in per capita wealth, as Dasgupta and Maler have
pointed out.

The second, and more fundamental, problem concerns implementation of this measure of
sustainability: national wealth includes both private and public sector capital, yet public sector
capital is subject to serious problems both in definition and measurement. As currently measured
in the national accounts, the cost of public investment is taken to be a reasonable measure of the
productive additions to the stock of capital, an assumption that is very difficult to sustain
(Pritchett, 1997, 2000). No distinction is made between truly productive investments in
infrastructure and investments of low productive value, which amount to little more than
personal monuments. In addition, with the large role played by public sector investment, the
marginal productivity is likely to decline over time, even for well chosen investments.

It is also true that the cost of public infrastructure may underestimate its true economic value
because there can be positive externalities to infrastructure and human capital investments. But
this can easily be exaggerated and will also decline as the range of public investments is
extended outside the provision of core public goods; public investment may even crowd out
rather than complement private investments (Isham and Kuffman, 1999). With much of mineral
revenues going into public sector capital, it is not clear that the new investment is as productive
as the natural capital that it replaces when public sector capital is valued at the cost of the
investment.

In a major report on development and public infrastructure, the World Bank (1994) pointed out
that quality of infrastructure, as well as the quantity, are important. Good infrastructure raises
productivity and lowers production costs, which can reduce poverty and increase international
competitiveness. However, the report also noted that the economic benefits of infrastructure
investments have often been reduced by insufficient attention to costs and benefits in project
choice, low operating efficiency, inadequate maintenance, and lack of attention to the needs of
users.

These issues suggest that in addressing the issue of sustainability from an empirical standpoint, it
is necessary to go beyond aggregate indicators and to examine the process by which mineral
revenues are transformed into other forms of capital. Given the enormous revenues that accrue to
governments and their role in reinvestment, it is particularly important to assess public sector
capital.

International Conventions
In recent years the number of international conventions aimed at protecting the environment has
increased significantly. They deal with an ever widening range of issues on which global action
has been deemed necessary. Conventions now cover not only issues of biodiversity, world
heritage and biosphere reserves, migratory species and wetland conservation, but also pollution
and waste issues such as hazardous chemicals and the dumping of waste at sea.
These conventions are notable for the use of trade restrictions as well as outright bans on certain
substances but many have implications for the mining industry. For example, the growing use of
deep-sea tailings disposal should take into consideration the Convention on the Prevention of
Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matters.

In addition to international environmental conventions, there are also the International Labour
Organisation and other conventions that provide for the protection of workers, women and
children. Although conventions are meant to be ‘legally binding’ they often have no mechanism
for ensuring compliance. Conventions are intended to oblige governments to pass national
legislation to implement their commitments.

Conceptualization of Sustainable development

Sustainable development in the mining sector was initially focused on the economic
sustainability of the mining companies; with the subsequent pressure from the environmentalists,
this concept was extended to include the impact of mining operations on the environment. An
example of such a definition is reflected by the following statement: “Using the economic engine
by mining to build an economy that survives and is better off after the end of the mining” (Joyce
and Smith 2003). However, this narrow definition has expanded to include political, educational,
psychological and social dimensions. Taking account of this wider perspective of the concept,
Treurnicht (1997, p. 31) and Kirkby et al. (1995, p. 2) define the concept as including social and
economic progress, which ensures human development and during which the basic needs of the
present are satisfied. Future generations are not compromised by the definition because each
generation must use their own capacity to satisfy their needs.

On a theoretical level, the concept of development has been historically analysed from a macro
perspective. More specifically, the modernisation theory, dependency theory and world system
theory are the historical foundation stones of development studies. They are essential parts of the
knowledge of anyone entering this field. At the time of their introduction, these theories
established for the first time the principle that First World countries dominate and actively
underdevelop Third World countries (Graaff and Venter 2001, p. 77). Most of these theories
refer to action plans, strategies and programs aimed at improving the situation of less developed
or under developed countries. The emphasis is on institutional and organisational issues, and the
changes thereof. Most definitions within this theoretical paradigm include the assumption that
physical quality of life can be measured and that the physical quality of life index can provide us
with a mechanism for measuring development along a composite axis. This index is based on the
assumption that by implementing specific plans or programs, it is possible to introduce factors
that will move a society along the development path. Coetzee (2001, p. 119) further states that
the word ‘development’ therefore carries with it the connotation of a favourable change: moving
from worst to better, evolving from simple to complex, or advancing away from the inferior.

Some of the major criticism from some micro-foundation theorists against a structural approach,
like the modernisation approach to sustainable development, is that it is a top-down approach
that focuses basically on economic growth and material prosperity. Coetzee (2001, p. 119)
suggests that development does not only imply the satisfaction of basic needs, but also the right
to live a meaningful life. The modernisation approach implies a linear evolutionary process. At
one end of this line there is the traditionally underdeveloped societies, and at the other end the
modern and differentiated societies, which reflect the current mining situation in South Africa.
The modernisation approach and other structural approaches do not address the ‘deeper
dimensions’ of underdevelopment and obviously individuals are largely ignored and excluded by
such approaches. The human-centred approach to development seems to be the most appropriate
in addressing the social and human elements of development in the South African mining sector.

The human-centred approach

The human-centred approach attempts to allow individuals to participate actively and
interactively in different programs and processes in order to stimulate sustainable development.
This approach is, according to Coetzee (2001, pp. 118-39), not only an attempt to include
individuals and allow them to participate, but the focus also falls on the personal growth of each
individual. In addition to the basic needs that have to be met, the right of each individual to live a
meaningful life comes strongly to the fore. We can therefore say that human-centred
development as a micro (interaction) approach is the process that includes all aspects of life in
society and in relationships between people. ‘New’ concepts such as abilities, civil society,
decentralisation, democracy, diversity, empowerment, environment, globalisation, human rights,
participation, share holder, sustainability, etc. subsequently form an integral part of an interactive
human-centred approach. Traditional values like the peaceful communal living together of
people, justice, respect, etc. can easily be used as basic point of departure for the human-centred
approach.

Although the theoretical approach of this research was primarily on a micro level, it is important
to state that macro and micro approaches to development are not mutually exclusive. In fact,
viewed together, they are complementary. In terms of implementation, the theories lack practical
application especially with regard to identifying the responsibilities of the role-players. In the
South African mining environment the developmental initiatives have until recently been on a
voluntary basis. Consequently, most developmental programs by mining companies have been
philanthropic initiatives in communities surrounding the mines or via national programs in
education, health, welfare or small business development. Hamann and Kapelus (2004) argue
that although these initiatives have, in some cases, represented welcome developmental
contributions, they have had little impact on the root causes of social problems surrounding the
mines. Furthermore, the research findings were that most community members perceive the
developmental initiatives by the mine as ‘window dressing’ and artificial.

To overcome this, the concept of ‘corporate social responsibility’ (CSR) has become the
buzzword for social developmental efforts. But again, like sustainable development, this concept
is surrounded by ambiguity and vagueness. In the next section the concept will be discussed in
terms of the South African mining context.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR)

As mentioned above, the issue of corporate social responsibility remains vague with numerous
descriptions and interpretations of what it entails. For example, the European Commission
(Hamann and Kapelus 2004) defines corporate social responsibility as “Essentially a concept
whereby companies decide voluntarily to contribute to a better society and a cleaner
environment.” The problem is that theory and practice are two different things; mining
companies have written their intentions into their company policy documents, but there has never
been a check on whether these intentions have been implemented.

Role of mining industry towards sustainable development

The Brundtland Commission's (1986) vision of sustainable development is to meet the needs of
the present generation without undermining the capacity of future generations to meet their
needs. Since the concept was established, many people have tried to come up with a short, clear
definition of ‘sustainable development’, which does justice to everyone’s views, encompasses
social complexity and incorporates the insights of science. A very useful and important way to
look at sustainable development is as a process. This process involves the economic, social and
cultural aspects of mankind as well as the environmental health of the planet.

While mining by its very nature removes a resource from the land, there is nothing to stop it
from being carried out in a sustainable manner: by making sure that the removal of the resource
does not just leave a void. Most mining projects involved a short-term use of the land and
extraction of the underlying resources for the purpose of development. In light of recent
technological developments mean that in the majority of cases there is no excuse for a mining
operation to leave uncorrected impacts on the environment. If it does, it means that the project
has not been properly managed

Building human and social capital by reinvesting the interest from the revenues generated by a
mining enterprise is very different from the old ‘company town’ approach, where mining
companies provided the physical infrastructure for communities surrounding the mine site.
Taking the time and resources to gain a good understanding of the local situation can pay off in
the long term, though it does not guarantee success. Where governments and mining companies
are indifferent to human and social capital, or where they actively undermine existing social
structures and bonds, a mining project can create extensive and long-term damage. One example
is the behaviour of many mining companies to small-scale miners. The general view is that they
are a ‘nuisance’ and should be expelled from the mining lease. However, some companies
tolerate their presence while others work with them to form legal associations that apply sound
environmental health and safety standards to the benefit of all involved.
In addition to Environmental Impact Assessment, governments and mining companies now carry
out a Socio-Economic Impact Assessment which acknowledges the legitimacy of all stakeholder
perspectives. Some companies have already established ‘community policies’ which commit
them to developing a relationship of mutual understanding and respect with the local people.
Socio-Economic Impact Assessment is a method of including all interested parties in the design
and implementation of a project.

If sustainable development is defined as the integration of social, economic and environmental

considerations, then a mining project that is developed, operated and closed in an
environmentally and socially acceptable manner could be seen as contributing to sustainable
development. Critical to this goal is ensuring that benefits of the project are employed to develop
the region in a way that will survive long after the closure of the mine
UNIT 3 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
Environmental Education in a broad sense is a learning process, whereby individuals and
community acquire the knowledge, attitudes, skills, values and motivation to improve the quality
of the environment and attain an ecologically and socially sustainable future. The environmental
condition of the world is deteriorating at an alarming rate due to changes in human activities
triggered by inappropriate economic activities and rapidly changing demographic and socio-
economic patterns. The problems are the outcome of dynamic interaction of poverty, population
growth and its changing distribution and the misuse of resources, wasteful production and human
greed. Paradoxically, underdevelopment as well as haphazard development processes are also
responsible for its precarious situation.

Environmental Education (EE) is probably as old as human civilization. Through the centuries
people have learned how to interact with their surroundings environment. Growing up has
always involved building up knowledge of the interactions between the various elements of the
natural environment. People have been forced to learn how to survive in a world where the
environment is more powerful than human beings and also how to make use of that environment.
For centuries, there have been ethnic groups that live in harmony with the environment. They
possessed a profound understanding of how to manage natural resources in a sensible way and
they have passed on their knowledge from generation to generation. Thus in early days, EE
mainly consisted of learning how to master and make wise use of the natural environment.
Nevertheless, nature has also often been perceived as an unlimited reserve of resources.
Developments such as urbanization and industrialization, have sometimes led to irreversible
over-exploitation of these resources.

Figure 1: Environmental Change by Human Activities

Today citizens are living in a society of rapid change. These changes in society require its
members to adjust to new social, political and economic paradigms. All countries and regions in
this world are closely interconnected with the all-covering diffusion of capitalistic system of
economy, the globalization. The awareness of global citizenship becomes considered as very
important. The intensifying interconnectedness of all regions under global capitalism requires
each region to look at its own color of characteristics so as to survive in the keen competition of
globalization.

The society of the 21st century observes the significance of knowledge and information. New
kind of creative knowledge and information will play the important role of developing new
technologies, leading to sustainable growth of economy in harmony with the environment.
Environment is the critical basis of the existence of mankind, and the basis of sustainable
development of economy. Without sound environment, people in the world can not survive for
long time.

Harmonious relationship between the environment and humans has been one of the most
important issues regardless of the developing or developed world. Unfortunately the balance of
environment has begun to brake as humans need for raw materials from the physical
environment has increased. The search for the most convenient method attaining a materialistic
lifestyle has led to the excessive development or exploitation of the environment, which gave
rise to pollution and destruction of the environment. Humans especially have seen environment
of the earth deteriorating at an increasing rate since the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century,
the basis of which was the manufacturing industry to make secondary products of resources from
the physical environment.

The use and exploitation of the physical environment apparently contributes to more convenient
human life and the growth of regional economy. It is undeniable that human ways of life in the
present industrial capitalistic society is more progressive and more convenient in the aspect of
materialistic civilization than the ones in the past, which were primitive and agricultural
subsistence societies. Also, it should be remembered that the progress and convenience have
been successful at the cost of environmental deterioration such as the global and local scale
change of climate and the disturbance of ecosystem. Here the society is confronted with the
dilemma of the continuous growth of economy for better life and the conservation of
environment for basic survival.

This dilemmatic issue over the concern of the stability of ecosystem and sustainability of the
existing lifestyles is never and should never be limited at the forefront of public concern. In
recent years, there has been growing world-wide concern over educating for sustainability in
school curricula as well as in the society as a whole. Education for sustainability addresses
quality of life issues through combining environmental conservation education and economic
development education. Environmental conservation education is largely concerned with the
balanced and sound quality of the physical environment, while economic development education
has traditionally focused on the quality of material life of human through economic development.
In fact, the more economic development and material life become, the worse the environmental
problems become, such as climate change, deforestation, land degradation, drought, depletion of
natural resources, loss of biodiversity, overpopulation, food security, drought, poverty, urban
decay, air pollution, water pollution and so on. These problems are the concerns not only for
environmental education but also for economic education or development education.

EE is gaining in popularity as an approach for coping with environmental problems. It is applied

around the world in many ways, in different contexts, and with varying degrees of impact.
Environmental problems cannot be separated from other social, cultural, economic and political
issues in a society. Traditional EE falls short of its goals because it fails to acknowledge existing
systems of knowledge. Environmental problems cannot be solved by one “knowing” group on
behalf of another group, which is seen to be both ignorant and culpable. The only solutions that
will work in the long term are those that address the root of the problem. This calls for
involvement at all levels of society, which can only occur if there is common awareness, which,
in turn, comes about through a “common learning process”. It is only possible to create such a
process if all parties recognize and accept each other’s potential for making a valuable
contribution. As people begin to learn together and from each other, a momentum is generated,
with its own dynamic qualities.

Environmental Education: Basic Concepts

In a broader sense, Environmental Education (EE) includes awareness raising, and training,
which provides the necessary complement to other instruments of environmental management.
Many of EE activities lies beyond the realm of the formal education system and has to take into
account the livelihood of the people whom it aims to educate and whose behavior it seeks to
influence. During the mid 1970’s, a broad definition was put forward and agreed upon by UNEP/
UNESCO, EE is a permanent process in which individuals gain awareness of their environment
and acquire the knowledge, values, skills, experiences and also the determination which will
enable them to act individually, collectively and to solve present and future environmental
problems.

EE constitutes a learning process in which the entire society is to become involved in one way or
other, for example through the media, schools, the workplace, NGOs, governmental and even
religious institutions. While one can have an over all design for this process, it is evolutionary by
nature, with many actors at different levels interacting in various directions (top-down, bottom-
up and horizontally) according to their specific situations and interests. In 1970 IUCN made the
first international recognized definition of environmental education. IUCN considers that
“environmental education is the fundamental basis guaranteeing the participation of communities
in the process of conservation of natural resources and the improvement of the quality of life and
the environment”

The concept of EE differs and varies according to the various conditions. For example, common
people of Bangladesh view EE as education for protection of forest areas, soil, water, land and
flood, and disaster management. On the other hand the nomadic people of Mongolia view EE as
being concerned with draught, desertification and pastures. The developed country or the
industrialized country people view EE as dealing with problems of air or water pollution, waste
disposal and noise. Even the concept of EE varies from place to place.

According to one definition given by the Environmental Education Act of Nepal 1970, (Meha;
1994), EE means the educational process dealing with man’s relationship with his natural and
man made surroundings and includes the relationship between population, pollution, resource
allocation and depletion, conservation, transportation, technology and urban and rural planning
to the total human environment.

The Institute of Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), defined EE as “a holistic approach to

the learning process, whereby individuals and community acquire the knowledge, attitudes,
skills, values and motivation to improve the quality of the environment and attain an ecologically
and socially sustainable future”. In 1997 the Government of Malaysia in his first National
Workshop on EE, defined EE as “a process aimed at creating awareness through developing
knowledge, skills, attitudes and values towards empowering people to share responsibility for
improving the quality of the environment and attaining sustainable development”.

According to IUCN, “EE is the process of recognizing values, and clarifying concepts in order to
develop skills and attitudes necessary to understand and appreciate the interrelatedness among
man, his culture and his biophysical surroundings. EE also entails practice in decision-making
and self-formulation of code of behavior about issues concerning environmental quality”.
(Palmer, 1998).
From these definitions it is easily perceived that EE is a holistic approach and as such, it is
inherently interdisciplinary in nature. The wide scope and integrated picture of EE is also
reflected by the objectives and goals set forth by 1977 Tbilisi Intergovernmental Conference on
Environmental Education, which was amended at UNESCO meetings in the region to indicate
that sustainable development ought to be the key focus of environmental education.
The amended objectives and goals are presented here:

Objectives of Environmental Education

• Awareness: to help social groups and individuals acquire awareness of and sensitivity to,
the complete environment and its associated problems
• Knowledge: to help social groups and individuals gain a variety of experiences in and
acquire a basic understanding of the environment and its associated problems
• Attitudes: to help social groups and individuals acquire a set of values and feelings of
concern for the environment and the motivation to actively participate in environmental
improvement and protection.
• Skills: to help social groups and individuals acquire the skills for identifying and solving
environmental problems
• Participation: to provide social groups and individuals with an opportunity to become
actively involved at all levels in working towards resolving environmental problems.

Goals of Environmental Education

• To foster clear awareness of and concern about, economic, social, political and economic
interdependence at local, regional, national and international/global levels
• To provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes,
commitment and skills needed to protect and improve the environment
• To develop and reinforce new patterns of environmentally sensitive behaviors among
individuals, groups and society as a whole for a sustainable environment.
It is essential to recognize that environment and development are two sides of the same coin.
Many development trends leave increasing numbers of people poor and vulnerable, while at the
same time degrading the environment. Our common future goes to trace the relationship between
environment and development. “Many forms of development erode the environmental resources
on which they must be based, and environmental degradation can undermine economic
development”. There are also reciprocal links between poverty and the environment, poverty
being recognized “as a major cause and effect of global environment” (WCED, 1987,). These
linkages can be represented diagrammatically as in Figure-2.

Figure 2: Linkages between Development, Environmental Degradation and Poverty

Transformation of EE to Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)

The rise of global environmental problems and the spread of the new slogans, such as sustainable
development, posed new challenges to EE. The perspective of the global environment and
development problems and the Rio conference increased the stakes. Global environment
problems became public issues in the West in the late 1980s. The ozone hole, the greenhouse
phenomenon and the alarming decline in biodiversity were seen as serious new threats. The
underlying problems, such as deforestation, desertification and the scarcity of fresh water, gained
new urgency. A series of international negotiations started in order to find new protocols,
convention and institutions to regulate global problems.

Heads of state at the 1992 Rio Summit emphasized that the reorientation of education and the
enhancement of public information and awareness, as well as training are indispensable means of
achieving sustainable development. Thus, it was unanimously agreed that the concept of
environmental education which was formulated in the 1970’s, was not broad enough to
encompass the concept of sustainable development. As a result, they suggested the reorientation
of the existing education to address the issues of sustainability in Chapter 36 of Agenda 21 (UN,
1992).

The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) was entrusted with the
responsibility of monitoring Agnenda 21. UNESCO was designated by the UNCSD as the
taskmaster for Chapter 36 of Agenda 21. The UNESCO work plan has identified the following
issues as critical for its implementation by the world community11. They are:
 • Rapid population growth
• Persistent, wide spread poverty
• The growing environmental pressures resulting from industrial growth and the use of
new, more intensive forms of agriculture
• The continuing denial of democracy, human rights violations, ethnic and religious
conflicts and violence and gender inequity and
• The very notion of development itself.

The following excerpt from the UNESCO sponsored Thessalonki Conference should help clarify
how the concept of environmental education has evolved to education for sustainability in
addressing global issues as spelled out in Agenda-21. The excerpt reads, “environmental
education, as developed within the framework of the Tbilisi recommendations and as it has
evolved since then, addressing the entire range of global issues included in Agenda-21 and the
major UN Conferences, has also been dealt with as education for sustainability. This allows that
it also be referred to as education for environment and sustainability……It is, therefore, not only
necessary to deal with the problems, but even more essential to get our thinking right: to see
interrelations among (these problems) and recognize the fundamental need to develop a new
perspective rooted in the values of sustainability. It is this need which makes education the key
to creating a sustainable future.

Fig 4: EE in Transition: Broadening the Scope or a New Paradigm?

Education for Sustainable Development

“Education for sustainable development is an investment in our future and each respective
country should ensure that appropriate resources are made available for its development15”
Education is an essential tool for achieving sustainability. People around the world recognize that
current economic development trends are not sustainable and that public awareness, education
and training are the keys to moving society towards sustainability.
“Education apart from being a human right is a prerequisite for achieving sustainable
development and an essential tool for good governance”
UNIT FOUR: REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
UNIT 5: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE EIA PROCESS?
The environmental impact assessment (EIA)
process is an interdisciplinary and multistep
procedure to ensure that environmental
considerations are included in decisions regarding
projects that may impact the environment.
Simply
defined, the EIA process helps identify the possible
environmental effects of a proposed activity and
how those impacts can be mitigated.
The purpose of the EIA process is to inform
decision-makers and the public of the
environmental consequences of implementing a
proposed project. The EIA document itself is a
technical tool that identifies, predicts, and analyzes
impacts on the physical environment, as well as
social, cultural, and health impacts. If the EIA
process is successful, it identifies alternatives and
mitigation measures to reduce the environmental
impact of a proposed project. The EIA process
also serves an important procedural role in the
overall decision-making process by promoting
transparency and public involvement.
It is important to note that the EIA process does
not guarantee that a project will be modified or
rejected if the process reveals that there will be
serious environmental impacts. In some countries,
a decision-maker may, in fact, choose the most
environmentally-harmful alternative, as long as
the consequences are disclosed in the EIA. In
other words, the EIA process ensures an informed
decision, but not necessarily an environmentallybeneficial
decision.
Who Prepares An Eia?
Depending on the EIA system, responsiblity for producing an EIA will be assigned to one of two
parties: (1) the government agency or ministry, or (2) the project proponent. If EIA laws permit,
either party may opt to hire a consultant to prepare the EIA or handle specific portions of the EIA
process, such as public participation or technical studies.

Some EIA laws recognize the inherent conflict of interest produced when a mining company or
other project proponent hires a consultant to prepare an EIA. Using a consultant carries the risk
that the document will be biased in favor of proceeding with the project. If a consultant is hired
by the mining company, conflicts may arise if the consultant believes it will receive future work
if the project is approved, or even indirect benefits from related activities (e.g., consulting work
for a port where ore will be exported). Some laws require consultants to be registered with the
government and/or professionally accredited in EIA preparation. In some instances, a consultant
may be required to file a statement disclosing any financial or other interest in the outcome of the
project

Constitutional Requirement for Environmental Protection in Zimbabwe

The current constitution of Zimbabwe (2000) has no specific clause that provides for the
protection of the environment,288 nor did the Natural Resources Act (1941, Chapter 20:13 now
repealed) directly cover Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs). Consequently EIAs were
not a legal requirement in Zimbabwe,289 and in recognition of
this shortcoming, the Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ) published an EIA Policy in 1997 and
associated guidelines. This policy was intended to complement any future EIAs and the
promulgation of environmental management legislation. In 2002 the GoZ promulgated the
Environment Management Act, 2002, (Chapter 20:27), and subsequently has produced a draft
National Environmental Policy (2003). This was developed with the purpose of complimenting
and enhancing the Environmental Management Act and other complimentary acts pertaining to
environmental protection and management and sustainable development. This policy is still in
the draft stage and is not yet in effect.

Institutional and Administrative Structure for EIA in Zimbabwe

The Environmental Management Agency
The Environment Management Act, 2002, (Chapter 20:27) provided for the establishment of the
Environmental Management Agency (hereafter referred to as the ‘Agency’). This Agency was
formerly known as the Department for Natural Resources.
Roles and Responsibilities
The Agency is responsible for:
• Developing guidelines for national plans, environmental management plans (EMPs) and local
environmental action plans (LEAPs);
• Regulating, monitoring, reviewing and approving environmental impact assessments;
• Regulating and monitoring the management and utilization of ecologically fragile ecosystems;
• Developing and implementing incentives for the protection of the environment; undertaking
any works deemed necessary or desirable for the protection or management of the environment
where it appears to be in the best interest of the public or where in the opinion of the Agency, the
relevant authority has failed to do so;
• Serving written orders on any persons requiring them to undertake or adopt such measures as
are specified in the orders to protect the environment;
Carrying out periodic environmental audits of any projects including projects whose
implementation started before the fixed date for the purpose of ensuring that their
implementation complies with the requirements of the Act.
The Agency is controlled and managed by the Environmental Management Board which is
composed of experts from the areas of environmental planning and management, environmental
economics, ecology, pollution, waste management, soil science, hazardous substances, water and
sanitation. In addition, there is a legal representative and a secretary to the Ministry responsible
for the environment. Figure 17.1 shows a diagrammatic representation of the organisational
structure.

Policy and Legal Framework for EIA

To date the main focus on environmental management in Zimbabwe has been on developing an
effective and efficient legal and administrative framework to facilitate management of natural
resources.292 The National Conservation Strategy of 1987 was the first policy document to
incorporate the concept of sustainability into
development and environmental management. The Environmental Impact Assessment policy
published in 1997 by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) is the current policy
governing EIAs.293 This policy formed the foundation for a law reform process which resulted
in the Environmental Management Act, 2002 (Chapter 20:27).
The new National Environmental Policy (2003) drawn up after the promulgation of the Act is
still in a second draft form and is not yet in effect. The 1997 National Environment Policy is
therefore used in conjunction with the Environmental Management Act and the EIA Guidelines
published by MET to ensure that EIAs are carried out correctly.

Figure: Proposed Organisational Responsibilities and Institutional Arrangements

The Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines (1997)
To support the 1997 Environmental Policy, the MET published EIA guidelines to facilitate the
implementation of EIAs within specific sectors. These guidelines cover:
• Mining and quarrying,
• Forestry,
• Agriculture,
• Transport,
• Energy,
• Water ,
• Urban infrastructure, and
• Tourism.
For each of these sectors, the guidelines provide examples of major activities that are likely to be
undertaken for projects in that sector; the type of environmental impacts; possible measures for
managing such impacts; sample terms of reference; and sources of information for use in an EIA
study.
Government authorities, developers and EIA practitioners use the guidelines, which provide
valuable assistance in implementing EIAs and improving the quality of sector-specific EIAs.
Due to the comprehensive nature of these guidelines, they have not been included in this chapter.

Funding and Fees

Project developers are responsible for preparing EIA reports and for meeting the costs associated
with the preparation of the report including the studies, research and compilation of the report.
However, unlike other countries in the region, there is no fee for the review of the report or for
submitting the report. The GoZ covers the cost of reviewing the report and any monitoring that
may be required.

Certification of Environmental Assessment Practitioners

EIA practitioners do not require accreditation within Zimbabwe. Typically, for large projects,
developers advertise a request for proposals from interested parties; otherwise individuals are
informally approached. The Agency does
maintain a database of people who have undertaken EIA studies in the past and can make
recommendations to developers if they do not know who to approach. The Environmental Forum
of Zimbabwe and the World Conservation Union can also provide guidance and
recommendations based on their own databases of EIA practitioners. The lack of accreditation is
a problem and the need for a formal accreditation process has been recognised. The majority of
practitioners are locally based.

Procedural Framework in Zimbabwe

The EIA decision-making process is illustrated in Figure below.
Prospectus
Before carrying out the EIA for a prescribed activity, the developer must submit a prospectus to
the Director-General containing information regarding the EIA and the project. However, as
there are no thresholds specified for any of the prescribed activities, the EIA policy requires any
developer to submit a prospectus so that the Director-General of the Agency can determine
whether or not an EIA is required. The prospectus is the closest thing to an initial EIA that is
required in other countries and must be produced for all First Schedule activities. According to
the policy, the developer should be able to prepare the prospectus without help from EIA or
environmental specialists. Therefore the prospectus may not contain as much information as an
initial EIA It should, however, contain the following information:

• A description of the proposed project;

• The current status of the project whether it is at the feasibility planning, design or
implementation stage; and
• A description of the known or predicted environmental impacts.
The Director-General will then review the prospectus and on completion may ask the developer
to submit any further information that the Director-General may require. The Director-General
may either:
• Approve the prospectus provided that he is satisfied that the proposed EIA is capable of
evaluating the project’s impact on the environment and will ask the developer to proceed with
the proposed EIA; or
• Reject the prospectus and request a fresh one if he is not satisfied that the EIA adequately
addresses the environmental impacts of the project.

Contents of an Environmental Impact Assessment Report

If the Director-General approves the prospectus he may also set out certain conditions relating to
the scope of the assessment, including the appointment of an independent expert in
environmental assessment to prepare the EIA Report. The developer is required to comply with
these conditions. EIA reports must contain the following information:
• A detailed description of the proposed project and the activities which will be undertaken
during its implementation;
• Reasons for the selection of the proposed site of the project;
• A detailed description of the direct, indirect, cumulative short- and longterm impacts the
project will have on the various sections of the environment;
• Specification of the measures proposed for eliminating reducing or mitigating the anticipated
adverse effects of the project;
• Identification and description of methods for monitoring and managing the adverse
environmental effects;
• An indication of whether the environment of any other country is likely to be affected by the
project and the measures that will be taken to minimize any damage to that environment; How
the developer plans to integrate biological diversity into the project (where applicable); and
• A concise description of the methodology used by the developer when compiling the EIA
report.
There are certain projects that may be deemed to be exempt from an EIA after the Agency has
reviewed the prospectus according to their screening guidelines. A project will be considered to
be exempt from undergoing an
EIA if:
• It does not utilise natural resources to such an extent that current and future use of those
resources will be affected;
• The potential environmental impacts are minor and can be easily managed;
• The type of project, its environmental impacts and measures for managing these impacts are
clearly understood in Zimbabwe;
• The environmental impacts and the measures for managing them have already been clearly
incorporated into the project design;
• It will not displace a significant number of people;
• It is not undertaken in environmentally sensitive areas such as national parks, wetlands,
productive agricultural lands, sites protected by legislation or sites with rare or endangered
species;
• It will not result in significant emissions of pollutants or release of waste materials whose
disposal is not covered by existing legislation.

The size of the project and the potential for the displacement of people are considered
particularly important criteria.
Every developer shall take all reasonable measures to prevent or mitigate any adverse or
undesirable impacts on the environment that may arise through the implementation of the
project. The measures taken shall be reported to the Director-General unless they are already
contained within the EIA report.

Stages Of The EIA Process

The EIA process, while not uniform from country to country, generally consists of a set of
procedural steps culminating in a written impact assessment report that will inform the decision-
maker whether to approve or reject a proposed project
Environmental Audits of Projects
The Director-General will carry out periodic environmental audits of any project including those
commenced before a fixed date for the purposes of ensuring that the project is in compliance
with the Act and any conditions set out by the Agency on their certificate. The developer is also
required to keep such records and reports for submission to the Agency as the Director-General
may specify.

Inspection of EIA Reports

Any EIA report will be available for public inspection at any reasonable time at the Director-
General’s office. The information contained within the report is not to be used by any person for
personal benefit other than for civil proceedings under the Act or any other law as a matter
relating to the protection of the environment.

Public Consultation Process

Public participation is a requirement of the EIA process and the policy states that the public
should participate in the preparation and review of EIA reports. However, in practice public
participation has been more or less limited to consultation with the affected communities. These
consultations typically focus on determining the probable impacts and the mitigation measures
that will be acceptable to the community involved. Consultation methods include questionnaire
surveys, group discussions and informal and formal meetings with community or local leaders. A
few large public meetings have been conducted for very large projects, but generally the public is
unaware of the importance of the role they can play in the EIA process. Centralisation of the EIA
review process also has not promoted public participation.

Quality Assurance
The quality of the EIAs produced is promoted by the need for the Agency to review and approve
the EIA report and the terms of reference (ToR). In addition, the review of the EIA report by
various concerned government departments and possibly, by experts invited by the Agency, go a
long way to ensuring that the EIAs produced are of acceptable quality. In addition, no projects
can be approved before an official EIA Acceptance has been issued.

Other Relevant Environmental Legislation in Zimbabwe

Environmental issues cut across a wide range of sectors and there are numerous pieces of
legislation in Zimbabwe which have a bearing on environmental management and sustainable
development. These pieces of legislation should be considered during the EIA decision-making
process. The relevant pieces of legislation and the administrative agencies responsible are listed
in Table 17.
UNIT 6: PRINCIPLES OF REHABILITATION
The Mining Operations Plan (MOP)
Mining operations must not be undertaken other than in accordance with a MOP. The MOP must
address the mining, processing, and rehabilitation operations necessary to comply with the
statutory responsibilities. These responsibilities are expressed in the Mining and Minerals Act.
Proposed operations must be consistent with development consent, all other government agency
approvals and licences, as well as with mine safety regulations and mine safety plans. The MOP
must apply best available practice and technology to all aspects of mine operations and include
strategies to control identified environmental risks.

The period of a MOP may be for a maximum of seven years. The MOP describes all mining and
mining related activities, rehabilitation plans and land use outcomes over the MOP period. The
MOP must contain plans and text which identify and define:
• area(s) proposed to be disturbed;
• mining and rehabilitation method(s) to be used and their sequence;
• existing and proposed surface infrastructure;
• progressive rehabilitation schedules;
• areas of particular environmental sensitivity;
• land and water management systems;
• proposed resource recovery.
Premature cessation of mining will require either a “care and maintenance plan” or a “mine
rehabilitation and closure plan” prior to Ministerial approval of suspension of mining. This plan
should be prepared using the MOP format with additional information where needed for
consistency with the “Strategic Framework for Mine Closure”

The MOP must be accompanied by a statutory declaration confirming the rights of the
leaseholder to carry out the operations proposed, verifying they are consistent with all consents
and conditions.
To be acceptable, a MOP must:
propose operations which:
• are consistent with the Environmental Impact Assessment, and any other document, on
which approval and grant/renewal of the lease was based;
• are consistent with conditions imposed through approvals, mine leases and licences
issued by the Department and other agencies;
• are consistent with the mine safety management plan;
• include progressive rehabilitation to the greatest practical extent;
• propose rehabilitation which at least meets the Department’s generic rehabilitation
criteria:
• provides stable and permanent landforms;
• is suitable for an agreed subsequent land use;
• is sustainable in terms of the proposed use,
• does not have maintenance needs greater than the surrounding land;
• has no adverse environmental effects outside the lease area;
• and:
 • is based on plans and outcomes developed with stakeholder involvement;
• has outcomes consistent with commitments made in the EIS and any other document on
which approval and grant of lease was based ;
• provides objective criteria to establish whether rehabilitation objectives have been met;
• has outcomes which are demonstrably achievable through experience in comparable
situations or through site trials/research;

Details of operations and rehabilitation in the plan should also;

• identify risks associated with each activity;
• propose environmental control strategies to satisfactorily manage identified risks;
• include environmental monitoring to verify effectiveness of control strategies;
• follow recognised industry and government agency best practice guidelines and best
available technology.
For MOPs which do not include the final rehabilitation and closure phase of a mine,
rehabilitation beyond the scope of the presented MOP may be dealt with as concepts rather than
in detail. It must describe the consultation and trial/research pathways through which final
closure outcomes will be developed and achieved.

Implementation And Monitoring

The key to the success of an EMP lies in its effective implementation. Compliance monitoring is
therefore crucial. Monitoring ensures that the environmental requirements stipulated in the EMP
are being complied with. It also allows for ongoing impacts to be tracked so that the
effectiveness of the mitigation can be measured.

Developing a monitoring programme

Environmental monitoring provides the data for review, checking and revising the EMP. By
instituting regular monitoring, environmental impacts can be detected early and remedial action
implemented (EPA, 1995b). The process for establishing a monitoring programme consists of the
following actions:
 specify management objectives;
 specify monitoring objectives;
 identify the scope of monitoring;
 recommend appropriate monitoring technology;
 specify how the information collected should be used in decision-making;
 define the spatial boundaries and select map scales and sites for observation,
measurement or sampling;
 select key indicators for direct measurement, observation or sampling;
 define how the data will be analysed and interpreted and how it should be
presented in monitoring reports;
 define the precision and accuracy required in the data;
 consider compatibility of data to be collected with historical data and with related
contemporary data;
and
 set minimum requirements for monitoring.
The monitoring actions described above fits within the overall process of developing the EMP,
monitoring
programme and performance assessment (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Framework process for developing the EMP and monitoring programme
(adapted from EPA, 1995b)

The monitoring programme should detect trends and changes to enable intervention or remedial
measures to be taken in order to achieve good environmental performance. Within each
environmental component or specialist area (e.g. groundwater, terrestrial ecology and avifauna)
there are appropriate techniques for collection, analysis and interpretation of data. The criteria
that need to be employed for effective data collection, management and reporting include:
 realistic sampling programme (temporal, spatial and point data);
 collection of quality data;
 compatibility of new data with historical data;
 cost effective data collection;
 quality control in measurement and analysis;
 appropriate databases to capture, store, retrieve and display the data; and
 reporting for internal management and external auditing.
Ideally, the monitoring data should be presented in the form of maps, photographic records, data
tables and graphs. An example of a format for data collection and monitoring is given in Table 1.
Table 1: Example of a format for data collection and monitoring
UNIT 7 REHABILITATION MEASURES
Landscaping
The most essesntial aspect of rehabilitation is the reshaping and regarding of a site and forming it
into a useful and acceptable landscape. The aesthetic aspects of the site are of third importance
after safety and environmental impact. The stability of the site is paramount from the standpoint
of safety and for the subsequent topsoiling and revegetation. If the site is properly constructed it
not only contributes to the ease of its formation but also contributes to the ease of subsequent
maintenance.

The drainage regime in the final landscape should be as close to the original pattern as possible
and should merge with the surrounding landscape.

Planning

When planning the final landscape the following factors are of importance:

1. The final landscape must be stable. In order to ensure this the erosion potential of the
material on the site has to be assessed. Both steep and long slopes allow surface runoff to
accelerate which results in severe erosion. Gentle slopes are thus less prone to erosion
and vegetation can more easily be established
2. The drainage pattern for the overall site must be planned as part of the overall surface
water regime. The drainage density of the adjacent land areas are the main guide to the
site requirements. Opencast mines with large volumes of overburden will normally
require a drainage density that is higher than that existed prior to the mining operation, to
compensate for the increase in the gradient of the slopes resulting from mining operations
the best approach is to design catchment area that are relatively small and should not
exceed 2 hectares.

Erosion Control
The control of erosion is important during the mining operation, the period of rehabilitation and
during the subsequent land use. The main objective of most rehabilitation programs is to
establish an acceptable cover of vegetation in order to stabilize the site and to control excessive
erosion. Until an adequate vegetation coverhas been established there is a need to provide
interim protection against wind and water erosion. These protective measures may later be
transfeered into permanent solutions

Wind erosion

The areas most susceptible to wind erosion are dunes in semi arid and arid regions, active
tailings dumps, old tailings dumps, waste piles. The main impacts of wind erosion is the
reduction of the productivity of the soil or the creation of dust.
The best means of countering wind erosion in the long term is a sustained stable vegetation
cover. In the short term while the permanent vegetative cover is being established, there is a need
for the controlling wind erosion on the disturbed land where operations are underway or
rehabilitation is in process. There are three main methods used to control erosion on disturbed
soils all of which are aimed at reducing the wind velocity near the soil surface. The three
methods are

1. Protection of soil surface by materials

In most cases the use of natural or synthetic materials or mulch may form an integral part
of the re-vegetation program. If mulch is selected the following need to be considered
Availability of material – particular attention should be paid to the use of waste or by-
products which require disposal. The material must be available at low cost.
Resistant mulch – if the area is highly trafficked then rock mulch or similar resistant
mulch may be necessary.
Colour and temperature – dark coloured mulches can significantly raise the soil
temperatures and light coloured reduce them. Too high a temperature may burn seeds
while too low a temperature might stop germination.
2. Erosion resistant methods for soils
The maintenance of the soil surface in an erosion resistant condition can be carried out in
a number of ways
Plowing or scarifying – if the soils are appropriate, scarify or plow the surface to a
cloddy lumpy condition
Use of water – if soil is kept damp by use of sprays or water bowsers this will increase
the resistance of soils to wind erosion
3. Wind velocity reduction by windbreaks
Wind breaks may be rows of trees or shrubs planted at right angles to the prevailing
eroding winds. The trees or shrubs should be fast growing or hardy. In designing and
erecting of windbreaks a number of critical factors should be considered
The dirction of the critical winds
Height and spacing
Permeability – if barrier is imprenetable it creates major down and up drafts in front and
beyond the windbreak thereby defeating the purpose of the wind break. Wind breaks
should have a permeability of approximately 40%

Water Erosion

It is caused mostly by surface run off from heavy rainfall or from excessive flow from a dam, a
water treatment facility or from some other man made structure. Factors influencing run off
include
  The intensity of the rainfall
 The area of disturbance
 The size of the catchment area
 The slope of the landscape
 The soil characteristics
 Land use at the time

The rehabilitation of a mine site if properly controlled can to a great extent manage all these
variables except the intensity and the frequency of rainfall.

There are four broad areas in which good management of these factors/variables can be carried
out. These are:

1. Minimizing the area of disturbance

The clearing of vegetation should be limited to that area that is absolutely necessary for
the safe operation of the mine. This can be achieved by following the guidelines below;
Site plans – preparing site and mine development
Progressive clearing – clearing ahead of an opencast operation should be controlled and
only carried out as required.
Surveying- surveying and identifying on the ground the sites designated for clearing.
Supervision – close supervision of the clearing operation should be carried on during
stripping.
Penalties – implement penalty clauses for employees and contractors who do not follow
directions and damage areas not designated for clearing

2. Managing the entry of run off to the site

The construction of diversion channels or dams will effectively limit the entry of water to
the site. In designing the water plan be sure to ensure that even through the soil erosion
on the site may be decreased, poorly designed exits from the site can create major
problems off site at the discharge points by creating erosion at those locations

3. Encouraging infiltration
Infiltration is most effectively achieved by ripping or scarifying the disturbed and or
compacted area. Important guidelines when ripping and scarifying are
Contours – always rip and scarify along the contours. This prevents creating down slope
channels
Depth – the ripping should be as deep as possible depending on the material. A ripping
depth of 0.8 to 1.8m is a good guide
Spacing – the spacing of the lines when ripping should be such that they do not overlap
each other
Soil moisture – when soil conditions are et soil will not break up so avoid ripping and
scarifying under wet conditions
 4. Managing the water that leaves the site
Managed water whether diverted or leaving the site usually has an increase in rate of
flow. Water leaving the site and entering the natural environment should therefore be
monitored and controlled so as to avoid carrying an excessive sediment load

To control the sediment in the water, dams are most commonly used to retain the
sediment from the runoff.

…………………………………………………..
…………………………………………..
…………………………………. sediment

Sediment settling dam

Topsoil Management
Although vegetation has grown on various subsoils, topsoil is always essential in successful
rehabilitation programs, in particular during the initial period of plant growth. Topsoil, or the
weathered surface material, generall contains seeds, nutrients and micro – organisms that are
essential to plant growth and if they are lost then a sustainable vegetative cover will take a longer
period to establish.

During the planning for re-vegetation in a rehabilitation program the following are of importance

Plans & Specifications

Materials

• Determine depth of topsoil on 10-metre spacing.

• The depth of material should be at least 7 centimetres. Soil factors such as rock fragments,
slope, depth to water table and layer thickness affect the ease of excavation and spreading of
topsoil.
• Keep topsoil separate from overburden, and store layers separately to ensure that material is
restored in the same order that it was removed.
• Generally, the upper part of the soil that is richest in organic matter is most valuable.
• Organic soils such as muck and peat do not make good topsoil. They can be identified by their
extremely light weight when dry.

Stripping
• Strip topsoil only from those areas that will be disturbed by excavation, filling, road building or
compaction by equipment. A 1.0 to 1.5 metre stripping depth is common, but depth will
depend on the soil profile at the site. Determine depth of stripping by taking soil cores at
several locations within each area to be stripped. Topsoil depth generally varies along a
gradient from hilltop to toe of slope. Put sediment basins, diversions and other controls into
place to manage stormwater before stripping.

Stockpiling
• Select stockpile location to avoid slopes, natural drainage ways and traffic routes. At large
sites, re-spreading is easier and more economical when topsoil is stockpiled in small piles
near the areas where they will be used.
• Sediment barriers - use sediment fences or other barriers where necessary to retain sediment.
• Temporary seeding - protect topsoil stockpiles by temporarily seeding as soon as possible,
within 30 days after the formation of the stockpile.
• Permanent vegetation - if stockpiles will not be used within 12 months they should be stabilized
with permanent vegetation to control erosion and weeds.

Installation
Site Preparation
• Before spreading topsoil, establish erosion and sedimentation control structures such as
diversions, berms, dikes, waterways and sediment basins.
• Maintain grades on the areas to be topsoiled according to the approved plan. Adjust grades and
elevations for receipt of topsoil.
• Roughening - Immediately prior to spreading the topsoil, loosen the subgrade by disking or
scarifying to a depth of at least 100 millimetres to ensure bonding of the topsoil and subsoil.
• Ensure that soil horizons are replaced in the same order that they were removed.
• Uniformly distribute topsoil to pre-mining thickness. If sufficient topsoil is available, a
minimum compacted depth of a half metre on 3:1 slopes and one metre on flatter slopes is
suggested. To determine the volume of topsoil required to various depths, use the table
below. Do not spread topsoil while it is frozen or muddy.

Volumes of topsoil required for various depths

Depth (millimetres) Cubic metres Cubic metres
per 100 square per hectare
metres
25 2.5 250
50 5.0 500
75 7.5 750
100 10.0 1000
125 12.5 1250
150 15.0 1500

Compact the topsoil enough to ensure good contact with the underlying soil, but avoid excessive
compaction, as it increases runoff and inhibits seed germination. Light packing with a roller
is recommended where turf is to be established.
• On slopes and areas that will not be mowed, the surface may be left rough after spreading
topsoil.

Options
Live Topsoiling
• Live topsoiling is extracting topsoil from its place of origin and placing it directly onto an area
that has already been mined, backfilled and graded for reclamation.
• This is the most desirable topsoil management option, as the topsoil is handled only once and
does not compact during storage within stockpiles.

Maintenance
● Minimize erosion with timely planting of temporary or permanent vegetation.
● Ensure that temporary or permanent plantings are well watered until established.
● Inspect stockpiles regularly, especially after large storms. Stabilize any areas that have eroded.

Revegetation
Relationship of Vegetation to Mine Hydrology
Vegetation is a factor in the hydrologic cycle and affects both surface and groundwater. The
extent to which the soil/spoil surface is exposed or unvegetated affects evapotranspiration. The
rate of evapotranspiration increases as the vegetative cover increases. Evapotranspiration losses
may range from 15 inches (38.1 centimeters) per year for barren rocky areas to 35 inches
(89 centimeters) per year for heavily forested areas (Wisler and Brater, 1963). The type of
vegetation, stage of vegetative growth and density of vegetation affects the amount of water loss
through evapotranspiration. Transpiration is limited by the growing season and by available soil
moisture.
The grading and vegetation of the surface can have a substantial impact on the quantity of mine
drainage generated. For example, average annual precipitation in the West Branch of the
Susquehanna River watershed is approximately 40 inches (102 cm). Of this 40 inches (102 cm),
an average of 17 inches (43.18 cm) is lost annually through evapotranspiration and 8 inches (20
cm) is lost through overland runoff (Taylor et al., 1983). This leaves an average of 15 inches (38
cm) per year to infiltrate into the groundwater flow system, eventually to discharge directly as
baseflow to streams or via springs and seepage zones.
The practical reality of this is that in Pennsylvania and other humid areas where precipitation
exceeds evapotranspiration, virtually all mine sites will receive groundwater recharge and
generate drainage - acidic or alkaline. That there may be no obvious springs or seeps does not
imply that there is no drainage from the site. To illustrate what 15 inches (38 cm) of infiltration
per year means in terms of the quantity of mine drainage which can be generated, each acre of
spoil surface would produce an average flow rate of 0.75 gallons per minute (gpm) (2.84 L/min).
A 100-acre surface mine, then, would yield 75 gpm (284 L/min) of groundwater flow.
Where vegetation is poor, precipitation can rapidly enter mine spoil leaving less opportunity for
evapotranspiration and uptake by plants. Further, the sparse vegetation consumes less water,
allowing more to infiltrate below the rooting zone. A site with little or poor vegetation would
generate much less evapotranspiration and therefore, much higher infiltration into the
groundwater system - - ultimately increasing the volume of mine drainage generated by the site.
Hawkins (1995, and Chapter 17, this report) noted that many Pennsylvania remining operations
showed reduced pollution loading rates, not so much from changes in mine drainage chemistry
but rather due to decreased groundwater recharge. This reduction was due to two factors: the
regrading of abandoned mine lands and improved vegetation. Regrading can be particularly
important where there is no positive surface drainage. Surface runoff is directed to abandoned
pits and surface depressions, ultimately to infiltrate into the subsurface and increase the
availability of groundwater in the spoil. Again, using the average runoff rates reported by Taylor,
an unreclaimed, internally-drained site may divert approximately 8 inches (20 cm) of
precipitation per year (0.4 gpm/acre) (3.74 L per min/ha) into the subsurface. Clearly, proper
regrading and revegetation is one effective but frequently overlooked means of minimizing
AMD production.
Vegetation and associated microbiological activity also influence the composition of the mine
soil/spoil environment. A well vegetated and biologically active mine soil/spoil increases carbon
dioxide levels in the mine soil/spoil and reduces oxygen flux into the mine soil/spoil. The oxygen
content of mine soil/spoil is frequently inversely related to the carbon dioxide content (i.e.
oxygen levels decline as carbon dioxide increases). Oxygen concentrations have been shown to
be rate limiting in the oxidation of pyrite in laboratory studies (Erickson, Kleinmann, and
Campion, 1982). Oxygen consumption by plants, soil biota and organic material decay provide
potential means of limiting oxygen availability for pyrite oxidation and production of acid mine
drainage. In addition, high concentrations of carbon dioxide increase the solubility of carbonate
minerals. In theory, more alkalinity is generated in groundwater having high carbon dioxide
content, all other factors being constant. Gas composition in mine soil/spoil has been reported by
a few investigators (Erickson, 1985; Guo, Parizek, and Rose, 1994; and Jaynes, Rogowski,
Pionke, and Jacoby, 1983).
Plant Species as Indicators of Mine Spoil / Overburden Chemistry
Plant species may be used as indicators of mine spoil/overburden chemistry. On disturbed mine
land with exposed acidic spoil/overburden, the plant species which volunteer and become
established are species which are capable of surviving under acidic conditions.
Observations and field studies by McKee and associates (1982) on several Pennsylvania
bituminous strip mine sites found that sites with little or no vegetative cover had mine spoil pH
values below 4.5 and were relatively high in soluble aluminum, whereas mine sites with
relatively adequate vegetative cover had mine spoil pH values of 4.5 or above and very minimal,
if any, soluble aluminum. Greenhouse studies by McKee and associates identified the effects of
both low pH and aluminum on plants which they found volunteering or naturally invading
Pennsylvania bituminous mine spoils. These studies found volunteer plant species such as
poverty grass (Danthonia spp.), deertongue grass (Panicum clandestinum), dewberry (Rubus
flagellaris) and fleeceflower (Polygonum cuspidatum) survived at mine spoil 3.3 pH and 17 ppm
water soluble aluminum while goldenrod (Solidago spp.), and wild carrot (Daucus carota) did
not survive at mine spoil 4.2 pH and 0.5 ppm water soluble aluminum (McKee, Raelson, Berti,
and Peiffer, 1982).
Abandoned mine land may remain sparsely vegetated for several years. A study of 20 abandoned
mine spoil banks (ranging from 2 to 35 years in age) in central Pennsylvania found extremely
acidic spoils with a pH of 3.5 or less with no vegetation and some areas remaining barren or
unvegetated after 20 years or more. The study also evaluated the rate of development of
vegetative cover on the spoil banks and found spoil banks nearly barren of naturally invading
vegetation until about 4 years old. Spoil banks 10 years of age or less did not exceed 50 percent
vegetative cover with one bank 29 years of age having only 15 percent vegetative cover
(Bramble and Ashley, 1955).
Where vegetation is sparse or nonexistent, the surface of the mine spoil may provide further
indications of the mine spoil chemistry. Extremely acid conditions can dissolve many minerals
resulting in saline mine spoil conditions. "Greasy/wettish spots" on the mine spoil surface caused
by the hygroscopic nature of free acid produced by pyrite oxidation are field indicators of acid
saline conditions (Singh, Grube, Smith, and Keefer, 1982). White or yellowish coating or
crusting on the mine spoil surface result from evaporated salts when evapotranspiration exceeds
rainfall and salts migrate to the surface of the mine spoil. High salt concentrations in the mine
spoil inhibit plant growth. The saline conditions increase the osmotic pressure that plants must
overcome to extract moisture and render water unavailable to the plants. In addition, essential
nutrients may be unavailable to plants under saline spoil conditions. Struthers and Vimmerstedt
(1965) concluded that revegetation of mine spoil was generally more successful in the spring
months as plant establishment and growth are improved by precipitation infiltrating the mine
spoil and leaching the salts from the surface layer.
Plant Tolerance / Adaptability to Acid and Toxic Conditions
Species of plants vary widely in tolerance to acid and toxic conditions. Plant physiologists have
found that only below pH of 3.0 are plants harmed directly by acidity alone (Arnon and Johnson,
1942). Indirect effects of acidity are the cause of limited plant growth under acid conditions
above 3.0 pH. Indirect effects of acidity on plants result from increased solubility and availability
of metals such as aluminum and manganese to plants under acid conditions. Aluminum and
manganese are known to cause plant toxicity problems on acidic mine spoils.
Aluminum is a major growth limiting factor for plants in many acid soils below 5.0 pH and can
be limiting at pH values as high as 5.5 (Foy, Chaney, and White, 1978). Concentrations of
soluble aluminum that could be toxic to plants are found in mine spoils that have a pH of 5.5 or
below (Berg and Vogel, 1973). Aluminum inhibits root growth and interferes with the uptake of
phosphorus, an essential plant nutrient (Foy, Chaney, and White, 1978).
Manganese toxicity in plants is a problem in mine spoils below pH 5.5 where parent materials
are high in total manganese (Foy, Chaney, and White, 1978). Decreasing soil pH as well as
reducing soil aeration by compaction increases solubility and availability of manganese to plants
(National Academy of Science, 1973).
The tolerance of plant species to acidic and toxic mine soil/spoil conditions varies between
species and within species. Grasses such as deertongue grass (Panicum clandestinum) and
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) tolerate more acidic conditions than tall fescue (Festuca
arundinacea) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) (Mckee and Harper, 1985). Kenland and
Pennscott varieties of red clover (Trifolium pratense) are more adapted to acid mine spoil
conditions than Chesapeake and Mammoth varieties of red clover (Bennett, Armiger, and Jones,
1976). Berg and Vogel (1973) reported sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata) usually had
manganese toxicity symptons on mine spoils with 5.0 or lower pH while kobe lespedeza
(Lespedeza striata), birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) and black locust (Robinia
pseudoacacia) seldom developed manganese toxicity symptons on mine spoils above 4.4 pH.
McCormick and Steiner (1978) reported hybrid poplar (Populus maximowiczii x trichocarpa
clone NE-388) was very sensitive to low concentrations of aluminum while species of oak
(Quercus spp.), pine (Pinus spp.) and birch (Betula spp.) were tolerant of much higher
concentrations of aluminum. Tall fescue (Festuca arundinancea) is moderately tolerant of saline
soils while red clover (Trifolium pratense) is relatively sensitive to salt conditions (USDA 1954).
Some Other Factors Affecting Establishment of Vegetation
Many factors in addition to chemical properties of mine spoil or overburden affect plant species
establishment. Physical properties of the spoil or overburden, degree and aspect or direction of
slope, and biological conditions are additional factors which may also affect plant species
establishment. As an example, Hedin’s (1988) studies of volunteer vegetation on 20 abandoned
bituminous surface mines in northwestern Pennsylvania (varying in age from 12 to 41 years
since abandonment) found sparsely vegetated spoils with few trees and the ground cover
dominated by lichens (primarily Cladonia) and mosses (primarily Polytrichum). Chemicals
produced by the lichens plant Cladonia have been shown to reduce tree seed germination and
also to inhibit growth of mycorrhizae fungi that are important symbionts or companions of
successful colonization and establishment of woody plants on acid spoils (Hedin 1988).
Topsoiling, Reclamation and Mine Hydrology
Topsoil affects the infiltration rate of water. Generally a final cover of topsoil on a mine backfill
will have a significantly less infiltration rate of water than a final cover consisting of mine spoil.
Rogowski’s (1977) research on mine spoil from lower and middle Kittanning coal seams in
central Pennsylvania found the infiltration rate of water into mine spoil to be much higher
(i.e. greater than 189 cm/hr) than into mine spoil with a final cover of topsoil (i.e. less than
30 cm/hr).
Compaction of topsoil or other final cover material on a mine backfill could occur during
reclamation activities resulting in slower rates of water infiltration. However, compaction of the
final cover to reduce infiltration rates should be avoided because of the adverse affects on
establishing and maintaining vegetation. Compacted soils impede plant root growth. Soil bulk
density is commonly used as an index of compaction. In general, bulk densities suitable for plant
growth range from 1.3 to 1.8 g/cm3 (Rogowski and Weinrich, 1983; Pearson, 1965; and Bowen,
1981).
A final cover of topsoil on a mine backfill contributes towards reducing the influx of
atmospheric oxygen and decreasing the oxygen concentrations within the underlying mine spoil.
Rogwoski’s (1977) research indicated oxygen concentrations within the mine spoil profile
decreased when the mine spoil was covered with topsoil. The effects of topsoil on oxygen
concentrations within underlying mine spoil becomes more significant considering that mine
spoil is typically comprised of coarse rock fragments resulting in substantial pore or void space
which provides pathways for oxygen transport. Pennsylvania mine spoils have been found to
have from 40 to 60 percent coarse rock fragments (i.e. greater than 2 mm in diameter) in the
upper portion of the mine spoil profile (Ciolkosz, Cunningham, Petersen, and Crone, 1979). A
discussion of the role of oxygen in pyrite oxidation and generation of acid mine drainage is
found in Chapter One.
Caruccio (1968) found in his work in evaluation factors affecting acid mine drainage that a soil
cover plays an important role in preventing acid mine drainage. He concluded that the most
critical factor determining the presence or absence of acid mine drainage is calcium carbonate.
Caruccio also found soil cover to be extremely important in developing alkalinity as high carbon
dioxide levels found in soil air contribute towards increasing neutralization capacity.
Guidelines for Successful Revegetation
The revegetation release criteria for reclaimed mine sites will be to achieve as close to 100
percent of the perennial plant cover of selected comparison areas as possible. The comparison or
reference areas will be selected from representative plant communities adjacent to the mine site,
test plots or demonstration areas or, as appropriate, representative ecological or range site
descriptions. As approved by the agencies, the selected plant communities or reference areas
must have a reasonable chance for success on the mine site. Each plan-of operations shall
identify the site-specific release criteria in the reclamation plan or permit. The agencies may also
require specific release standards for individual plant species or vegetative types (grasses, forbs,
shrubs, trees). Cover would be estimated using a method as described in Sampling Vegetation
Attributes, Interagency Technical Reference, 1996, BLM/RS/ST- 96/002+1730 or other
acceptable technical methods.
The determination of successful revegetation of mining disturbances will require an evaluation of
the data by the agencies on a site-specific basis. These data must include all of the information
requested in Attachment A of the Reclamation Permit, “Documentation of Reclamation
Activities for Surety Release and Annual Fee Responding”. When making this evaluation, the
following information shall also be considered:
1. Have the desirable species been successfully established, and do they provide sufficient aerial
cover to adequately protect the site from soil erosion?
2. Is there evidence that a self-sustaining community has been established? Are vegetative
reproduction (e.g. rhizomes) and seedling establishment of the desirable seeded species
occurring?
3. Is there evidence of site stability, including the lack of surface soil erosion, gully formation
and slumping?
4. Has the revegetation goal in the reclamation plan been met?
5. Has the operator taken reasonable measures to establish the RDPC?

Time frames
The success of the vegetative growth on a reclaimed site may be evaluated for release no sooner
than during the third growing season after earthwork, planting and irrigation (if used) have been
completed. Final bond release may be considered at that time. Interim progress of reclamation
will be monitored as appropriate by the agency and operator. Where it has been determined that
revegetation success has not been met, the agencies and the operator will meet to decide on the
best course of actions necessary to meet the reclamation goal.

Tailings
What are tailings?
Tailings are the residue of the milling process used to extract metals of interest from mined ores
or to clean coal. During this process, ores are milled and finely ground, and then treated in a
flotation and/or hydrometallurgical plant. The extracted metal represents a small percentage of
the whole ore mass and so, the vast majority of the mined material ends up as a finely-ground
slurry. Tailings contain all other constituents of the ore except for the majority of the extracted
metal. These consist of heavy metals and other substances at concentration levels that can be
toxic to biota in the environment. Moreover, tailings contain the chemicals added during the
milling process, although these levels and types are generally not of major concern. After
milling, these contaminants are better available for dispersion into the environment than in the
original ore because of their finer particle size and higher surface area. Furthermore, the
mechanical stability of the tailings mass is poor because its small grain size and high water
content.
Tailings impoundments
Most mill tailings produced worldwide are dumped in large surface impoundments ("tailings
dams"). In other cases, tailings are processed for use as backfill in underground mine workings.
The embankments of these large impoundments are typically constructed as earth-fill dams.
Although water-retention dams are suitable for use, their cost is too high.

The ultimate purpose of a tailings impoundment is to contain fine-grained tailings, often with a
secondary or co-purpose of conserving water for use in the mine and mill. This has to be
accomplished in a cost-effective manner that provides for long-term stability of the embankment
structure and the impounded tailings and the long-term protection of the environment. In the
process of designing any tailings embankment and impoundment, these three interests, cost,
stability, and environmental performance, must be balanced, with situation-specific conditions
establishing the balance at each stage of the process. It is worth noting that the long-term costs of
tailings disposal depend in part on mechanical stability and environmental integrity, such that
stable and environmentally acceptable structures promote cost effectiveness.

Impoundment of slurry tailings is the most common method of disposal and are the main focus
of this report. Impoundments are favored because, among other things, they are "economically
attractive and relatively easy to operate" (Environment Canada 1987). Tailings impoundments
can be and are designed to perform a number of functions, including treatment functions. These
include (Environment Canada 1987):
• Removal of suspended solids by sedimentation
• Precipitation of heavy metals as hydroxides
• Permanent containment of settled tailings
• Equalization of wastewater quality
• Stabilization of some oxidizable constituents (e.g., thiosalts, cyanides, flotation reagents)
• Storage and stabilization of process recycle water
• Incidental flow balancing of storm water flows.

There are, however, a number of disadvantages to tailings impoundments requiring attention in

design, including (Environment Canada 1987):
• Difficulty in achieving good flow distribution
• Difficulty in segregating drainage from uncontaminated areas
• Difficulty in reclamation, particularly with acid-generating tailings, because of the large surface
area and materials characteristics
• Inconsistent treatment performance due to seasonal variations in bio-oxidation efficiency
• Costly and difficult collection and treatment of seepage through impoundment structures
• Potentially serious wind dispersion of fine materials unless the surface is stabilized by
revegetation, chemical binders, or rock cover.

Methods for Tailings Disposal

Because mine tailings produced by the mill are usually in slurry form, disposal of slurry tailings
in impoundments made of local materials is the most common and economical method of
disposal. There are four main types of slurry impoundment layouts; valley impoundments, ring
dikes, in-pit impoundments, and specially-dug pits (Ritcey 1989). These impoundment
configurations are explained in more detail below, with major emphasis on valley
impoundments, as they are the most common. Before describing impoundments, several other
methods of tailings disposed are briefly described below.

In some cases, tailings are dewatered (thickened to 60 percent pulp density or more) or dried (to
a moisture content of 25 percent or below) prior to disposal. The efficiency and applicability of
using thickened or dry tailings depends on the ore grind and concentrations of gypsum and clay
as well as the availability of alternative methods. Except under special circumstances, these
methods may be prohibitively expensive due to additional equipment and energy costs. However,
the advantages include minimizing seepage volumes and land needed for an impoundment, and
simultaneous tailings deposition and reclamation. (Vick 1990)

Slurry tailings are sometimes disposed in underground mines as backfill to provide ground or
wall support. This decreases the above-ground surface disturbance and can stabilize mined-out
areas. For stability reasons, underground backfilling requires tailings that have a high
permeability, low compressibility, and the ability to rapidly dewater (i.e., a large sand fraction).
As a result, only the sand fraction of whole tailings is generally used as backfill. Whole tailings
may be cycloned to separate out the coarse sand fraction for backfilling, leaving only the slimes
to be disposed in an impoundment. To increase structural competence, cement may be added to
the sand fraction before backfilling (Environment Canada 1987).

Open-pit backfilling is also practiced, where tailings are deposited into abandoned pits or
portions of active pits. The Pinto Valley tailings reprocessing operation, located in Arizona, uses
this method to dispose of copper tailings. In active pits, embankments may be necessary to keep
the tailings from the active area.
However, since seepage from the tailings can adversely affect the stability of the pit walls or
embankments, it is unusual to see disposal in active pits. Williams (1979), for example, discusses
a failure due to pore water pressure in the floor of a pit in Australia. Ritcey (1989) notes that the
hydrogeological parameters affecting the migration of seepage and contaminants are poorly
understood, so tailings with toxic contaminants or reactive tailings may be poor candidates for
this type of impoundment. The U.S. Bureau of Mines points out that other limitations for using
active open pits for tailings disposal are loss of the pit areas for future resources, and subsequent
mine operating and design restrictions to which mine operators would be subjected.
Subaqueous disposal in a deep lake or ocean is also a possible disposal method. Underwater
disposal may prevent the oxidation of sulfide minerals in tailings, thus inhibiting acid generation.
Subaqueous disposal has recently been practiced by eight mines in Canada, with three still active
as of 1990 (Environment Canada 1992). Subaqueous disposal is used in areas with high
precipitation, steep terrain, or high seismicity or, in Canada, where its use predated current
regulations. This method is also limited to coarse tailings that can settle quickly. CANMET
(Canadian Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology) completed a bench-scale 16-year
simulation of deep-lake disposal using Ottawa River water (Ritcey and Silver 1987). They found
that the tailings had little effect on pH when using ores with a low sulfide content. Ripley, et al.
(1978), found that the tailings can cover large areas on the ocean or lake floor and cause turbidity
problems if the disposal practice is not designed correctly. There is little data on the long-term
effect of subaqueous disposal (Environment Canada 1987), although it is being studied in
Canada and peer reviewed by CANMET (CANMET 1993).

A variation on subaqueous disposal in the ocean or lakes would be permanent immersion of

tailings in a pit or impoundment. This could present many of the same advantages of underwater
disposal (i.e., reduced oxidation of sulfide minerals) but also would require long-term attention
to ensure constant water levels and possibly monitoring for potential ground water impacts.

Construction Methods
A variety of construction methods and materials are used in the construction of tailings
embankments. In general, mines choose materials and methods to provide the required stability
at the lowest cost. If the tailings dam is near the mine, the use of waste rock can significantly
lower the cost of materials, while also reducing the need for waste rock disposal areas. If borrow
materials are to be used, they can be obtained from the impoundment area and increase
impoundment capacity. The materials also should meet permeability, compressibility and shear
strength requirements. They also must be chemically stable, so potentially acid generating waste
rock is not suitable for embankment construction, particular in drainage systems. The most
frequently used material in embankment construction is tailings.

Construction Using Tailings Material

The use of tailings material is generally the most economical construction method. As discussed
previously, some of the disadvantages of using tailings as dam-building material include: high
susceptibility to internal piping, highly erodible surfaces, and high susceptibility of the fine
tailings to frost action. Also, loose and saturated tailings are subject to liquefaction under
earthquake shocks. During construction of the tailings dam, the two major ways to improve these
qualities are use of coarse fractions of tailings and compaction. Generally, the sand fractions,
after being separated from the slimes, may be easy to compact using vibratory compactors. By
compacting this coarse fraction of the tailings, the end result is a dense mass of strong material
that has greatly increased resistance to liquefaction. Tailings separation most commonly occurs
by spigotting or cycloning. The three methods of construction using tailings are upstream,
downstream and centerline. A comparison of these methods is presented in Table 1.
Upstream Tailings Dams
Upstream-type embankments are the most popular embankments for tailings dams; new parts of
the embankment are built on top of the slurries impounded during the previous stage - the dam
crest thus moving "upstream".

Because of its low cost, the upstream method is used with most tailings dams worldwide, but it
must be built and operated with great care and attention as it has the highest risk of failure of all
the methods. Dam stability is of great concern with this type of tailings embankments:
Upstream dams are highly susceptible to liquefaction under severe seismic ground movement.
This may result from earthquakes, from mine blasting, or even from the movement of heavy
equipment.
Upstream dam stability is endangered if the rise-rate of the dam is too high. Raising rates
greater than 15 m/yr can be hazardous as the tailings particles need tome to consolidate to their
highest permeability. If the particles do not settle sufficiently, this can produce excess pore
pressure within the deposit, decreasing stability.

Downstream Method
The design requirements for the downstream method of construction are similar to conventional
water storage dams. As in upstream construction, downstream construction also begins with a
starter dam constructed of compacted borrow materials, however, this starter dam may be
constructed of pervious sands and gravels or with predominately silts and clays to minimize
seepage through the dam (Figure 9). If low permeability materials are used in the starter dike,
internal drains will need to be incorporated in the design. The downstream method is so named
because subsequent stages of dike construction are supported on top of the downstream slope of
the previous section, shifting the centerline of the top of the dam downstream as the dam stages
are progressively raised.
Figure 9. Downstream Embankment Construction

Centerline Method
Centerline construction is similar to both the upstream and downstream construction methods in
that the embankment begins with a starter dam and tailings are spigotted off the crest of the dam
to form a beach. The centerline of the embankment is maintained as fill and progressive raises
are placed on both the beach and downstream face (Figure 10). The tailings placed on the
downstream slope should be compacted to prevent shear failure. The centerline method of
construction provides some of the advantages over the other two methods while mitigating some
of the disadvantages.
Figure 10. Centerline Embankment Construction

As in the downstream method, drainage zones can be incorporated into the construction. A wide
beach is not mandatory and this method is amenable for use with tailings that contain a relatively
low percentage of sand. Since less sand is required, the dam raises may be added faster than in
the upstream or downstream methods. Coarse gradation of the tailings is necessary if rapid
drainage is required to provide support for construction equipment.

Tailings Deposition
Generally, tailings slurry is transported through pipelines from the mill to the tailings
impoundment for deposition. Once the tailings reach the impoundment, a variety of options may
be employed to deposit the tailings. In determining which method is best suited for a particular
operation, tailings engineers (generally civil engineers specializing in the disposal of mine
tailings) study the characteristics of the tailings materials, the deposition cycle, and the climate.
They will also consider the impoundment layout and the embankment design. In the discussion
that follows, it is assumed that the embankment is not of the water-retention type, and that the
tailings will be used to provide most of the material for construction of the embankment.

Three general methods of tailings deposition are typically recognized: single point discharge,
spigotting, and cycloning. There are variations on all these methods and the methods may be
used in combination to meet the design criteria set by the tailings engineers.
Single Point Discharge
Single point discharge is the technique of discharging tailings from the open end of a tailings
pipeline. This method is often employed at impoundments that discharge tailings slurry upstream
of the pond and dam (i.e., not from the crest of the dam). This technique is not appropriate when
the pond (and/or the fine fraction of the tailings) must be kept well away from the embankment.
Single point discharge can also be used to discharge slurry into the dam, but this requires that the
discharge point be periodically moved to another section of the dam to prevent unequal raising of
the dam sections. Further, the low surface area to volume ratio afforded by single point discharge
makes this method attractive in extremely cold environments, where freezing of smaller
discharge streams may occur (Lighthall 1989).

Spigotting
Spigotting is the technique of discharging tailings through small pipes (spigots) that originate
from multiple points at regular intervals along a tailings header line (Lighthall 1989). The
method is used to achieve a more or less uniform flow of tailings, which in theory, will create
uniform beaches. However, the location of the discharge points may require rotation to create
these uniform beaches. Spiggotting forms a gently sloping beach where the coarsest fraction
settles near the point of discharge and the fine fraction (slimes) is deposited progressively farther
away from the discharge points. As a result of this variable gradation, the density, shear strength,
and permeability of the settled solids decrease with increasing distance from the discharge point.
As discussed above, these distributional characteristic could be very favorable in reducing the
phreatic surface before and across the embankment. However, observations of actual particle
size, permeability, and shear strength distribution with distance from the point of discharge
suggest that the smooth ideal gradation theoretically achievable may be rarely achieved in
practice (Vick 1990, Lighthall 1989). Nevertheless, consideration of the header tailings velocity,
the solids concentration in the header and spigot lines, and the point of discharge (among other
factors) may allow the development of beaches which provide structural stability to the main
embankment while also creating a long seepage path (providing consequent dissipation of pore
pressure) from the pond to the embankment (Lighthall 1989).

Cycloning
Tailings sands (the coarse fraction of the tailings) may be used to construct tailings dams during
active deposition. Mining companies typically view cost savings as the major advantage of using
the coarse fraction in this manner. Since the sand is produced from the material to be deposited
(the tailings), any costs related to acquiring borrow fill for the construction of embankments is
eliminated or significantly reduced. This practice also reduces the overall volume of tailings to
be deposited in the impoundment, since at least part of the coarse fraction has been used in the
dam construction. The method used to separate the fines from the coarse fraction in the total
tailings slurry is cycloning.

Cyclones are simple mechanical devices used to separate coarse and fine particles from a slurry
through centrifugal action. As the slurry, moving under pressure, enters the cyclone, the fine
particles and most of the water rise to the top outlet. The coarse particles spiral downward
through a conical section and exit the bottom. The separated fine fraction is referred to as
overflow and the sand fraction is known as the underflow. It is the underflow that is used to
construct the tailings embankments, while the overflow is discharged through a separate slimes
pipeline to the impoundment itself. The underflow and overflow should be monitored regularly
to measure pulp densities, gradation, and cyclone inlet pressures. Adjustments of the cyclones
are routinely required to maintain pulp density and grain size objectives.

Failure Modes
As noted above, calculation of the safety factor for a tailings embankment requires an analysis of
the potential failure surfaces of the embankment. There are a number of common failure modes
to which embankments may be vulnerable. These include slope failure from rotational slide,
overtopping, foundation failure, erosion, piping, and liquefaction. Each failure mode may result
in partial or complete embankment failure.

Rotational Sliding
Rotational sliding, so named because the failure surface appears as a segment of a horizontal
cylinder, may result in slope failures ranging from local sloughing of tailings at random areas
along the face of an embankment to massive circular arc slides extending over the entire
structure. In general, for a stable slope, the shear strength resisting movement along a potential
failure surface exceeds the shear stress tending to induce movement. Instability occurs when the
shear stress on the failure surface equals the shear strength (Vick 1990). Specifically, causes of
rotational failure may include changes in the water table, changes in the permeability of the
foundation materials, disturbances to the embankment caused by vibration or impact loading,
settlement of the foundation materials, etc (CANMET 1977).

Foundation Failure
Foundation failures are not uncommon among earthfill structures. Where a weak layer of soil or
rock exists at shallow depth in the foundation below the structure, movement along a failure
plane will occur if the earthfill loading produces stresses in excess of the shear strength of the
soil in the weak layer (CANMET 1977).

Overtopping
One of the most common causes of failure is overtopping by flood waters. Overtopping typically
results when the volume of run-on entering an impoundment, from improper diversion of surface
water flows or excessive stormwater flow, exceeds the capacity of the impoundment. Because
tailings embankments are constructed of highly erodible materials, the friction caused by rapid
flow over an unprotected embankment crest may quickly erode a gully in the fill material,
allowing sustained release to occur. Additionally, a rapid increase in pore pressure associated
with large stormwater inflow may result in the liquefaction of unconsolidated impounded sands
and slimes. Sustained high flow over the crest of an embankment can thus result in a major
failure of the overall impoundment within minutes (CANMET 1977).

Erosion
In areas of heavy rainfall, some form of protection against erosion is usually required. Tailings
embankments may be susceptible to erosion failure in two major areas, embankment abutments
and the embankment face. Erosion along the contact line between the embankment and the
abutment may result from stormwater flow that concentrates there (CANMET 1977). Typically,
this type of failure is preventable with proper stormwater diversion methods and so results from
faulty design or maintenance. Erosion of embankment faces may result from rupture in tailings
lines installed on the embankment crest. Again, maintenance (and alternate siting of tailings
lines) may prevent this type of failure.

Piping
Piping refers to subsurface erosion along a seepage pathway within or beneath an embankment
which results in the formation of a low-pressure conduit allowing concentrated flow. Piping may
result from seepage exiting the face of an embankment with sufficient velocity to erode the
embankment face. The resulting void space promotes progressive erosion extending upstream
toward the source of the seepage. In the worst case, the seepage may result in the creation of a
direct channel from the tailings pond to the dam face (CANMET 1977). Excessive piping may
result in local or general failure of the embankment or the embankment foundation.

Liquefaction
Liquefaction is one of the most common failure modes of cross-valley dams. Because tailings
deposits typically comprise unconsolidated, saturated deposits of similarly-sized grains, they are
susceptible to temporary suspension in water (Vick 1990). Liquified tailings may behave like a
viscous fluid, such that they may pass through narrow openings and flow considerable distances
(CANMET 1977). Accordingly, even small dam failures may result in substantial releases of
impounded materials if those materials become suspended.
Factors affecting liquefaction potential include:
• Soil type - Uniform grain size materials, mostly in the fine sand sizes (the typical gradation of a
tailings material), are the most susceptible to liquefaction.
• Relative density or compactness - For a given material, the more compact or dense it is the
more resistant it will be to liquefaction.
• Initial confining pressure at the time subjected to dynamic stress - This offers an opportunity in
certain areas to prevent liquefaction by applying overloads to loose deposits.
• Intensity and duration of the ground shaking - Liquefaction may occur due to an intensive
earthquake, or due to prolonged earth movement.
• Location of the water table - A high water able is detrimental. Consequently, a tailings deposit
constructed on a pervious foundation or a dam with a phreatic line kept low by providing
adequate internal drainage features may have a greatly reduced potential for liquefaction. (Vick
1977)

Acid Mine Drainage

Pyrite (FeS2) is commonly associated with coal and metal ore deposits. Its oxidation occurs
spontaneously in nature, causing environmental problems like Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) and
mine-tailing leachate containing heavy metals. Discharge of acid drainage into water bodies
causes an instant threat to the biota and ecological balance. In addition, acid drainage can
threaten drinking water supplies and irrigation systems downstream from a mining site.

AMD is a specific type of wastewater, which arises in mining of sulphidic ores, ore tailings or
overburdens. At sites of moderate-to-high rainfall, AMD can be produced in large quantities,
which significantly complicates its treatment. Due to mineralogy, and other environmental
factors (especially climate), the potential for AMD formation is highly variable from site to site.
Pyrite oxidation takes place when the mineral is exposed to air and water. AMD involves the
oxidation of pyrite and other sulphides, and yields Fe3+ and sulphuric acid. The overall chemical
reaction governing pyrite oxidation is:
FeS2 + 15/4 O2 + 7/2 H2O  Fe(OH)3 + 2SO42- + 4H+
Note that the oxidation of sulphidic minerals can be accelerated by a special group of bacteria
called
acidophiles (e.g. Thiobacillus thiooxidans and Thiobacillus ferrooxidans). Both water and
oxygen are necessary to generate acid drainage. Water serves both as a reactant and as a medium
for bacteria in the oxidation process. Water also transports oxidation products. Oxygen is
required as a reactant and to sustain bacteria. Unsaturated and moist conditions in mine-waste
profiles and tailings beds represent near-optimal conditions for sulphide oxidation.

Acid drainage can continue long after mining operations are complete. Abandoned mines can
represent a substantial liability for industry and government once the economic resource at a site
has been mined out.

Management Plan
There are a great variety of strategies available to prevent or mitigate the impact of AMD. These
include avoidance of disturbance, dry covers, underwater storage, neutralization and collection
and treatment.
Each of these strategies targets a different aspect of AMD, uses different mechanisms or
processes and varies in its effectiveness. Avoidance of disturbance of a potential acid forming
material is always the preferred option. PAF materials are inert as long as they are not exposed to
oxygen and water. If disturbance is inevitable, minimisation of acid drainage requires control of
oxygen diffusion, water infiltration and neutralisation of existing and potential acidity.

There are basically two types of covers: wet covers and dry covers. The most common type of
wet cover is underwater placement. The most common type of dry cover is the impermeable
barrier, such as a multi layer barrier. The climatic setting and topography of the mine-site has a
direct bearing on the choice of either wet cover or dry cover for the long-term containment of
sulphidic materials.

Dry Cover System

Implementing a dry cover system is a common AMD prevention and control technique. The
objectives of a dry cover system are to minimise the influx of water and provide an oxygen
barrier. Apart from these functions, dry covers should be resistant to erosion and should provide
support to vegetation. For example, a low permeability layer, typically achieved through
compaction of local borrow material, is placed directly on the underlying waste. The objective is
to provide a hydraulic barrier to percolation of water. A non-compacted layer must overlay the
compacted layer. Its objective is to establish a sustainable vegetation cover and at the same time
reduce the net percolation. Additional design objectives for dry cover systems placed on reactive
tailings and waste rock, may consider oxygen consumption (organic cover materials) and
reaction-inhibiting materials (e.g. limestone).

Several factors influence the design objectives of a dry cover system. The key factors are climate
conditions, waste material reactivity and type of waste material. Reactive waste will usually
indicate that a higher quality cover system is required to control further reactions. Successful
long-term cover performance requires proactive detection and resolution of problems prior to
significant environmental impacts. This involves monitoring, maintenance, repair and
contingency plans. When considering AMD management, best environmental practice requires
site-specific adaptation of local resources and environment conditions.

Water Cover Systems

An alternative to prevent AMD is to bury PAF material under water. The water will work as an
oxygen barrier. The dissolved oxygen concentration in water is 8.6mg/L at 25ºC, which is
approximately 25000 times lower than in the air. Organic matter and other reduced compounds
can rapidly consume the dissolved oxygen in the water, which is then not available for sulphide
oxidation. Concerns to be addressed include the potential delay in attaining full submergence, the
potential overtopping of the water-storage structure, water level fluctuations and the eventual
loading and discharge locations. It is important to ensure that all PAF material must be
permanently covered by at least two meters of water.
The use of natural or artificial lakes for disposal of PAF material may compromise other
beneficial uses (e.g. recreational lake or aquaculture).

Neutralization
The degree of contamination resulting from the tailings oxidation depends on the buffering
capacity of the system. If there is significant alkalinity in the tailings, the acidity released during
sulphide oxidation will be neutralized. At near neutral pH, aqueous metals tend to precipitate as
hydroxide. Metals may also adsorb onto surfaces of these newly formed precipitates. The
utilization of limestone (crushed CaCO3) and similar alkaline reagents has proven to be at least
effective in increasing the pH and thereby precipitating and immobilizing metals. Note: Where
possible, outline volumes and approximate mining sequence for different materials, and how
they will be handled and disposed. Factors to consider will vary depending on the waste material,
features of the site, and the depositional environment.

Field Performance Monitoring

A monitoring programme is required to develop an understanding of the key processes and to
verify the predicted performance of the mitigation strategy. The monitoring programme should
provide information during mining life and following mine closure. Hydrogeological
investigations can determine the best location for construction of monitoring bores and may help
to predict the impact of the transport of sulphidic materials or metals mobilised into the
groundwater.
Monitoring bores should be installed in the aquifer down gradient side of the waste dump and
monitored for pH and heavy metals (Figure 1). The results of analysis of monitoring bores
should be compared with background values to determine whether AMD is being generated.
UNIT 8 MINE CLOSURE PLAN

Mine closure planning involves planning effectively for the after-mining landscape – all
activities required before, during, and after the operating life of a mine that are needed to
produce an acceptable landscape economically. Closure performance refers to the activities near
and after mine closure and how well activities listed in the closure plan are carried out.
A mine begins to close the day it opens. Decisions made during the mine planning and
development phase – and even earlier, during the exploration phase – have profound effects on
the ultimate closure plan, its cost, and the resulting landscape performance. These decisions need
to be made within a framework of closure planning to realize successful land reclamation.
Activities related to closure planning often include: preparation of detailed drawings of disturbed
landscape, compilation of baseline information, discussions with regulators and stakeholders on
end land use considerations, crafting of supporting research programs, and preparation of
budgets and schedules. For a mine nearing closure, the closure plan takes the form of a
decommissioning plan, and includes details and selection of mitigative technologies (especially
for acid rock drainage) and other specific reclamation and closure activities.
A critical element of successful reclamation and of good closure planning is stakeholder
involvement. Generally, mines do a poor job of ongoing, meaningful stakeholder consultation,
and many would benefit from professional assistance. A particularly useful consultation process
involves forming a local committee to provide guidance to one or more mines in the region in
their reclamation and closure activities with a focus on providing ongoing dialog with
stakeholders and identifying the goals important to stakeholders.
The most important benefit of closure planning is identification of critical activities to achieve
successful reclamation. Closure planning usually identifies areas of needed research. It also
identifies planning constraints (and sometimes opportunities) especially identifying safe methods
and locations for tailings storage. These plans provide some assurance that the mine is not
“painting itself into a corner” and provide a starting basis to estimate financial assurance levels –
important to both mines and regulators. It also forms a base case against which future planning
changes can be compared. Much of this work falls under the concept of “design for closure”
introduced 30 years ago.
Typical closure plans are 100 to 200 page documents that require several months to prepare and
cost approximately US$200,000. They are usually developed by the supervisor of the
environmental department, or by a mining, environmental, or geotechnical consultant. They are
submitted at the request of the regulatory authority and are used by the mine for life of mine
costing.
Most closure planning documents share the same format:
1. Introduction
2. Predevelopment conditions
3. Mine operations explained
4. Landscape performance goals (and regulatory requirements)
 5. Reclamation technologies and methods
6. Reclamation plans, balances, waste isolation methods
7. Long term monitoring and maintenance plans
8. Landscape performance prediction
9. Comparison of the performance prediction relative to the goals
10. Schedules and costs
11. Financial assurance

Closure Scenarios
Planned Closure
Planned closure involves the preparation of a Conceptual Closure Plan, and the timely evolution
from it of the Closure Plan. When developed, the Closure Plan is based on the current level of
bio-physical and socio-economic information, and mine planning and development detail. As the
Project advances, the Closure Plan should be regularly updated and refined to reflect changes in
mine development and operational planning, and environmental conditions. Planned closure
requires the preparation of a decommissioning plan some years prior to closure, and the
systematic implementation of this plan.
Sudden (Unplanned) Closure
In the event of sudden or unplanned closure, an accelerated closure process will need to be
implemented. This involves the immediate preparation and implementation of a
decommissioning plan (based on the pre-existing Closure Plan), taking into account the site’s
non-operational status. Where provision accounts are inadequate to fund the full closure
requirements, funds will need to be provided from other company sources.
Temporary Closure (Care & Maintenance)
As a result of economic or operational circumstances, it is possible that mining and/or milling
activity may cease and the operation will shut down on a temporary basis. A temporary
shutdown of this nature is normally planned and assumes that the operation will recommence.
The care and maintenance process involves the immediate preparation and implementation of a
decommissioning plan, taking into account the potential for future operations at the site. It is
recommended that where possible, and economically sensible, rehabilitation should be
undertaken on all disturbed areas, even if it is likely that some of these areas will be disturbed in
the future. Site remediation, and works to prevent potential off-site contamination, should be
implemented as if for a final closure scenario. A temporary closure should always trigger a
review of the final Closure Plan, which will be required to be implemented if circumstances
remain adverse to the reopening of the operation.
Management & Monitoring
Provision should be made in closure planning for an adequate period of maintenance and
monitoring. Monitoring should be designed to demonstrate that completion criteria have been
met and that the site is safe, stable and has achieved the land use objectives set during the
planning process. It is unlikely that such conditions can be demonstrated in less than 5 years
following cessation of mining. Of particular importance is the development of support
mechanisms for the maintenance and monitoring phase, when operational support (accounting,
maintenance, etc.) is no longer readily available.
The need for maintenance recognises that not all closure strategies will be initially successful.
All closure situations are unique, and although past experience and good planning can minimise
the risks of failure, some remedial activity will usually be necessary. Where the opportunity
exists to relinquish tenement progressively this should be taken.

In planning for closure, there are four key objectives that must be considered:

1. protect public health and safety;

2. alleviate or eliminate environmental damage;

3. achieve a productive use of the land, or a return to its original condition or an acceptable
alternative; and,

4. to the extent achievable, provide for sustainability of social and economic benefits
resulting from mine development and operations.

Impacts that change conditions affecting these objectives are often broadly discussed as the
'impacts' or the environmental impacts of a site or a closure plan. It is convenient to consider
potential impacts in four groupings:

1. Physical stability - buildings, structures, workings, pit slopes, underground openings etc.
must be stable and not move so as to eliminate any hazard to the public health and safety
or material erosion to the terrestrial or aquatic receiving environment at concentrations
that are harmful. Engineered structures must not deteriorate and fail.

2. Geochemical stability - minerals, metals and 'other' contaminants must be stable, that is,
must not leach and/or migrate into the receiving environment at concentrations that are
harmful. Weathering oxidation and leaching processes must not transport contaminants,
in excessive concentrations, into the environment. Surface waters and groundwater must
be protected against adverse environmental impacts resulting from mining and processing
activities.

3. Land use - the closed mine site should be rehabilitated to pre-mining conditions or
conditions that are compatible with the surrounding lands or achieves an agreed
alternative productive land use. Generally the former requires the land to be aesthetically
 similar to the surroundings and capable of supporting a self-sustaining ecosystem typical
of the area.

4. Sustainable development - elements of mine development that contribute to (impact) the

sustainability of social and economic benefit, post mining, should be maintained and
transferred to succeeding custodians.

Clearly the assessment of these types of impacts and closure requirements must address
components of the site as well as the region and must select measures and allocate resources to
address the major issues of impact. In order to minimize the various impacts, risks and liabilities,
it is necessary to anticipate, as early in the process as possible, potential future liabilities and
risks, and to plan for their elimination or minimization. In many areas, much of the liability or
risk is associated with the uncertainty of the requirements for closure and rehabilitation from the
succeeding custodian (be it a government agency, community organization or corporate entity).
Early identification of the succeeding custodian, and their involvement in the development of the
closure plan enables the closure requirements to be established and agreed and considered in the
closure plan development. This allows the mining company to determine, and provide for, the
requirements of the succeeding custodians, gain their support for the closure plan and minimize
the risks and liabilities that may derive from succeeding custodian rejection or objection to the
closure measures at the time of mine closure.

Mine Closure - Steps In Closure Plan Development

The typical steps for closure planning are shown in Figure 1. These steps also provide a logical
order in which to develop and present the various sections of a Closure Plan Report. They
provide the reader with a progressive description of the material required to understand the need
for, nature of, effectiveness of, and cost the Closure Plan.
Any closure plan must consider the long-term physical, chemical, biological and social/land-use
effects on the surrounding natural systems (aquatic, groundwater, surface water etc.). Therefore
there must be an understanding of the pre-mining environment (step 1) and the effects of past
and future mine development (step 2) on the pre-mining environment. Operational control
measures must be selected (step 3) for implementation during mining in order to minimize the
impact on the surrounding ecosystems. Impact assessments (step 4) must be done prior to
measures selection as well as periodically during operations in order to determine the success of
the measures implemented. Alternative mine closure measures are developed (step 5) and
assessed (step 6) during mine design to ensure that there are suitable closure measures available
to remediate the impact of the selected mine development.
If suitable remediation or closure measures cannot be identified or achieved, then it may be
appropriate to revise the type of mine development proposed (return to step 2). Once a
technically acceptable mine development and closure plan has been developed it is necessary to
prepare a monitoring and maintenance plan (step 7) that will monitor the system performance
during operations and post closure and provide for the maintenance necessary to ensure the long
term functionality of the system components. Throughout this process, costing and scheduling
evaluations (step 8) are completed, if the costs are too onerous, or if fatal flaws in the design are
identified, the process returns to the design phase (step 2) and alternative measures are evaluated
Once an acceptable plan is completed, an acceptable form of financial assurance is developed
and provided (step 9) in order to cover the costs of plan implementation, long term operations,
monitoring and maintenance of the site post closure. The final stages of the closure plan process
involve the application for (step 10) and approval by (step 11) the regulatory agencies of the
Closure Plan, and implementation (step 12) at the end of mine life.
Figure 2 provides an illustration of the successive activities at various stages of a mine project's
life. The mining process, and the mine closure planning process, involve stages that evolve from
conceptual to feasibility to permitting to operating to closure and finally to a post closure stage.
These stages are shown on the figure down the left hand side. The circle at the top of the figure
illustrates the decision-making activities as discussed above that are typically involved at each
stage.