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GHS BONADIKOMBO MILE 4, LIMBE ALevel Information and Communication Technology

CHAPTER ONE 2. Generations of Computers

THE RANGE AND SCOPE OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS Computers of specific electronic era are often referred to as a generation. Each generation is characterized
by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting
Introduction in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.
Calculations have always been part of man's life. Simpler calculations take less time but complex
calculations take much longer time. With the idea of developing a machine which could perform complex Definition: A computer generation is an era or period in the history of computers characterized by a major
calculations faster and with full accuracy, man invented the ‘computer’. The term computer is derived technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate.
from the Latin word “computare” which means “to calculate” meaning that a computer is simply a
calculating machine. 2.1. First Generation (1942-1955)
A computer is an electronic device that can accept, store, and process data to produce information. First generation computers were made using vacuum tubes. A vacuum tube was a fragile glass device that
It can also be defined as a machine that can take instructions and perform computations based on those could control and amplify electronic signals. These computers were very large taking up entire rooms,
instructions. very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which
Computers range from very small to very large machines with some capable of doing millions of was often the cause of malfunctions.
calculations in a single second, while others may take long periods of time to do even the most simple First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
calculations. understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input
was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
1. Classification of Computers Some examples of first generation computers are ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator AndCalculator),
Computers can be categorized by both size and the number of people who can use them concurrently. The EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) and UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer I).
size of the computer may refer to multiple factors like, size of the memory, number of terminals that can
be connected to the computer, storage capacity of the hard disk and the type of processor used in the 2.2. Second Generation (1955-1964)
computer. These categories are supercomputers, mainframe computers, minicomputers and Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor
microcomputers. was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-
efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated
1.1. Microcomputers a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum
Microcomputers are the smallest category of computers that range in size from servers to handheld tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
devices. They are the type of computers meant for public use. They are designed to be used by one person Second generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly
at a time. Microcomputers, also called personal computers (PC), can be further classified into desktop languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming
computers, laptop computers, Tablet PCs and personal digital assistants (PDAs). languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These
were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a
1.2. Minicomputers magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. Examples of second generation computers are IBM 7094
Minicomputers are larger and faster than microcomputers and are designed to support more than one series, IBM 1400 series and CDC.
user at a time. They are generally used for processing large volumes of data in an organization.
Minicomputers are also used as servers in a local area network. Another name for minicomputers is “mid- 2.3. Third Generation (1964-1975)
range computers.” Two classic examples of minicomputers were the Digital Equipment Corporation VAX Third generation computers were designed with the use of integrated circuits (ICs). Integrated circuits
and the IBM AS/400. made it possible to embed a large number of transistors into very small surface area of silicon known as
chip. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through
1.3. Mainframe Computers keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many
Mainframes are powerful multi-user computers capable of supporting up to hundreds of users different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the
simultaneously. They operate at very high speed and have very large storage capacities. They are used by first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their
large organizations like meteorological surveys and statistical institutes for performing bulk mathematical predecessors. Examples of third generation computers are IBM 370, IBM System/360,UNIVAC
computations. 1108 and UNIVAC AC 9000.

1.4. Supercomputers 2.4. Fourth Generation (1975-)

Supercomputers are the fastest and most expensive type of computers. They can perform hundreds of The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of transistors could be
millions of computations per second and are employed for specialized applications that require immense placed on a single silicon chip. The term very large scale integration (VLSI) was coined to describe this
amounts of mathematical calculations. Weather forecasting, scientific simulations, nuclear energy technology. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. As
research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data all require supercomputers. Examples of these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which
supercomputers are Fujitsu K computer, IBM Blue Gene, Cray Jaguar and NEC Earth Simulator. eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development
of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

2.5. Fifth Generation (present) goods. Once payment has been authorized by the bank, money is removed from the customer’s account
Till fourth generation computers, the main stress was on hardware technology. Fourth generation and electronically paid into the shop's account.
computers are faster, more accurate, reliable, smaller in size and very cheap, still they lack thinking
power. Fifth generation computing devices are based on artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence will 3.2. Industrial, Scientific and Technical Uses
give computers thinking power and capability to make decisions like human beings. They are still in 3.2.1. Modeling and Simulation
development though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. Many things can be described by a set of mathematical formulas. When these formulas are included in a
computer program, the result is a computer model. A computer model is a computer program that
3. Applications of Computers represents the construction and working of a real-life situation or system. Models are usually produced in
Computers are fast becoming our way of life and one cannot imagine life without computers in today’s order to study the systems they represent. This process is known as simulation.
world. Their importance can be attributed to the fact that almost every sphere of our life is affected. We
find their applications particularly in fields where computations are required to be done at a very fast Definition: Simulation is the manipulation or operation of a model of a system in order to study the behavior
speed and where data is so complicated that the human brain finds it difficult to cope up with. of the real system.

3.1. Commercial and General Data Processing Systems Modeling and simulation are useful for studying systems which would be impossible, too expensive to
3.1.1. ATM Systems build, impractical or dangerous to work with. Examples of situations that can be simulated are:
ATM stands for Automatic/Automated Teller Machine. It is a machine that is connected to a bank’s o The training of pilots
computer system that provides the bank’s customers with access to financial transactions in a public o The design of a bridge
space without the need for a cashier, human clerk or bank teller. The ATM can be used by the customers to o The design of a building
make cash withdrawals, credit card advances or check their account balances. o The design of a racing car
On most modern ATM systems, a customer is identified by inserting a plastic ATM card with a magnetic
stripe or a plastic smart card with a chip, which contains a unique card number and some security 3.2.2. Computer-Aided Design
information. Authentication is provided by the customer entering a personal identification number (PIN). Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer technology in the design process. A CAD software
Upon successful entry of the PIN, the customer may perform a transaction. package allows a designer to create technical drawings and schematics which can be 2-dimensional or 3-
ATMs are known by various other names including automatic/automated banking machine (ABM), dimensional.
automated transaction machine and cashpoint. The benefit of CAD software packages is their ability to provide a digital prototype of the product at early
stages of the design process, which can be used for testing and evaluation. Examples of CAD applications
3.1.2. Stock Control Systems are AutoCAD used for technical drawings and ARES used for designing printed circuit boards.
The collection of items that a business manufactures or sells is called stock. In a shop for example, the
stock includes all of the items on the shelves and out the back in the storeroom. 3.2.3. Computer-Aided Manufacturing
It is important that a business does not keep too much stock or too little stock. This is because: Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer technology to assist in the manufacturing
o Too much stock costs money as you have to store it all somewhere process. In CAM, the computer is used to program, direct, and control production equipment in order to
o Too much perishable stock (e.g. food) means that it may go bad before it is sold manufacture products. Its primary purpose is to create a faster production process and components and
o Too little stock means that you might run out of stock before the next delivery arrives tooling with more detailed dimensions and material consistency, which in some cases, uses only the
required amount of raw material (thus minimizing waste), while simultaneously reducing energy
Definition: A stock control system is basically a database that keeps track of stock and informs users of when consumption. For example, on the production line of a car plant, computers will control the robots that
to re-order along with helpful sales reports. spot-weld the car body together or the robots that spray-paint the car.

When items are sold or delivered, their codes are input to the system either manually or using a point-of- 3.3. Control Systems, Automation Systems and Robotics
sale terminal (barcode scanner or similar technology). The database matches the codes with the items’ 3.3.1. Monitoring and Control Systems
names and prices, prints an itemized bill and uses the data to update stock levels. It also updates a sales Control is the process of monitoring activities to ensure that they are being accomplished as planned and
file which can be used there and then to calculate all sorts of statistics.Stock control systems make it very of correcting any significant deviations. A computer control system is a computerized system designed to
easy for stock levels to be monitored, and for stock to be reordered when it is running low. control a process. Examples are traffic light control systems, greenhouse control systems, and patient
monitoring systems.
3.1.3. EFTPOS Systems
EFTPOS stands for Electronic Fund Transfer at the Point Of Sale. It is a system that combines a business’
stock control system (EPOS) with an electronic fund transfer system, thereby enabling the business to
conduct financial transactions electronically. It allows individuals to pay for goods using credit or debit
cards. To pay for goods, a customer inserts their debit or credit card into a terminal device and type in a
PIN number to verify that it is their card. The system electronically contacts their bank to check that the
card is valid and hasn't been stolen and also that there is enough fund in their account to pay for the

a. Green House Control System:In a greenhouse system, a computer controls the temperature in a CHAPTER TWO
greenhouse to maintain the conditions required for the plants in it to grow. The greenhouse has SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, ETHICAL AND LEGAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE USE OF COMPUTERS
temperature and humidity sensors linked to a computer, and the computer has a control program storing
details of the correct temperature and humidity settings. The greenhouse is fitted with a heater, sprinkler Introduction
and window motor, also linked to the computer. If the humidity falls below the values stored in the Computers have had many effects on individuals in society. They have impacted on the way individuals
program, the computer activates the sprinklers and closes the windows. If the temperature falls outside work, socialize and run their lives. As a result of computers, an individual's values are now in constant
the values stored in the program, the heater is activated by the computer. flux. The moral and ethical framework that guides an individual is constantly changing as is the economic
The system monitors the conditions night and day with immediate response to any changes. To alter the and legal framework within which lives are led.
growing conditions the values in the computer program can of course be changed.
1. Social and Economic Effects of Computers
b. Traffic Light System:In a traffic light system a computer controls the sequences of lights displayed at The widespread use of computers has affected people and organizations in many ways. Some of the effects
a cross-roads to ensure that cars do not crash. Additionally the computer operates a pedestrian crossing of computers include:
to let pedestrians cross the road when a button is pressed. o The introduction of computers have made some jobs outdated leading to unemployment
o New jobs have been created like engineering to build machines, software programming to write
c. Patient Monitoring System:In a patient monitoring system, a computer controls the system used to programs for the computers, etc
measure the health condition of patients. If a patient’s condition gets critical, the system alerts the nurses o There is reduction in working hours as a result of automation of some tasks which can lead to
or a doctor. reduction of salaries.
o The introduction of computers has led to retraining or reskilling as many employees have to be
3.3.2. Robotics trained on how to use a computer.
Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation and application of o Replacement of skilled staff by computers leads to deskilling as staff are left to do less skilled jobs.
robots. A robot is a machine that is designed to repeatedly do what humans can do with speed and As a result, a skilled employee suddenly is the proud possessor of skills that no-one needs any
precision. An important application of this technology has been to create robots to perform certain more.
functions that are dangerous for human beings, or to do tasks that can be more effectively performed by o Automation of tasks has led to an increase in productivity thereby improving the profit of the
machines than by people. Although it may not have the physical appearance of a human being, a robot organization.
may be thought of as a machine acting as a person while being controlled by a computer. o If staff are striking, work can easily be switched to non-striking staff via a network, even in another
country. This is known as electronic scabbing.
o Computers have led to new types of crimes like phishing, identity theft, piracy etc
o The post office has become more of a bill paying center than a communication center as it is now
***** END CHAPTER ONE ***** faster and cheaper to communicate online through emails and chats.
o More information can be stored on very little space
o Privacy has become a concern as confidential data stored in computers or distributed on networks
can be intercepted by hackers and crackers.

2. Computer Crimes
A computer crime is any illegal act that involves the computer either as the target of the crime or as a tool
used in committing the crime. When the computer is the target of the criminal act, the crime is said to be a
computer-related crime. When it is a tool used to commit the crime, the crime is referred to as a
computer-assisted crime.

2.1. Types of Computer Crimes

2.1.1. Phishing
Phishing is the criminally fraudulent process of acquiring or attempting to acquire sensitive information
such as usernames, passwords and credit card details by masquerading as a trustworthy entity in an
electronic communication. The phisher sends out an e-mail that pretends to come from a bank or
corporation with which the victim has an account.The e-mail message tells the victim to click on a link in
order to handle some kind of urgent business. In reality, both the message and the link are counterfeit,
and the victim ends up giving their password or credit card information to the phisher, or at the very least,
visiting a web site that disseminates malware.

2.1.2. Software Piracy 2.1.5. Cyber Stalking

Software piracy or copyright infringement is the illegal (unauthorized) reproduction of copyrighted or Cyber stalking is a crime in which the attacker harasses a victim using electronic communication, such as
patented software for personal use, for sale or free distribution. It is the most widely practiced type of e-mail or instant messaging (IM), or messages posted to a web site or a discussion group. Cyber stalking
computer crime. Software piracy occurs more easily with the ability to post files for downloading all over messages differ from ordinary spam in that a cyber-stalker targets a specific victim with often threatening
the world. However, another more costly copyright infringement occurs when trademarks and logos of messages, while the spammer targets a multitude of recipients with simply annoying messages.
corporations are posted on non-authorized web sites. Some criminals utilize the trademarks and logos to
appear to be a legitimate site to perpetrate fraud. Many corporations have employees or consulting 2.1.6. Cyber Terrorism
contractors who constantly crawl the web to sniff out illegal usage of trademarks and logos. Cyber terrorism can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or
computer resources. As such, a simple propaganda in the Internet, that there will be bomb attacks during
2.1.3. Production and Distribution of Malware the holidays can be considered cyber terrorism.
Malware is software created and distributed for malicious purposes, such as invading computer systems
in the form of viruses, worms, or innocent-seeming plug-ins and extensions that mask other destructive Other types of crimes are: scamming, theft of computer equipment, pharming, spoofing, and phreaking.
capabilities.
2.2. Measures to Combat Computer Crimes
a. Virus: A virus is a computer program that infects computer files by inserting in those files copies of The following measures can be used to combat computer crimes:
itself. The copies are usually executed when the file is loaded into memory, allowing the virus to infect still o Install strong doors and locks to computer rooms to prevent computer equipment theft.
other files, and so on. Viruses often have damaging side effects—sometimes intentionally, sometimes not. o Use access control mechanisms that will ensure confidentiality, integrity and availability.
For example, some viruses can destroy a computer’s hard disk or take up memory space that could o Encrypt confidential data stored in computers or transmitted over communication networks.
otherwise be used by programs. o Install antivirus software and update it regularly
o Install intrusion detection systems to help detect any unauthorized access to the system.
b. Worm:A worm is a program that propagates itself across computers, usually by creating copies of o Install firewalls to prevent unauthorized access to local networks.
itself in each computer’s memory. A worm might duplicate itself in one computer so often that it causes
the computer to crash. Unlike a virus, a worm does not need to attach itself to an existing program. They 3. Computer Systems Security
cause harm to the network by consuming bandwidth whereas viruses corrupt or modify files on a Computer system security is the process of preventing and detecting the unauthorized use of computer
targeted computer. systems. Prevention helps stop unauthorized users from accessing any part of the computer system by
controlling access to the system, while detection helps determine whether or not someone attempted to
c. Trojan horse: A destructive program that appears to perform a desirable function for the user break into the system, if they were successful, and what they may have done.
prior to run or install. When run, a Trojan horse does something harmful to the computer system while Computer security has three main goals, confidentiality, integrity and availability, which can be
appearing to do something useful. A hacker can use a Trojan horse to access a computer remotely and conveniently summarized by the acronym "CIA":
perform various operations, limited by user privileges on the target computer system and the design of
the Trojan horse. o Confidentiality ensures that information is not accessed by unauthorized persons. In other words, it
ensures that information is kept secret or private.
d. Spyware:Spyware monitors a computer user’s activity without their knowledge and reports it to a o Integrity ensures that information is not altered by unauthorized persons in a way that is not
central location. The purpose of spyware ranges from purportedly benign (enforcing copyrights, detectable by authorized users. That means that there is an external consistency in the system -
displaying targeted advertisements) to very malicious (stealing passwords and credit card numbers).The everything is as it is expected to be.
most common way to get spyware on your computer is to install it yourself when you are tricked into o Availability ensures that the system is accessible and useable upon appropriate demand by
installing free software. authorized users. In other words, this means preventing denial-of-service.

e. Logic bomb:A piece of computer code that executes a malicious task such as clearing a hard drive Different mechanisms used to ensure the security of computer systems are authentication, encryption,
or deleting specific files, when it is triggered by a specific event. It is secretly inserted into the code of a firewalls, digital signatures, etc.
computer's existing software, where it lies dormant until that event occurs. This event may be a specific
date and time or failure to input a command at a certain time. 3.1. Authentication
Authentication is the process of determining if someone is who they declare to be. It is proving someone’s
2.1.4. Denial of Service identity. Authentication can be obtained by the user providing something they know (password),
A denial or degradation of service (DoS) is an attack to a computer system that puts it out of action by something they have (smartcard) or something they are (biometrics).
overloading it with data in a way that the system was never prepared to handle. A DoS attack makes the
system unavailable to its intended users. A distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack is one in which a 3.1.1. Passwords
multitude of compromised systems attack a single target, thereby causing denial of service for users of the A password is a secret sequence of characters that is required to login to a system, thus preventing
targeted system. unauthorized persons from gaining access to the system. When authentication is done through the use of
a password, knowledge of the password is assumed to guarantee that the user is authentic. Passwords can

be guessed or cracked and so if anyone is using a password to protect their system, the following 3.4. Intrusion Detection System
guidelines will help make it more secure: Intrusion detection system (IDS) is a security measure that notifies an administrator when a system policy
is being violated. Such violations may include the unauthorized opening of a hardware device, or a
o Don’t choose an obvious password (like your name, date of birth or name of relative) network resource being used without permission. An intrusion-detection system (IDS) monitors system
o Keep your password secret. Don’t share it! and network resources and activities and, using information gathered from these sources, notifies the
o Change your password regularly but not too often. authorities when it identifies a possible intrusion.
o Make your password at least eight characters long. For example, a corporate computer may be equipped with an IDS system that sounds an alarm and alerts
o Do not use common or proper words of phrases - these can be found using a dictionary cracker. the IT staff. IDS is helpful for companies concerned about employees opening a computer and stealing
o Use a mixture of upper and lower case letters and numbers. internal components such as RAM or installing something that should not be on in the computer.

3.1.2. Smart Card 3.5. Digital Signatures

A smart card is a small card that holds user authentication information. When the card is inserted into a A digital signature is a computed digest of a message that is encrypted and sent with the message. The
card reader, electrical fingers wipe against the card. The information in the card is read and used to recipient decrypts the signature and compares it with the received text. If they match, the message is
authenticate the person. Cards can be stolen and so are not as reliable as biometrics. authenticated and proved intact from the sender.
Digital signatures also ensure non-repudiation. Non-repudiation is the prevention of either the sender or
3.1.3. Biometrics the receiver denying a transmitted message. A system must be able to prove that certain messages were
Biometrics is the science and technology of measuring and analyzing biological data. In computer security, sent and received.
it refers to the use of measurable biological characteristics such as fingerprints, eye retinas, iris patterns,
facial patterns, voice patterns, hand measurements and DNA, to identify a person. It is the safest 4. Computer Ethics
authentication technique. Ethics refers to the principles of right and wrong that individuals, acting as free moral agents, use to make
choices that guide their own behavior. Ethical principles place a value on human acts according to
Question: What is access control? whether they are good or bad.Computer ethics refers to standards of good conduct applied within the use
of computers. It defines principles for judging computing acts whether they are good or bad.
3.2. Encryption
Encryption is the process of transforming a message using an algorithm into a form unreadable by anyone 4.1. Fundamental Principles of Computer Ethics
except the intended recipient. The original message is known as plaintext, the algorithm is cipher and the The fundamental principles of computer ethics formulated by the Computer Ethics Institute (CEI) as the
encrypted text is ciphertext. To read an encrypted message, one must have access to a key that will enable “Ten commandments” of computer ethics are:
them to decrypt it. 1. Thou shall not use a computer to harm other people.
Encryption ciphers can be grouped into two: substitution and transposition ciphers. 2. Thou shall not interfere with other people’s computer work.
3. Thou shall not snoop around in other people’s files.
Sender Recipient
4. Thou shall not use a computer to steal.
Hello Encrypted text Hello 5. Thou shall not use a computer to bear false witness.
%fd$h 6. Thou shall not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
7. Thou shall not use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper
Encryption Decryption compensation.
8. Thou shall not appropriate other people’s intellectual output.
9. Thou shall think about the social consequences of the program you write or the system you
design.
10. Thou shall use a computer in ways that show consideration and respect for your fellow
Encryption humans.

3.3. Firewall 4.2. Codes of Ethics and Professional Conduct

A firewall is a system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network. Firewalls are A code of ethics and professional conduct sets the standards for what is expected of a professional. They
implemented in either hardware or software form, or a combination of both. They prevent unauthorized are promises by professions to regulate themselves in the general interest of the society. Code of ethics for
Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the Internet. All messages entering or information technology professionals encourage them to behave ethically and responsibly with the tools
leaving the network must pass through the firewall which examines each message and blocks those that and information they have in their control. Examples are the British Computing Society (BCS) code of
do not meet the specified security criteria. Some Operating Systems like Windows XP, 7 and Mac OS X, ethics, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) code of ethics, and the Institute of Electrical and
have built-in firewalls. Electronics Engineer (IEEE) code of ethics.

4.2.1. ACM Code of Ethics 4.3. Netiquette

1. General Moral Imperatives Netiquette is short for network etiquette. It is a set of rules about acceptable behavior when
As an ACM member I will… communicating over the Internet. Some basic rules of netiquette are:
o Avoid flaming i.e. using obscene or inappropriate language in your emails or posts
1.1. Contribute to society and human well-being. o Avoid using capital letters in your emails/comments, it is considered like YOU ARE SHOUTING and
1.2. Avoid harm to others. it is harder to read.
1.3. Be honest and trustworthy. o Avoid sloppiness i.e. avoid spelling and grammatical errors. Re-read and edit your
1.4. Be fair and take action not to discriminate. emails/comments before you send/post
1.5. Honour copyrights and patents. o Always consult FAQs (frequently asked questions)
1.6. Give proper credit for intellectual property. o Do not send huge file attachments unless they are requested
1.7. Respect rights to limit access to computing and communication systems. o Always fill the subject field of an email before you send
1.8. Respect the privacy of others. o Do not format your emails with colored text or background color. They may cause them hard to
1.9. Honour confidentiality. read.

2. More Specific Professional Responsibilities. 5. Legislation

As an ACM Computing Professional I will . . . Legislation is the act of making and passing laws. Some laws that govern the use of computers are the Data
Protection Act, the Computer Misuse Act, the Copyright, Design and Patent Act, and the Health and Safety
2.1. Strive to achieve the highest quality, effectiveness and dignity in both the process and products of Act.
professional work.
2.2. Acquire and maintain professional competence. 5.1. The Data Protection Act
2.3. Know and respect existing laws pertaining to professional work. The Data Protection Act is aimed at protecting the rights of individuals to privacy. It protects personal
2.4. Accept and provide appropriate professional review. data from being misused. Personal data is data that can identify an individual and allow an opinion to be
2.5. Give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of computer systems and their impacts, including expressed about them. Data such as a person’s name and address is not considered personal data but their
analysis of possible risks. date of birth and salary would be. The eight basic principles of the Data Protection Act are:
2.6. Honor contracts, agreements, and assigned responsibilities.
2.7. Improve public understanding of computing and its consequences. 1. If an organization holds data on individuals, it must be registered under the act.
2.8. Access computing and communications resources only when authorized to do so. 2. Personal data should be processed fairly and lawfully
3. Personal data should not be disclosed in anyway other than lawfully and within the registered
4.2.2. IEEE Code of Ethics purpose.
We, the members of the IEEE, in recognition of the importance of our technologies in affecting the quality 4. Personal data should be adequate and relevant and not excessive for the required purpose.
of life throughout the world, and in accepting a personal obligation to our profession, its members and the 5. Personal data should be kept accurate and kept up to date
communities we serve, do hereby commit ourselves to the highest ethical and professional conduct and 6. Data must be processed in accordance with the right of the data subject
agree: 7. Appropriate security measures must be taken against unauthorized access
8. Data should not be transferred to countries that do not have suitable data protection laws.
1. To accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the public,
and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the public or the environment; 5.2. The Computer Misuse Act
2. To avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to disclose them to affected This Act makes it an offence to access any computer to which you do not have an authorized right to use. It
parties when they do exist; introduces three criminal offences:
3. To be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available data; 1. Unauthorized access to computer material.
4. To reject bribery in all its forms; 2. Unauthorized access with intent to commit or facilitate commission of further offences.
5. To improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate application, and potential consequences; 3. Unauthorized modification of computer material.
6. To maintain and improve our technical competence and to undertake technological tasks for others
only if qualified by training or experience, or after full disclosure of pertinent limitations; 5.3. Copyright, Design and Patent Act
7. To seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and correct errors, and to This Act is designed to protect all types of intellectual property and ensure that authors or creators of a
credit properly the contributions of others; piece of work receive both credit and compensation.
8. To treat fairly all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion, gender, disability, age, or national
origin; Copyrightis a legal concept, giving the creator of original work exclusive rights to control its distribution
9. To avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false or malicious action; for a certain time period. Something that is copyrighted is not to be reproduced, published or copied
without permission from the copyright holder. Ideas are not protected by copyright; only the specific
presentation of the idea is copyrightable.

o Tendonitis - inflammation of the tendons

Designis the appearance or construction of something. A design is not immediately protected. It must be o Tenosynovitis - inflammation of the synovial sheath
registered with the appropriate institution, o Carpal Tunnel Syndrome - results when the median nerve is compressed, either from the swelling
of tendons and sheaths or from repeated bending of the wrist
A Patentis a grant to inventors that give them exclusive monopoly over their invention. It gives them the
right to stop others from producing, selling or using their invention. Unlike copyrights, patents protect the Some of the conditions that may lead to CTDs are:
ideas or design of the invention rather than any tangible form of the invention. o Repetition - long or concentrated hours of typing or using a mouse
o Posture - long hours of sitting in the same position while typing, especially if it is in an
5.4. Health and Safety Act uncomfortable or poorly supported position, or if the wrists are bent
The original Act and its many added regulations cover the range of hazards an employee may face like o Lack of rest - intensive hours at the keyboard with few breaks
handling hazardous material. Some of the regulations that apply to the computing industry are: U
Symptoms of CTDs:
Display Screen Equipment Regulations: They cover the precautions that must be taken when an o Tingling or numbness in the hands or fingers
employee uses a visual display unit. The regulation covers items such as the chair which must be o Pain in fingers, hands, wrists, or even shooting up into the arms or forearms
adjustable, the desk which must be at the appropriate height, the monitor which must be adjustable and o Loss of strength or coordination in the hands
the lighting which must be appropriate. o Numbness or discomfort in the hands which wakes you up at night

Moving and Handling Regulations:These regulations lay down the rules for safe moving of heavy 6.1.2. Computer Vision Syndrome
objects. All employees involved in such activities must receive proper training on avoiding injury when This comprises problems related to seeing correctly like visual fatigue, dry itchy and sore eyes, blurred or
moving heavy objects. double vision, burning watery eyes and loss of color in affected regions. To avoid eyestrain, take the
following precautions:
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH):These regulations cover the safe storage and use of o Exercise your eyes periodically focusing on objects at different distances
hazardous materials. This includes items such as laser printer toners and anyone involved in replacing o Blink regularly
such items must be made aware of the potentially toxic nature of toners. o Position the monitor to avoid glare
o Keep your monitor clean
Assignment: State what you understand by the terms digital inclusionand digital divide. o Service, repair or replace a monitor that flickers

6. Computers in the Workplace 6.2. Ergonomics

It is important to note that in as much as the computer is a very vital tool for everyone’s daily use, it can Ergonomics refers to the study of the design and arrangement of equipment so that people will interact
also be a very harmful tool if poorly used. Using the computer for prolonged periods of time can lead to with the equipment in healthy, comfortable and efficient manner. Computers and related products, such
physical health risks. For this reason, users must ensure that they follow health measures and apply safety as computer desks and chairs, are frequently the focus of ergonomic design. If these products are poorly
precautions as they use the computers to avoid computer related disorders. designed or improperly adjusted for human use, the people using them may suffer unnecessary fatigue,
stress and even injury.
6.1. Computer Related Disorders
CRDs are health problems associated with prolonged computer usage. They include repetitive strain 6.2.1. Workstation Layout
injury, computer vision syndrome and headache. Workstation layout has to do with the arrangement of the computer and related products, in the
workplace. Appropriate placement of workstation components and accessories allows one to work in
6.1.1. Repetitive Strain Injury neutral body position which will enable them perform more efficiently, work more comfortably and safe.
Body movements are produced by contracting and relaxing muscles. The muscles are attached to bones by The layout for a comfortable and productive workstation involves the following:
tendons. Tendons are smooth, and in some parts of the body they glide back and forth inside tubes called
synovial sheaths. RSI results when repeated stress is placed on the tendons, muscles, or nerves of the → Desk or Work Surface Areas: Limited space on the work surface may cause users to place
body, causing inflammation or damage. components and devices in undesirable positions. This may lead to awkward postures as you reach
for a mouse/keyboard or look at a monitor that is to the side. Working with your neck turned to the
Definition: RSI is a health problem resulting from overusing a part of the body to perform a repetitive task, side prolonged periods load neck muscles unevenly and increase fatigue and pain.
like typing and clicking, thereby causing trauma to that part.
→ Areas under the Work surface: Inadequate clearance or space under the work surface due to poor
RSI is also called, cumulative trauma disorder (CTD), repetitive strain disorder, repetitive stress injury, design may result in discomfort and performance inefficiencies.
repetitive stress disorder, overuse syndrome, and musculoskeletal disorder.

Some of the most common types of RSI are:

→ Placement of components:Placing components e.g. mouse, telephone, far away from you can cause CHAPTER FOUR
you to repeatedly reach out for them resulting in strain on the shoulder, arm and neck. NUMBER SYTEMS AND DATA REPRESENTATION

6.2.2. Sitting Posture Introduction

Working with the body in a neutral position is important. It reduces stress and strain on the muscles, Computers use the binary number system to represent information. This is because the circuits in a
tendons and skeletal system thereby reducing your risk of developing musculoskeletal disorders. For a computer's processor are made up of billions of tiny switches called transistors, which can have only one
good sitting posture the following points are vital: of two possible states “ON” and “OFF, wherethe state ON means the presence of current and the state OFF
o The monitor should be set so that your neck will be straight means the absence of current. Since the binary number system is a system of numbers based on two
o Your elbows should stay close to the body and be bent at about 90 o, with your upper arms hanging possible digits – 0 and 1, it is suitable for representing data in the computer where 0 represents the state
naturally from the side. OFF and 1, the state ON. To store data in the computer, the data is encoded in binary format and stored
o Keep your hands in line with the fore arms so your wrists are straight. You may use a wrist rest or using switches where each switch could represent 1 or 0 depending on whether it is turned on or off.
arm rest to help keep your wrists straight and your arm muscles from being overworked.
Performing task without a wrist rest may increase the angle to which user’s wrists are bent. 1. Number Systems
Increasing the angle of bend increases contact stress and irritation on tendons and tendon sheaths. A number system is a set of digits and rules used to represent numbers. The number of different digits
o Your feet should be fully supported by the floor or a footrest should be used if the heights of your used in a given number system is known as the base or radix of the system. The digits always begin with 0
table and chair are not adjustable. and continue through one less than the base of that system. If the base of a system is represented by “b”,
o Your back should be fully supported with a lumbar support when sitting vertical or leaning back then the largest value a digit in that system can assume is “b – 1”.
slightly. Common number systems used in computing are the binary, octal, decimal (denary) and hexadecimal
o Your thighs should be parallel to the floor number systems.

Regardless of how good your working posture is, working in the same posture or sitting still for prolonged 1.1. The Decimal System
periods is not healthy. You should change your working position frequently by The decimal system has a base value of 10. Its maximum or largest value of digit is , meaning that the
o Making small adjustments to your chair or backrest decimal system uses the digits and to represent any quantity. The decimal is the system of numbering we
o Stretching your fingers, arms and torso use in our everyday life to represent quantities. Usually, the base of a number is written in subscript at the
o Walking around a few minutes periodically end of the number.

6.2.3. Lighting Consider the number 23410

When a computer work environment is planned both overall lighting and positioning of lights and It can be written as
windows must be considered. Overhead lights and windows are sources of glare that may mask whatever
is shown on the screen resulting in visual fatigue and discomfort. There are three types of glare: direct,
indirect and masking.
o Direct glare occurs when there are bright light sources directly in the operator’s field of view.
Windows are often a source of direct glare. This means that there are two one hundreds, three tens and four ones (units) in the number.
o Indirect glare occurs when light from windows or overhead lights is reflected off shiny surfaces in For any n-digit number, the value each digit represents depends on its position or place value in the
the field of view. number. Decimal place values are powers of ten as shown below:
o Light from sources directly overhead causes masking glare on the screen. Least Significant
Most Significant
Digit (LSD)
The use of light absorbing blinds and curtains will help reduce both direct and indirect glare. Placing the Digit (MSD) …
monitor in an appropriate position can help reduce overhead or masking glare. Glare can also be
prevented using an anti-glare screen filter. Decimal positions for an -bit number

Where, is the ones (units) place

is the ten’s place
is the hundreds place
***** END CHAPTER TWO *****
The weight of any digit in a given n-digit number is obtained by multiplying the digit by its place value.
The value of the number is the sum of the weights of the various digits that make up the number.

NOTE Each digit position in decimal has a weight that is ten times the one to its immediate right. That is,
is ten times greater than which is ten times greater than

1.2. The Binary System 2 25 R

The binary system has a base value of 2. Only two digits 0 and 1, are used to represent any quantity in 2 12 1 retain integer part of result
binary. These digits are called binary digits (bits). To express any quantity in binary we use powers much multiply the fractional part
2 6 0 obtained by 2 until fractional
like in the decimal system but this time, the weights are powers of 2 as shown below.
2 3 0 part is zero.
2 1 1 Taking the values retained from top to bottom, we get:
Least Significant
Most Significant 0 1
… Bit (LSB)
Bit (MSB)
,
Binary positions for an -bit number

Example: the binary number is expressed as

This means that there are 1 ones, 0 twos, 1 fours, and 1 eights in the number .
Example 3: Convert: to binary.
1.2.1. Decimal to Binary Conversion
To convert from decimal to binary we use the repeated division method. The general technique of this 2 33 R
method can be used to convert any decimal number to any other number system. 2 16 1
Step 1: divide the decimal number you want to convert by 2 in regular long division until you obtain a final 2 8 0
remainder 0
2 4
Step 2: use the remainder as the least significant bit of the binary number
2 2 0
Step 3: divide the quotient you got from the first division operation by 2 until you obtain a final remainder
2 1 0
Step 4: use the remainder as the next digit of the binary number We stop here though the
Step 5: repeat steps 3 and 4 as many times as necessary until you get a quotient that cannot be divided by 0 1
* convertion is not ended
2. because the pattern repeats
Step 6: use the last remainder (that cannot be divided by 2) as the most significant bit of the binary
number.

Example 1: Convert to base

1.2.2. Binary to Decimal Conversion

2 213 remainder To convert a binary number to decimal, we proceed as follows:
1 Step 1: multiply each digit in the binary number by its place value
2 106
Step 2: add up all the weighted values.
2 53 0
1 Taking the remainders from bottom to
2 26 Example 1: Convert to base 10
top, we have:
2 13 0
2 6 1
2 3 0
2 1 1
Example 2: Convert to base
0 1

Example 2: Convert to binary

In this example, the integer part of the number is converted to binary using the repeated division
method described above while the fraction part is converted using repeated multiplications by two.

1.2.3. Binary Arithmetic

a. Addition: Rules for addition:
0+0=0; 0+1=1; 1+0=1; 1+1=10; 1+1+1 = 10+1 = 11

i. …………………………………. From the stated theorem, the following is a binary-octal conversion table.
ii. ………………………….
iii. ………………………….. Binary Octal Binary Octal

b. Subtraction: Rules for subtraction: 000 0 100 4

0-0 = 0; 1-0 = 1; 0-1 = 0 (we borrow a digit); 1-1 = 0
001 1 101 5
i. () 010 2 110 6
ii. …... we borrow a digit worth 2 to continue with the calculation ()
iii. () 011 3 111 7

c. Multiplication: Rules for multiplication: To convert from binary to decimal, proceed as follows
Step1: make groups of three bits starting from the least significant bit and move towards the most
significant bit.
Step 2: replace each group of bits by its octal representation.
i. ……………………………….. ()
ii. …………………………. ()
Example: 1. Convert to base 8
iii. ……………… ()

d. Division: Rules for division:

0/1 = 0; 1/1 = 1; 1/0 = undefined.

Example 2: Convert to base 8

i. ………………………. ()
ii. ……………………….()
iii. ………………….()

1.3. The Octal System

The octal system has a base value of 8. It uses the digits 0-7 to represent any quantity. Weights in octal are
1.3.2. Octal to Binary Conversion
powers of eight as shown below.
To convert from octal to binary, we replace every octal digit by its 3-bits binary equivalent.
Least Significant
Most Significant
Digit (LSD)
Digit (MSD) … Example1: Convert to binary

Octal positions
Where is the one’s place
Example 2: Convert to binary
is the eights place
is the sixty fours place

Example:
1.4. The Hexadecimal System
(This means that there are 3 sixty fours, 6 eight’s and 7 one’s in )
The prefix “hex” means 6 and “deci” means 10. The hexadecimal number system is thus a base-16 number
system. Each digit position represents a power of 16. The digits used in this system are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
1.3.1. Binary to Octal Conversion
9, A, B, C, D, E and F, where.
Theorem: If base R1 is the integer power of another base, R2 (i.e. R1 = R2d), then every group of d digits in
R2 is equivalent to 1 digit in base R1.
Let:
For example:
R1 = 16 (hexadecimal)
Assume that: R1 = 8 (octal) and R2 = 2 (binary)
R2 = 2 (binary)
From the theorem, 8 = 23
From the theorem, 16 = 24
Hence, 3 digits in base-2 is equivalent to 1 digit in base-8.
Hence, 4 digits in a binary number is equivalent to 1digit in the hexadecimal number system.

2) Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to octal.

The following is the binary-hexadecimal conversion table i) 12B16 (ii) F2E16

Binary Hexadecimal Binary Hexadecimal

2. Representation of Numbers
0000 0 1000 8 A number can be a whole number (integer) or a fractional number (real number). It may also be a positive
0001 1 1001 9 or a negative number. There are various ways by which numbers are represented using 0s and 1s.

0010 2 1010 A 2.1. Representation of Unsigned Integers

Unsigned integers are zero and all positive whole numbers. The value of an unsigned integer is
0011 3 1011 B
interpreted as “the magnitude of its underlying binary pattern”. That is, for an unsigned integer, all the
0100 4 1100 C bits in the binary pattern are used to represent the magnitude of the integer.
In binary, an n-bit pattern can represent distinct integers. Therefore, an n-bit pattern will represent
0101 5 1101 D integers from 0 to.
0110 6 1110 E
For example:
0111 7 1111 F o A 4-bit pattern will represent the integers to
o An 8-bit pattern will represent the integers to
To convert from binary to hexadecimal
Step1: make groups of four bits starting from the least significant bit and move towards the most 2.2. Representation of Signed Integers
significant bit. Signed integers are zero, positive and negative whole numbers. Representing a signed integer requires
Step 2: replace each group of bits by its hexadecimal value representation. that the sign of the number be represented as well. Three representation schemes for signed integers are
sign-magnitude, 1’s complement and 2’a compliment.
Example 1: Convertto base 16
2.2.1. Sign-Magnitude Representation
In sign-magnitude representation, the most significant bit is the sign bit with 0 for positive and 1 for
negative. The remaining bits represent the absolute value of the integer which is interpreted as "the
magnitude of the ()-bit pattern".

Example 2: Convert to base 16 Example 1: Suppose and the binary representation.

Sign bit is 0 number is positive
Absolute value is
Hence, the integer is.

Example 2: Suppose and the binary representation.

To convert from hexadecimal to binary, we carry out the inverse operation. That is, we replace every Sign bit is 1 number is negative
hexadecimal digit by its 4-bits binary equivalent. Absolute value is
Hence, the integer is
Example 1: Convert to binary
The drawbacks of sign-magnitude representation are:
o There are two representations (0000 0000 and 1000 0000) for the number zero, which could lead
to inefficiency and confusion.
Example 2: Convert to base 2 o Arithmetic is cumbersome making the design of electronic circuits for this scheme difficult.

2.2.2. 1’s Complement Representation

In 1's complement representation the most significant bit is still the sign bit. The remaining bits represent
Assignment: the magnitude of the integer as follows:
1) Convert the following octal numbers to hexadecimal. o for positive integers, the absolute value of the integer is equal to "the magnitude of the ()-bit
i) 658 (ii) 538 pattern".

o for negative integers, the absolute value of the integer is equal to "the magnitude of the complement 2.2.3. 2’s Complement Representation
of the ()-bit pattern". In 2's complement representation, the remaining bits represent the magnitude of the integer as follows:
o For positive integers, the absolute value of the integer is equal to "the magnitude of the ()-bit
Remark: In 1’s complement, the range of numbers that can be represented is – 2 n-1 to 2n-1. If n=8, the range pattern".
of numbers that can be represented is –28-1 to 28-1 i.e. -128 to 128. o For negative integers, the absolute value of the integer is equal to "the magnitude of the
complement of the ()-bit pattern plus one". That is, we just add one to 1’s complement to get 2’s
Example 1: Using 1’s complement, represent the following base 10 numbers on 8 bits. complement.

i)
An alternative and simple way of getting 2’s complement is
Number is positive sign bit is 0
o to write the representation of the positive number
o starting from the least significant bit, flip all the bits to the left of the first 1.

ii)
In 2’s complement, the range of numbers that can be represented is – 2 n-1 to 2n-1 – 1. If n=8, the range of 2’s
Number is negative sign bit is 1
complement integers is –28-1 to 28-1 -1 i.e. -128 to 127.

Complement ofis
Example 1: Using 2’s complement, store the following base 10 numbers.
i)
Number is negative sign bit is 1
Example 2: Give the decimal equivalent of the following 1’s complement binary representations.
i) .
1’s complement of 24 is
Sign bit is 0 positive
2’s complement of 24 is
Absolute value is
is represented by
Hence, the integer is
ii)
ii)
Number is negative sign bit is 1
Sign bit is 1 negative
Absolute value is the complement of , i.e.,
1’s complement of 13 is
Hence, the integer is
2’s complement of 13 is
is represented by
The problem with this representation is that there are two representations for zero (0000 0000 and 1111
1111).
Example 2: Give the decimal equivalent of the following 2’s complement binary representations.
i)
a. Addition in 1’s Complement
Sign bit is 0⇒ positive number
o Add binary representations of the two numbers
Absolute value is
o If there is a carry (referred to as end-round carry), add it to the result.
Hence, the integer is

b. Subtraction in 1’s complement

ii)
Subtraction is implemented using addition as follows:
Sign bit is negative number
o Determine the 1’s complement of the negative number
Absolute value is the complement of plus 1, i.e.,
o Add the binary representations of the two numbers
1101111 =
o If there is any carry, add it to the result
Hence, the integer is

Example: subtract 37 from 51 in binary

Modern computers use 2's complement in representing signed integers. This is because:
in 1’s complement
1. There is only one representation for the number zero unlike in sign-magnitude and 1's
00110011 (51)
complement representations.
+11011010 (-37)
2. Positive and negative integers can be treated together in addition and subtraction. Subtraction
1 00001101
can be carried out using the "addition logic".
+ 1 add end-round carry to result
00001110 (14)
a. Addition in 2’s Complement

o Add binary representations of the two numbers

o If there is a carry, ignore it

b. Subtraction in 2’s Complement

Subtraction is implemented as follows:
o Determine the 2’s complement for the negative number
o Add the binary representations of the two numbers
o If there is any carry, ignore it

Example: subtract 37 from 51

37 = 0100101 37 = 1011010 (1’s C) – 37 = 1 1011011 (2’s C)

00110011 (51)
+ 11011011 (-37)
100001110 discard end-round carry

2.3. Representation of Characters

Characters are represented in the computer using a chosen character encoding scheme or character set,
that assigns numeric codes to characters, including letters, numerals, punctuation marks, control
2.3.2. EBCDIC
characters, and other symbol. The most commonly used character sets are: ASCII, EBCDIC and Unicode for
EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. It is a binary code for alphabetic
internationalization.
and numeric characters that IBM developed for its larger operating systems. In EBCDIC, each alphabetic or
numeric character is represented with an 8-bit binary number making a total of 256 possible characters
2.3.1. ASCII Character Code
(letters of the alphabet, numerals, and special characters) are defined.
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. It is a coding scheme that was
EBCDIC is not used on the IBM PC and all subsequent "PC clones". These computer systems use ASCII as
developed in 1968 to standardize data transmission among disparate hardware and software systems and
the primary character and symbol coding system.
is built into most minicomputers and all PCs. ASCII has two versions: standard ASCII and extended ASCII.
EBCDIC is widely considered to be an obsolete coding system, but is still used in some equipment, mainly
Standard ASCII is a 7-bit version of ASCII made up of 128 characters (2 7) assigned to codes between
in order to allow for continued use of software written many years ago that expects an EBCDIC
decimal 0 and 127. These characters include most found on a standard keyboard, including the letters A–Z
communication environment.
(uppercase and lowercase), numerals (0 through 9), punctuation marks, and non-printable characters,
such as Escape, Enter, Backspace and Delete.
2.3.3. Unicode
Extended ASCII is an 8-bit version of ASCII that adds capability by allowing for 128 additional characters,
Unicode is a 16-bit character encoding standard developed by the Unicode Consortium between 1988 and
such as accented letters, graphics characters, and special symbols. They are assigned to codes between
1991. By using 2 bytes to represent each character, Unicode can represent up to 65,536 characters which
decimal 128 and 255. The specific characters assigned to the extended ASCII codes vary between
enables almost all the written languages of the world to be represented using a single character set.
computers and between programs, fonts, or graphics characters.
Unicode is backward compatible with the 7-bit ASCII, meaning that the first 128 characters of Unicode are
the same as ASCII.
Approximately 39,000 of the 65,536 possible Unicode character codes have been assigned to date, 21,000
of them being used for Chinese ideographs. The remaining combinations are open for expansion.

3. Digital Electronics
As an electronic device, a computer is made up of digital circuits. A digital circuit is a circuit where the
signal must be one of two discrete levels. Each level is interpreted as one of two different states (for
example, on/off, 0/1, true/false). Digital circuits use transistors to create logic gates in order to perform
Boolean logic. This logic is the foundation of digital electronics and computer processing.

3.1. Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra also known as the algebra of logic was developed by an English mathematician called
George Boole. It deals with binary variables and logic operators operating on these variables. A binary
variable has only two possible values 0 or 1. Logic operators operating on these variables are AND (·), OR
(+) and NOT (‘). Operations are defined for the values 0 and 1 as follows:

()
AND
OR ()
NOT

Example 3: Use De Morgan’s theorem to simplify the following

i) ii)

Example 4: Show that

3.1.1. Laws and Theorems of Boolean Algebra i) ii)
o Commutative law: |

o Associative law: | ( 3.1.3. Truth Tables

If we list all possible inputs to a Boolean expression and the corresponding outputs we obtain what is
o Distributive law: | called a truth table. A truth table shows the output for all possible values of the input variables for a given
Boolean expression. To construct a truth table, we evaluate the Boolean expression for all possible
o Identity law: | combinations of values for the input variables. The number of possible combinations is always equal to
where is the number of input variables.
o Redundancy law: |
Example 1: Construct a truth table for the expression
o Complement law: | We have 2 input variables and we will have different combinations.

o Idempotent law: |

o Absorption law: |

o Involution law:

o No name: |

o De Morgan’s theorem: | Example 2: Construct a truth table for the expression

3 input variables different combinations

3.1.2. Simplifying Boolean Expressions

Simplifying a Boolean expression consists of using the laws of Boolean algebra to write the expression in
its simplest form.

Example 1: Simplify the expression

()
()
()
()

Example 2: Simplify the expression

Exercise 1: Construct the truth tables for the following
De Morgan’s
i) ii) iii)

()
()
() 3.2. Logic Gates

A logic gate is an electronic switch that implements a simple Boolean function. It produces an electrical e. NOR Gate: A NOR gate is equivalent to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. Its output is "true" if
output signal that represents a binary 1 or 0 and is related to the states of one or more input signals by an both inputs are "false." Otherwise, the output is "false."
operation of Boolean logic, such as AND, OR, or NOT. There are six basic logic gates: AND, OR, NOT, NAND,
NOR and XOR gates.
A B

a. AND Gate: It is a logic gate whose output is “true” only when both inputs are “true”. If neither or 0 0 1
only one of the inputs is “false”, the output is “false”. The following illustration and table show the circuit
0 1 0
symbol and logic combinations for an AND gate.
1 0 0
A B AB 1 1 0
0 0 0
0 1 0 Remark: The NAND and NOR gates are universal gates. A universal gate is a gate which can implement
any Boolean function without need to use any other gate type..
1 0 0
1 1 1 f. XOR Gate: Exclusive-OR is a logic gate whose output is “true” when one but not both of its inputs is
“true”. The output is "false" if both inputs are "false" or if both inputs are "true." Another way of looking at
this circuit is to observe that the output is “true” if the inputs are different, but “false” if the inputs are the
b. OR Gate: It is a logic gate whose output is “true” when either or both of the inputs are “true”. If both same.
inputs are "false," then the output is "false."
A B

A B A+B 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 1

0 1 1 1 0 1

1 0 1 1 1 0

1 1 1
3.3. Logic Circuits
c. NOT Gate: It is a logic gate whose output is “false” if its input is “true” and vice versa. It is called A logic circuit is an electronic circuit that processes information by performing a logical operation on it.
logical inverter, because it reverses the state of its input. A NOT gate accepts one input and produces a Circuits are built by combining two or more logic gates. Gates are combined into circuits by using the
single output. output of one gate as the input for another. A logic circuit produces output based on the rules of logic it is
designed to follow for the electrical signals it receives as input. Below are examples of logic circuits.
A
0 1
1 0

d. NAND Gate: The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The output is "false" if
Exercise 1: Construct logic circuits for the following expressions
both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the output is "true.
i) ii) iii)
iv) v)
A B
Exercise 2: What are the outputs for the following logic circuits
0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

CHAPTER FIVE
SOFTWARE

Introduction
Computers require instructions to perform tasks. These instructions are provided by the programs stored
in them. The collection of computer programs and data that run on a computer, and which make the
hardware useful is called software. Software make up the intangible components of the computer system.
Software has two major categories namely system software and application software.

1. Application Software
***** END CHAPTER FOUR ***** Application software are programs designed to perform specific tasks for end-users. They are used to
carry out productive work like typing a letter, designing an invitation card, surfing the Internet, listening
to music or watching a movie. Application software cannot run on their own but are dependent on
system software to execute

1.1. General Purpose Software

General purpose software is designed for a variety of tasks. It is not limited to one particular function.
They are also called generic software and can be found off-the-shelf. That is, they can be bought from the
market. Different types of general-purpose application software exist.

a. Word Processing software: Are used to create, edit and format text documents such as fliers,
letters, reports and memos. Examples of word processors are Microsoft Word, Lotus Word Pro and
WordPerfect.

b. Spreadsheet software: Are used for tasks that involve calculations or for the production of graphs
and charts. Examples are Microsoft Excel, Lotus 123 and

c. Database software: Are used to create and manage databases. A database is an organized
collection of data. Organizations use databases to organize their data or information for easy retrieval.
Examples of database applications are Microsoft Access, Lotus Approach, FileMaker Pro and Oracle.

d. Presentation software: Are used to create slide shows and presentations which can be viewed on-
screen or projector. Examples are Microsoft PowerPoint and Lotus Freelance.

e. Desktop publishing software: It used produce professional quality publications such as posters,
books, newsletters, newspapers and magazines. Microsoft Publisher, PageMaker and PagePlus.

f. Graphics software: They are used to produce and manipulate artwork. Examples are Microsoft
Picture Manager and Adobe Photoshop.

An integrated software package is software that consists of multiple applications bundled together. They
usually have related functions, features and user interfaces, and may be able to interact with each other.
Examples are Microsoft Office, OpenOffice, Lotus Smart suite and Microsoft works.

1.2. Special Purpose Software

Specialist software is software designed to perform a single very specific task. They are generally not
available in shops like generic software and they often have to be purchased directly from the software
manufacturer or a specialist firm. Examples of specialist software are:

→ Payroll software for calculating employee salaries like Sage. is connected to. Without an appropriate device driver the system cannot communicate with a device,
→ Traffic control software for controlling traffic lights at a cross-road. rendering the device useless. Installation of device drivers usually happens automatically when hardware
→ Computer aided design (CAD) software used to produce engineering designs and architectural is connected, or from a CD provided with the device. Sometimes a device driver needs to be updated to
plans like 2D-Design, AutoCAD and TurboCAD. stay functional.
→ Multimedia applications like Microsoft’s Encarta CD-ROM based encyclopedia,
2.3. Language Translators
1.3. Custom-Written Software A language translator is a computer program that translates program instructions from one programming
Custom-written software is written to a particular user’s requirements or needs. It is generally not language to another. There are three types of language translators: compilers, interpreters and
available off-the-shelf and often has to be purchased directly from the software manufacturer. It is also assemblers.
called bespoke software or tailor made software as it is tailored to the exact requirements of the user or
organization. → Compiler: a program that translates all the source code of a program written in high-level language
into an object code that is in machine language.
2. System Software
System software control and coordinate computer resources so that the computer user and applications → Interpreter: a program that translates and executes program instructions written in high-level
can smoothly interact. They help the computer carry out its basic operating tasks. System software language one line at a time.
include operating systems, firmware, utility programs, device drivers, library programs and language
translators. → Assembler: a program that translates an assembly language program into executable machine
language.
2.1. Utility Software
Utility software is used to enhance the operating system, or in some other way improve the usefulness of 2.4. Operating Systems
the system. They help analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer. Rather than providing The operating system is the essential software that is required for a computer to become operational. It is
user-oriented or output-oriented functionality, utility software focuses on how the computer the software layer that is on top of the hardware to provide functionality to computer components,
infrastructure operates. Most major operating systems come with several pre-installed utilities. Examples manage the hardware and serve as interface between the computer user and the computer.
of utility software include: disk defragmenters, backup utilities, disk compression utilities, disk cleaners,
file managers, disk formatters and virus checkers. Definition: An operating system is software that manages computer hardware resources and provides basic
interface for execution of various application software.
Utility Function
The operating system is stored on disk, but it needs to be loaded into main memory once the computer is
Detect computer files whose contents are broken across several locations on a disk, switched on the
and move andfragments
before anytoother program
one location tocan be run.
increase The term bootstrapping refers to the process of
efficiency.
Disk defragmenters loading the operating system into a computer’s memory. This process is done by a program called the
bootstrap loader that is stored permanently in the computer’s electronic ROM chip. Examples of operating
systems are Windows (95, 98, 2000, XP, Vista, 7 and 8), Macintosh Operating System (Mac OS), Linux and
Disk partition utilities Divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.
UNIX.

Disk compression utilities Reduce the space that a file takes up on disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.

Find and delete files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up considerable amounts of space, helping us decide what to delete when our hard disk is full.
Disk cleaners

Make copies of all information stored on a disk, and restore either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).
Backup utilities

2.2. Device Drivers

A device driver is software that allows interaction between the operating system and a hardware device.
It is an interface for communicating with the device through the specific computer bus that the hardware Abstract view of Operating System

2.4.1. Functions of the Operating System o New - The process is being created.
a. Memory management:For a program to be executed, it must be found in main memory (RAM). In a o Ready - Process has all needed resources - waiting for CPU only.
multiprogramming environment in which several programs can reside in memory at the same time, every o Running - Instructions are being executed.
program and its data must be protected from the actions of other programs. The operating system is o Waiting - Process is waiting for some event to occur (human, hardware or another process)
responsible for the following activities in connection with memory management. o Terminated - Process has finished execution
o Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
o Decide which processes are to be loaded into memory when memory space becomes available. → Process control block: The operating system manages a large amount of data about a process like
o Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed. the program counter (PC), CPU registers, memory management information, I/O status, scheduling
data and process state. This data is stored in a data structure called a process control block (PCB)
Memory needs to be allocated efficiently to pack as many jobs in memory as possible. Memory can be also called process descriptor or state vector. Every process has its PCB and each time a process is
subdivided into segments or frames (pages). moved to the running state, its register values are loaded into the CPU while register values for the
currently running process are stored into its PCB. This exchange of information is called a context
→ Segmentation: Segmentation is when memory is divided into variable sized units called segments. switch.
When segments are used, memory allocation can be done in three different ways:
o First fit allocates the first free segment that is large enough for the new process. → Process synchronization: In a multi-tasking system, processes compete for resources. A resource
o Best fit allocates the smallest block among those that are large enough for the new process. is anything that is required by a process to accomplish its task (processor, memory, I/O device, bus,
o Worst fit allocates the largest block among those that are large enough for the new process. file etc). Some resources can only be used in a non-sharable or exclusive mode. That is, they cannot
be used by more than one process at a time. Such resources are known as critical resources. A
→ Paging: Paging is when memory is divided into fixed-size units called frames. Jobs are broken up critical section is a part of a program where it has access to a non-sharable (critical) resource. To
into blocks of same size as frames called pages which are allocated a number of frames. The OS then prevent two or more processes from entering their critical sections over the same resource,
uses a page table to map program pages to memory frames. The pages for each job could be in processes must synchronize.
logical order or they may be scattered about wherever there is a free frame.
Definition: Process synchronization is about getting processes to coordinate together in order to
→ Virtual Memory: A program may require more memory than it is available. To solve this problem, avoid two or more processes entering into critical section over the same resource.
virtual memory is used. Virtual memory is part of the hard disk that is used as an extension of RAM.
It is slower, but it is considerably bigger. As execution goes on, data is being swapped between RAM If processes are not synchronized, it could lead to deadlock and starvation.
and virtual memory.
When a program is running, only the pages that contain the necessary data are kept in RAM while  Deadlock: Deadlock is a permanent blocking of a set of processes competing for resources. A set
those that are not needed are kept in the virtual memory . For example, a program that has of processes is in a deadlock state if every process in the set is waiting for an event that can only
been minimized for a long time may be transferred to virtual memory so as not to fill up the main be caused by some other process in the same set. For a deadlock to occur, the following four
memory. Disk thrashing occurs when the OS has to spend a considerable proportion of its time conditions must hold.
swapping data between virtual and real memory.
Mutual exclusion: At least one resource must be held in a non-sharable way.
b. Process management:A process is a program in execution. It consists of the program’s instructions Hold and wait: A process must be holding a resource and waiting for another.
and the resources allocated to it for execution. A program is static while a process is active. The operating No preemption: No resource can be forcibly removed from a process holding it.
system performs process management to carefully track the progress of a process and all of its Circular wait: A waits for B, B waits for C, C waits for A.
intermediate states as it executes. The different states a process can have are shown in the diagram below.
Deadlock can be prevented by ensuring that one of the above conditions does not hold.

o Mutual exclusion: In general, we do not have systems with all resources being sharable. Some
resources like printers, processing units are non-sharable. So it is not possible to prevent
deadlocks by denying mutual exclusion.

o Hold and wait: Hold and wait condition can be prevented by making a process to request and get
all its resources before it begins execution. A process does not get into the running state if it does
not have all the resources it needs for execution.

o No preemption: No preemption can be prevented by allowing preemption such that if a process

requests a resource and cannot have it, it releases all other resources allocated to it.

Another way of doing it could be such that when a process requests a resource and it is not time of completion is the turnaround time. It is the sum of the time spent waiting to get into the
available, the OS checks whether it is being used or allocated to another process waiting for other ready queue, execution time and I/O time. A good scheduling strategy must minimize this time as
resources. If the resource is being used, the requesting process waits. If it is not being used, then possible.
the OS preempts it from the waiting process and allocates it to the requesting process.
o Waiting time: A CPU scheduling algorithm does not affect the amount of time during which a
o Circular wait: One way to ensure that the circular wait condition never holds is to assign priority process executes or does I/O; it affects only the amount of time that a process spends waiting in
to all resources such that each process can only request resources in an increasing order of the ready queue. Waiting time is the average time spent by a process waiting in the ready queue.
priority. For example, set priorities for r 1 = 1, r2 = 2, r3 = 3, and r4 = 4. With these priorities, if
process P wants to use r1 and r3, it should first request r1, then r3.  Scheduling algorithms: There exist different algorithms used for scheduling. Examples are first
Another way is that whenever a process requests a resource r j, it must have released all resources come, first served, shortest job first and round robin algorithms.
rkwith priority (rk) ≥ priority (rj).
o First Come, First Served (FCFS): First come first served algorithm moves processes to the CPU in
the order in which they arrive in the ready queue. The implementation of the FCFS policy is easily
 Starvation: Starvation is a situation where a task can never finish because it can never get a
managed with a FIFO queue. When a process enters the ready queue, its PCB is linked onto the tail
necessary resource such as a large block of memory. The operating system should detect such
of the queue. When the CPU is free, it is allocated to the process at the head of the queue. It is non-
tasks and do its best to allocate the resources that they need.
preemptive. As such, when a process has the CPU it runs to completion before giving it up.

→ CPU Scheduling: CPU scheduling is the act of determining which process in the ready state should
Consider that the following processes arrive in the order they are given below.
be moved to the running state. It decides which process in memory is to be executed by the CPU at
any given moment. The goal of the scheduler is to implement the virtual machine in such a way
Process Burst time
that the user perceives that each process is running on its own computer. Scheduling decisions
may take place when a process: P1 7

P2 3
1) Switches from running to waiting state
2) Switches from running to ready state P3 3
3) Switches from waiting to ready
4) Switches from running to terminated
Gantt chart: Order P1, P2, P3

Scheduling can be preemptive or non-preemptive.

P1 P2 P3

Preemptive scheduling is scheduling in which the currently executing process is forced to give up the CPU. 0 7 10 13
Scheduling under (2) and (3) is preemptive.
Waiting time: w(P1)= 0, w(P2)= 7, w(P3)= 10
Average waiting time: (0+7+10)/3 = 17/3 = 5.7
Non preemptive scheduling is scheduling in which the currently executing process gives up the CPU
voluntarily. Scheduling under (1) and (4) is non-preemptive.
o Shortest Job First (SJF): Shortest job first algorithm looks at all the processes in the ready state
and dispatches the one with the smallest burst time. When the CPU is available, it is assigned to
 Scheduling Criteria: Different CPU scheduling algorithms have different properties and may favor
the process that has the smallest next CPU burst. If two processes have the same-length next CPU
one class of processes over another. In choosing which algorithm to use in a particular situation, we
burst, FCFS scheduling is used to break the tie. It is also generally implemented as a non-
must consider the different properties of the various algorithms.
preemptive algorithm. Using the SJF algorithm, we have

o CPU utilization: CPU utilization refers to how busy the CPU is. A good scheduling strategy should
Gantt chart: Order P2, P3, P1
keep the CPU as busy as possible i.e. it has to reduce the idle time.

o Throughput: If the CPU is busy executing processes, then work is being done. One measure of P2 P3 P1
work is the number of processes that are completed per time unit, called throughput. In other
0 3 6 13
words, it is the measure of work done in a unit time interval. Throughput has to be maximal as
possible for a good scheduling strategy.
Waiting time: w(P2)= 0, w(P3)= 3, w(P1)= 6
Average waiting time: (0+3+6)/3 = 9/3 = 3
o Turnaround time: From the point of view of a particular process, the important criterion is how
long it takes to execute that process. The interval from the time of submission of a process to the

o Round Robin: Round-robin algorithm distributes time equitably among all ready processes by → Polling:Polling is a technique whereby the CPU constantly looks to see if a device needs its
establishing a particular time slice (or time quantum), during which each process executes. At the attention. In a polling system, the processor repeatedly checks a status flag to achieve the required
end of the quantum, the process is preempted. It returns to the ready state to allow another synchronization between the processor and an input or output device. We say that the processor
process its turn. polls the devices. When an I/O device wants to transmit data, it sets the status flag

Using round-robin algorithm with time slice of 4, the above processes will be scheduled as → Interrupts: An interrupt is a signal generated by hardware or software that causes the CPU to
follows: suspend what it is doing to handle another task of higher priority. Any event that will cause an
Gantt chart: Quantum q=4 interrupt is called an interrupt request (IR). For example, a key pressed on the keyboard. An
interrupt handler or interrupt service routine (ISR) is a program that services an interrupt request.
→ P1 P2 P3 P1 It contains the actions that will be executed for a given interrupt request.
0 4 7 10 13
d. Filemanagement:The file system is the portion of the operating system that manages how files are
Waiting time: w(P1) = 0+(10-4) = 6; w(P2) = 4; w(P3) = 7 stored. Examples of file systems are FAT used in MS DOS, NTFS used in Windows, ext2 used in Linux and
Average waiting time: (6+4+7)/3 = 17/3 = 5.7 HPFS used in OS/2. The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with file
management:
Gantt chart: Quantum q=2 o File creation and deletion.
o Directory creation and deletion.
P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P3 P1 P1 o Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
0 2 4 6 8 9 10 12 13 o Mapping files onto secondary storage.
o File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media.
Waiting time: w(P1) = 0+(6-2)+(10-8) = 6; w(P2) = 2+(8-4) = 6; w(P3)= 4+(9-6) = 9
Average waiting time: (6+6+9)/3 = 7 e. Providing User Interface
Working on a computer, a user has to interact with the computer. The operating system provides this
c. Managementof I/O Devices:Several input/output devices are connected to the computer. These means that enables an individual to see and work when using a computer, called user interface. A user
devices have varying characteristics like character or block device, sequential or random access device, interface is the means of communication or interaction between the user and the computer. Different
and dedicated or shared device. operating systems provide different types of user interfaces.
The operating system handles the devices by combining both hardware and software techniques. The I/O
hardware includes the ports, buses, and device controllers for the devices. The operating system is
responsible for the following activities in connection to I/O management: → Command Line Interface: A command line interface (CLI) allows the user to interact with the
computer by typing the commands in a specified format. It provides a prompt through which the
o A buffer caching system user types the commands. Here the user mostly makes use of the keyboard.
o To activate a general device driver code In this type of interface, the user has to remember the name and format of the commands. Spelling
o To run the driver software for specific hardware devices as and when required. mistakes and deviations in format lead to errors and the task is not performed. Examples of
operating systems that provide a command line interface are MS DOS, early versions of UNIX and
Services provided by the operating system in relation to I/O like buffering, spooling, interrupt handling
Linux.
and error handling.

→ Buffering: A buffer is an area of memory used to temporarily store data while it is being moved → Graphical User Interface: A graphical user interface allows the user to interact with the computer
from one place to another. It is a data area shared by hardware devices or program processes that through graphical items such as icons, menus, dialog boxes, etc. Here, the user mostly makes use of
operate at different speeds. The speed at which the I/O device can transfer data is different from the mouse to point and click on these graphical items. GUI is also known as WIMP system where
the speed at which the data is processed. Buffering handles the speed mismatch by storing the data WIMP stands for windows, icons, menus and pointers.
in a buffer till the complete data has arrived and then writing it in a single write operation. This type of user interface requires a lot of memory space to store the graphics and can cause
machines with low processing power to be slow. Examples of operating systems with a graphical
→ Spooling: Spool (Simultaneous Peripheral Operation On-Line) is a buffer in memory area or disk. user interface are Windows, Macintosh operating systems, some versions of Linux and UNIX.
Spooling stores the jobs in a spool where the device can access it when it is ready. Spooling is
commonly used for printers. Users may give several print commands, and continue working with → Voice Recognition Interface: A voice recognition interface allows the user to give verbal
other operations. However, the printer can print only one job at a time. The rest of the jobs are commands to the computer. The user communicates with the computer through natural language.
stored in the spool in a queue, and the printer accesses the spool when it is ready to print the next They are also called natural language interface
job.
f. Providing Security

Security is the most desirable characteristic of any operating system. An operating system should provide f. Batch operating system: Batch processing is the most primitive type of operating system. Batch
a means for safeguarding system resources from unauthorized users and protection of one user's processing generally requires the program, data, and appropriate system commands to be submitted
resources from other users of the system. together in the form of a job. Batch operating systems usually allow little or no interaction between users
Popular operating systems offer security features through incorporation of the following: and executing programs. Batch processing has a greater potential for resource utilization than simple
o Login name. serial processing in computer systems serving multiple users. Due to turnaround delays and offline
o Login password. debugging, batch is not very convenient for program development. Programs that do not require
o Read/write access file permissions. interaction and programs with long execution times may be served well by a batch operating system.
o Encryption of data Examples of such programs include payroll, forecasting, statistical analysis, and large scientific number-
o Virus protection software layers. crunching programs. Serial processing combined with batch like command files is also found on many
personal computers

2.4.2. Classification of Operating Systems g. Real time operating system (RTOS): Real time systems are used in time critical environments
where data must be processed extremely quickly because the output influences immediate decisions. In
a. Multiprogramming operating system: Multiprogramming is the ability to keep several programs real time systems the correctness of the computations not only depends upon the logical correctness of
in memory at the same time. A multi-programming operating system allows multiple active programs to the computation but also upon the time at which the results is produced. If the timing constraints of the
be held in main memory at the same time. The concept of multi-programming is that the operating system system are not met, system failure is said to have occurred. Real-time operating systems are used in
keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously and decides which can be executed at a given moment. environments where a large number of events, mostly external to the computer system, must be accepted
During execution of any program, if it needs some I/O operation to complete then instead of sitting idle and processed in a short time or within certain deadlines.Real time systems are used for space flights,
the operating system will simply switch over to the next program. airport traffic control, industrial processes, sophisticated medical equipment, telephone switching etc. A
real time system must be 100 percent responsive in time. Response time is measured in fractions of
b. Multitasking operating system: An instance of a program in execution is called a process or a task. seconds.
Multitasking is the ability to execute more than one task at the same time. A multitasking operating
system allows more than one program to run concurrently on a single processor. In reality, no two 2.5. Software Distribution Licenses
processes can run at the same time on a single processor. The operating system switches between tasks so Software can be distributed under different licenses. They include public domain, freeware, shareware,
quickly that it gives the appearance that the processes are running at the same time. Multitasking is often open source and all rights reserved.
coupled with hardware and software support for memory protection in order to prevent erroneous
processes from corrupting address spaces and behavior of other resident processes. There are two basic a. Public Domain: Public domain software has no owner and is not protected by copyright law. It was
types of multitasking: preemptive and cooperative. In preemptive multitasking, the Operating System either created with public funds or the ownership was forfeited by the creator. Public domain software
parcels out CPU time slices to each program. In cooperative multitasking, each program can control the can be copied, sold and/or modified. It is often of poor quality.
CPU for as long as it needs it. If a program is not using the CPU, however, it can allow another program to
use it temporarily. OS/2, Windows 95, Windows NT, and UNIX use preemptive multitasking, whereas b. Shareware: Shareware is copyrighted software that allows you to use it for a trial period but you
Microsoft Windows 3.x and the MultiFinder use cooperative multitasking. must pay a registration fee to the owner for permanent use. Purchasing the right to use the software may
also get you a version with more powerful features and published documentation.
Question: What is the difference between multiprogramming and multitasking?
c. Freeware: Freeware is copyrighted software that is licensed to be copied and distributed without
c. Multiprocessing operating system: Multiprocessing is the ability for an operating system to charge. Freeware is free but it is still under the owner’s control. Examples are Eudora and Netscape.
execute more than one task on multiple CPUs at the same time. This type of OS that is capable of
supporting and utilizing more than one CPU at a time is called a multiprocessing OS. d. Commercial Software: All rights reserved software is software that must be used by the purchaser
according to the exact details spelt out in the license agreement.
d. Embedded operating system: It is an operating system that is used in an embedded computer
system. An embedded system is a small computer (computing device) that is built into a larger equipment e. Open Source Software: Open source software is software whose source code is published so that a
or machine for specific control functions within the larger system. Embedded computers control many variety of people can add contribution. Examples are Linux OS, MySQL, Mozilla and OpenOffice
devices in use today such as mobile phones, microwave ovens, washing machines, vehicles, photocopiers
and digital cameras. Examples are Android, iPhone OS (iOS), Windows Phone and Symbian OS. 3. File Formats and Organization
2.1. Data Hierarchy
e. Network Operating system: An operating system that includes networking features, enabling the Data items processed by computers form a data hierarchy in which they become larger and more complex
computer to be connected to a network. Examples are Windows-NT, Novell Netware and UNIX. in structure as we progress from bits, to characters, to fields and to larger data elements. Data elements
can be organized in a hierarchical form as follows:

Bit  Byte (character) Field Record  File  Database

Bit: The smallest data item manipulated by computers is the bit (short for binary digit). Each bit can Examples of bitmap formats include:
assume either the value 0 or the value 1. o JPEG or JPG - Joint Photographic Experts Group
o GIF - Graphics Interchange Format
Byte: A single bit is of little or no use as it can represent only two states. To make them important, they o TIFF or TIF- Tagged Image File Format
are usually used in groups. A group of eight bits is known as a byte. A byte is the smallest addressable unit o BMP - Bitmap graphics file
of the computer and it is used to represent a character. Each character, be it a letter, a digit or a symbol is o PNG – Portable Network Graphic
represented as an eight bits pattern. The word “data” has 4 characters, meaning that it will take up 4 bytes
which is 32 bits. b. Vector Graphics: Vector images are stored as a collection of shapes (lines, circles, curves) called
objects, together with information defining how the objects will be produced and where they will be
Field: As characters are composed of bits, fields are composed of characters. A field is a group of located. The data file for a vector image contains the points where the shapes start and end, how much the
characters that conveys some meaning. For example, a person’s name, a word, the name of a place or shapes curve, and the colors that either border or fill the shapes. Because vector graphics are not made of
thing. pixels, the images can be scaled to be very large without losing quality. Programs used with vector
graphics are drawing programs. Some of these programs include: Corel Draw, Adobe Illustrator and
Record: A record is a collection of related fields. A record consists of fields, with each field describing an Adobe Photoshop.
attribute of an entity.
Examples of vector formats are:
File: A file is a collection of related records. Files are frequently classified by the application for which they o SVG - Scalable Vector Graphic
are primarily used. A primary key in a file is a field whose value identifies a record among others in the o CDR- CorelDraw graphic
file. o CMX - Corel Meta Exchange
o EPS - Encapsulated Postscript
Databases: A database is a collection of files. o CGM - Computer Graphics Metafile
o PICT - Macintosh Picture
2.2. File Formats o WMF- Windows Metafile
Records in a file must be stored in a way that a program that uses the file will be able to recognize and
possibly access it. This is known as file format. 2.2.2. Multimedia File Formats
Multimedia is any combination of digitally manipulated text, sound, animation and video.
Definition: File format is a particular way that data is encoded for storage in a computer file.
a. Audio:An audio file is a record of captured sound that can be played back. Different file formats
A particular file format is often indicated as part of a file's name by a file name extension. Conventionally, exist for storing audio in the computer. Examples of audio file formats are:
the extension is separated from the file name by a dot and contains three or four letters that indicate the
format. A file name is a unique name that is given to a file within its file directory. For example, o MP3- Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG) Layer 3
lectures.docx is a file with filename “lectures” and extension “.docx” indicating that the file is an MS Word o WMA- Windows Media Audio
2007 document. o WAV - Waveform audio file
There are as many different file formats as there are different programs to process the files. A few of the o MIDI- Musical Instrument Digital Interface
more common file format types are:
b. Video: A video file is a recording of visual moving objects. Video files are stored in the computer in
2.2.1. Graphics File Formats different ways using different file formats.
Computers store graphic images as either bitmap images or vector graphics.
o AVI - Audio Video Interleave
a. Bitmap images: A bitmap image is stored as a collection of tiny dots (pixels) of individual colors that o MPEG or MPG - Motion Picture Experts Group
make up the image. Pixel is short for picture element. A data file for a bitmap image contains information o 3GPP - Third Generation Partnership Project
about every single pixel in the image. As a result, the file size of a bitmap graphic is often quite large.
Bitmap images are resolution dependent. Resolution refers to the number of pixels in an image and is 2.2.3. Common Application File Formats
usually stated as dpi (dots per inch) or ppi (pixels per inch).The more the number of pixels in an image, o DOC or DOCX - Document file (ASCII or MS Word)
the more detailed the image will be. o PDF - Portable Document Format
Because bitmaps are resolution dependent, it's difficult to increase or decrease their size without o TXT - ASCII Text file
sacrificing a degree of image quality. o XLS (XLSX)- Excel Worksheet file
Some common bitmap graphic programs are: Photoshop, Paint Shop Pro, GIMP, Photo-Paint and Graphic o WKS, WK2, WK3- Lotus 1-2-3 or MS Works Worksheet
Converter. o PPT (PPTX)- PowerPoint presentation file

2.2.4. Hypermedia File Formats 2.3.3. Indexed Sequential File Organization

A hypermedia document is a document that contains text, graphics, sounds, video and animation. An indexed sequential file is a sequential file in which an index is added to support random access. In this
Examples of hypermedia file formats are: type of file, records are stored in blocks and the address of every block is stored in an index. A block
address may consist of the key of the first record in the block. Indexed sequential files therefore combine
o HTML (HTM)- Hypertext Markup Language the advantages of a sequential file with the possibility of direct access. To access any record in the file, the
o XML- Extensible Markup Language index is searched to determine the block to which the record belongs. The record is then searched for
o SGML- Standard Generalized Markup Language sequentially but only within the block in which it is found.

2.2.5. Other File Formats 2.3.4. Random File Organization

o EXE - Executable file (machine-language program) A random file is a file in which records are stored in random order. In a random file, the value of the
o DLL - Dynamic Link Library record key is mapped by a hash function to an address within the file where the record will be stored. The
o SYS - System file function transforms the value of a record key into an index that corresponds to a location in the file. This
o ZIP- Zip compressed file process is called hashing. Any record within this type of file can be accessed directly without reference to
any other record.
2.3. File Organization Types To create and maintain a random file, a mapping function must be established between the record key and
File organization refers to the logical structuring of records in a file. In other words, it is the way records the address where the record is held.
are arranged in a file.
In the context of data processing, files can be grouped into two types: master and transaction files.
A master file contains the permanent data of a data processing system. Master files represent the most up
to date situation of the system and contain two basic types of data: ***** END CHAPTER FIVE *****
o data of a more or less permanent nature which only requires updating occasionally;
o data which will change every time transactions are applied to a file.

A transaction file contains data that is necessary to keep a master file up to date. Data is collected on a
daily, weekly or monthly basis into a transaction file which is then used to update the master file.

Files can be serially, sequentially or randomly organized.In choosing a file organization, several criteria
are important:short access time, ease of update, economy of storage, simple maintenance and reliability.
The priority of criteria depends on the application that will use the file.

2.3.1. Serial File Organization

Serial files are files in which records are stored in chronological order with no particular sequence. As
each record is received it is stored in the next available storage space. In order to access a particular
record, the file must be read record by record from the beginning of the file until the required record is
found. This type of access is called serial access. Serial access is very slow which makes it impossible for
serial files to be very useful if individual records have to be looked up. They are used as temporary files to
store transaction data.

2.3.2. Sequential File Organization

A sequential file is a serial file in which records are stored in order by a record-key field. That is, the
records are sorted according to a given field that identifies each record in the file, in a unique way.
Sequential files are also accessed serially. However, a sequential file is particularly useful when a whole
file of data has to be processed as it is faster and more efficient than other methods. Sequential files are
ideal for master files and batch processing applications such as payroll and billing systems in which
almost all records are processed in a single run of the application.
Serial and sequential files can be stored on both magnetic disk and magnetic tape. They are particularly
suited to tape which is a serial/sequential access medium.

CHAPTER SIX d. Wide Area Network:A wide area network (WAN) covers a large geographical area such as a country,
DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS a continent or even the whole world. A WAN can be one large network, or it can consist of a number of
linked LANs. It is constructed using devices such as bridges, routers or gateways, which enable them to
Introduction share data. The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet.
The benefits of communication to the human race are enormous. By communicating with one another,
information can be shared; resources and expertise can be shared by communicating with the right 1.1.2. By Topology
people. The merging of computers and communication has not only influenced the way people Network topology is the configuration or layout of a network formed by the connections between devices
communicate but also, on the way computer systems are organized. The concept of the computer center on the network. It describes the way in which computers and cables are connected together to build a
as a room with a large computer to which users brought their work for processing is now totally obsolete. network. Different types of topologies exist.
The old model of a single computer serving all of the organization’s computational needs has been
replaced by one in which a large number of separate but interconnected computers do the job. The ability a. Bus topology: In a bus topology, all computers are connected to a single cable (trunk or backbone)
to interconnect computers so that they can communicate and share resources has had a major impact on known as bus, by a transceiver either directly or by using a short drop cable. Bus transmits in both
modern day communication. directions such that any transmission can be received by all stations. All ends of the cable must be
terminated, that is plugged into a device such as a computer or terminator, to avoid signals from bouncing
1. Computer Networks back.
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices that are connected together so they
can communicate and share resources. The smallest network can be as simple as two computers linked
together. The resources shared include files, folders, printers, disk drives and anything else that exists on
a computer. Any computer or device on a network is called a node. The term networking is used to
describe the processes involved in designing, implementing, upgrading, managing and otherwise working
with networks and network technologies
Bus topology
1.1. Classification of Computer Networks
Advantages
Different criteria exist for classifying computer networks like the geographical area covered, the topology
o Easy and inexpensive to set up as little cabling is required
used and the network architecture.
o Easy to include additional stations without disrupting the network
o Failure of one node does not affect network
1.1.1. By Geographical Scope
According to geographical area covered, networks can be classified as local area networks, wide area
Disadvantages
networks, metropolitan area networks, personal area networks etc.
o High rate of data collision
o Fails if there is any damage to the bus
a. Personal Area Network:A personal area network (PAN) is a network that is used for communication
o Any break in the bus is difficult to identify
among computers and computer devices in close proximity of around a few meters within a room. A PAN
usually includes laptops, mobile phones, personal digital assistants, digital cameras and headsets. It can be
b. Star topology:In a star topology, all the computers are connected to a central device which could be
used for communication between the devices themselves, or for connection to a larger network such as
a computer, a hub or a switch. Any communications between computers in this topology must pass
the Internet. The most popular is the Wireless PAN (WPAN), a Bluetooth connection between two laptop
through the central node. As such, the central node controls all the activities of the network.
computers or phones.

b. Local Area Network:A local area network (LAN) is a network that spans a relatively small area of a
few hundred meters, and not more than a mile. Most LANs are confined to a single building or group of
buildings, enabling the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may be needed by
multiple users in an organization. The network in a school Multimedia Resource Centre or a cybercafé is
an example of a LAN.
Star topology
c. Metropolitan Area Network:A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that usually
Advantages
spans a town or city. It is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks
o Breakdown of a node does not affect the network
of buildings to entire cities. A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter. An example
o No disruption of the network when connecting or removing devices
of a MAN is a cable TV network.
o It is easy to detect faults

Disadvantages

o Failure of the central node affects the entire network the elements of the network. Based on the architecture, computer networks can be broadly classified as
o It is costly due to the amount of cables required and the cost of central device using either client-server architecture or peer-to-peer architecture.

a. Client/Server:Client/server is a network architecture in which a more powerful computer called

c. Ring topology:In a ring topology, all the nodes are connected in the form of a closed loop such that
server is dedicated to serving less powerful computers called clients. Servers hold shared resources like
each node is connected to two others. It uses an empty data packet called a token and a special protocol
files, programs and the network operating system. They provide access to network resources to all the
called token ring. Packets travel around the ring in a clockwise direction. To transmit, a node requires an
users of the network. There are many different kinds of servers, and one server can provide several
empty token.
functions. For example, there are file servers, print servers, mail servers, database servers and Web
servers. Users run applications on client workstations which rely on servers for resources such as files,
devices and even processing power.
Internet services are organized according to client/server architecture. Client programs, such as Web
browsers and file transfer programs create connections to servers, such as Web and FTP servers. The
clients make requests and the server responds to the requests by providing the services requested by the
client.
Ring topology
b. Peer-to-Peer:Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a network architecture in which each computer, or peer,
Advantages
isconsidered equal in terms of responsibilities and each acts as a server to the others in the network. This
o No collision as a station needs the token to transmit
means that any computer on the network can provide services to any other computer. Peer-2-peer is
o Each computer acts like a repeater so signals are not attenuated
usually implemented where strict security is not necessary. P2P networks are generally simpler and less
expensive, but they usually do not offer the same performance under heavy loads as client/server
Disadvantages
networks.
o If a node in the network fails, the entire network fails
o Network is disrupted when additional stations are added
Remark A hybrid network combines client/server and peer-to-peer architectures. It is the most
commonly used network architecture.
d. Mesh topology: A network topology in which every device is connected to many other devices
providing several pathways that the device can communicate on the network. When every device has a
1.2. Computer Network Components
direct link to every other device it called a full mesh; otherwise it is a partial mesh.
All types of computer networks require special networking software and hardware to allow different
computers to communicate with each other. The most important software component required for a
network is the network operating system (NOS) while there are many types of hardware devices which
are either installed or connected to the computer terminals in order to construct a network.

1.2.1. Network Operating System

A network operating system is an operating system which includes networking features. It contains
Mesh topology
special functions, protocols and device drivers that enable the computer to be connected to a network.
Advantages NOS provide the ability to share resources and the ability to manage a network name directory, security,
 It can withstand high traffic as data can be transmitted from different computers simultaneously. and other housekeeping aspects of a network.
 If a computer fails, there is always an alternative path through which information can be Examples of network operating systems are Windows-NT, Windows-2000 server, Windows server 3000,
transmitted. Novell Netware and Artisoft LANstatic.
 Computers can be added to the network without disrupting the network. Some multi-purpose operating systems like Windows XP, Windows 7 and Mac OS 10, come with
capabilities that enable them to be described as network operating systems.
Disadvantages
 There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections. 1.2.2. Network Interface
 Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies. A network interface card (NIC) is a circuit board that provides the physical interface (link) between the
 Setup and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the network is computer and the communication medium. A NIC plugs into the system board of the computer and
tough. provides ports for connection to the network. Its function is to manage the communication and network
protocol for the computer. A NIC is also called a LAN card or network adapter card. There are two kinds of
1.1.3. By Architecture NIC: wired NIC for wired networks and wireless NIC (WNIC) for wireless networks. A NIC may be
Network architecture is the overall design of a network that describes how the network is configured and designed as an Ethernet card, a Token Ring card, or an FDDI card (but not all three).
what strategies are being used. Network architectures also describe the functional relationships between

1.2.6. Bridge
A bridge, also called a layer 2 switch, is a device used to create a connection between two separate
computer networks or to divide one network into segments. Creating multiple segments in a local
network reduces the network traffic making the network to be faster and more efficient. A bridge
performs its segmenting function by examining the data packet and forwarding it to other physical
segments only if necessary.

1.2.3. Hub 1.2.7. Router

A hub is a device that works as central connecting point for multiple computers in a network. It has ports A router is a device that joins several networks together and is responsible for routing data from one
to which the computers in the network are connected. Data sent to the hub is broadcasted to all the ports network to another. It keeps track of the IP addresses of the computers on the networks connected to its
but, only the destination computer receives it. There are three kinds of hubs: network interface cards and directs data packets appropriately. It is more powerful than a bridge because
instead of just choosing network segments based on previous traffic, a router can look up the best route
o Passive hubs which only split the transmission signal so it can be sent to all the ports
for a packet to take. Routers can be computers with operating systems and special network software, or
o Active hubs (also called Multiport Repeaters) which regenerate data bits to maintain a strong signal
they can be other dedicated devices built by network manufacturers. The Internet relies heavily on
over extended cable lengths
routers.
o Intelligent hubs (also called Concentrators) usually have their own microprocessor chips and
network operating systems. They can be managed remotely on the network.

Router

1.2.8. Modem
Hub
A modem (modulator/demodulator) is a device that encodes data for transmission over a particular
1.2.4. Switch
medium, such as telephone line, coaxial cable, fiber optics, or microwaves. It converts digital signals from
A switch is device capable of forwarding packets directly to the ports associated with particular network
a computer to analog signals or waveform for transmission over a medium (modulation) and converts
addresses. It is used at the same place as a hub but the difference between the two is that a switch has a
analog signals from the medium to digital signals understandable by the computer(demodulation).
switching table within it. The switching table stores the Media Access Control (MAC) address of every
Common types of modems are: Dial-up Modem, Cable Modem, DSL Modem and Sat modem.
computer connected to the switch and sends messages only to the requested addresses, unlike the hub
which broadcasts messages to all its ports.
1.2.9. Multiplexer
A MAC address is a built-in number (i.e. set by the manufacturer) consisting of 12 hexadecimal digits that
A multiplexer (MUX) is a device that takes input signals from different sources and transmits them over a
uniquely and permanently identifies the network adapter of a computer. Examples of a MAC addresses are
single transmission line. This process is known as multiplexing. There are different types of multiplexing:
00-14-22-DA-67-15 and 00-13-02-31-E8-BA.MAC address is also called the physical address. Under
Windows, the MAC address of a computer can be displayed by typing ipconfig/all at a Command prompt. o Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), in which the carrier bandwidth is divided into sub
channels of different frequency widths, each carrying a signal at the same time in parallel.
o Time-division multiplexing (TDM), in which multiple signals are carried over the same channel in
alternating time slots.
o Code-division multiplexing (CDM), in which multiple signals are carried over the same channel but
Switch every signal is coded differently.
1.2.5. Repeater
With physical media, data transmissions can only span a limited distance before the quality of the signal 1.2.10. Gateway
degrades or weakens. A repeater is a device used to amplify or regenerate a signal so that it can be A gateway is a device that connects networks using different communications protocols so that
transmitted onward in its original strength and form. A repeater preserves signal integrity and extends information can be passed from one to the other. A gateway both transfers information and converts it to
the distance over which data can safely travel by. Active hubs are considered as repeaters (multiport a form compatible with the protocols used by the receiving network. The term gateway is also sometimes
repeaters). loosely used to describe any device that acts as the entry or exit point for a network.

1.3. Protocols and Standards

For proper communication in a network, there must be a formal set of rules and standards that two data
communication devices must understand, accept and use to be able to talk to each other.
Repeater

1.3.1. Protocols access method used by FDDI involves token-passing. FDDI uses a dual ring physical topology.
A protocol is a set of rules that governs how devices on a network communicate. If two computers are Transmission normally occurs on one of the rings (the primary ring); however, if a break occurs, the
communicating and they both follow the protocols properly, the exchange is successful, regardless of what system keeps information moving by automatically using portions of the second ring to create a new
types of machines they are and what operating systems are running on the machines. As long as the complete ring. A major advantage of FDDI is high speed. It operates over fiber optic cable at 100 Mbps.
machines have software that can manage the protocol, communication is possible. Essentially, protocols
are necessary because: e. AsynchronousTransfer Mode: Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol that
o they define how to establish and terminate communication between machines transmits data at a speed of 155 Mbps and higher. ATM works by transmitting all data in small packets of
o they set the format of any data which is to be exchanged between machines a fixed size; whereas, other protocols transfer variable length packets. ATM supports a variety of media
o they define how errors are to be detected and corrected such as video, CD-quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a star topology, which can work with fiber
o they define methods to compress the data for faster and more reliable transmission optic as well as twisted pair cable.
ATM is most often used to interconnect two or more local area networks. It is also frequently used by
Rules of network protocol include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a network: Internet Service Providers to utilize high-speed access to the Internet for their clients. As ATM technology
access method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer. The most becomes more cost-effective, it will provide another solution for constructing faster local area networks
common network protocols are Ethernet, Local Talk, Token ring, FDDI and ATM.
1.3.2. Standards
a. Ethernet: Ethernet protocol is the most common and widely used protocol to establish a local area A standard is simply an agreed way of doing something. It is a document that provides requirements,
network. Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision specifications, guidelines or characteristics that can be used consistently to ensure that materials,
Detection). This is a system where each computer listens to the cable before sending anything through the products, processes and services are fit for their purpose. Standards are extremely important in the
network. If the network is clear, the computer will transmit. If some other nodes have already transmitted computer industry because they allow the combination of products from different manufacturers to
on the cable, the computer will wait and try again when the line is clear. Sometimes, two computers create a customized system. Without standards, only hardware and software from the same company
attempt to transmit at the same instant. A collision occurs when this happens. Each computer then backs would be used together. In addition, standard user interfaces can make it much easier to learn how to use
off and waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit. With this access method, it is new applications.
normal to have collisions. However, the delay caused by collisions and retransmission is very small and Two types of standards exist: de jure standards and de facto standards. A de jure standard is one
does not normally affect the speed of transmission on the network. developed and approved by an official or recognized standards organization while a de facto standard is
Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted over wireless one that has been accepted (as the best for its purpose) because of wide public support and market forces.
access points, twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 10 Mbps up to 1000 Mbps. Most official computer standards are set by one of the following organizations: IEEE, ISO, ANSI, ITU, and
VESA.
b. Local Talk: Local Talk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for
Macintosh computers. The access method used by Local Talk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple a. IEEE – Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. The IEEE focuses on electrical, electronics,
Access with Collision Avoidance). It is similar to CSMA/CD except that a computer signals its intent to computer engineering, and science-related matters. Its most famous standard is probably RS-232C, which
transmit before it actually does so. Local Talk adapters and special twisted pair cable can be used to defines an interface for serial communication. This is the interface used by most modems, and a number
connect a series of computers through the serial port. The Macintosh operating system allows the of other devices, including display screens and mice.
establishment of a peer-to-peer network without the need for additional software. With the addition of IEEE 802.x is a series of networking specifications developed by the IEEE. The x following 802 is a
the server version of AppleShare software, a client/server network can be established. placeholder for individual specifications.
The Local Talk protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies using twisted pair cable. A primary
disadvantage of Local Talk is low speed. Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps. o IEEE 802.3 is used for bus networks that use CSMA/CD, both broadband and baseband, and the
baseband version is based on the Ethernet standard.
c. Token Ring: Token Ring is a protocol that was developed by IBM. In Token Ring, the computers are o IEEE 802.4 is used for bus networks that use token passing,
connected so that the signal travels around the network from one computer to another in a logical ring. It o IEEE 802.5 is used for ring networks that use token passing (token ring networks).
uses an access method called token passing. A special message, called token, circulates along the ring from o IEEE 802.6 is an emerging standard for metropolitan area networks, which transmit data, voice, and
one computer to another and each computer can transmit only while it is holding the token. When a video over distances of more than 5 kilometers.
station wishes to transmit, it waits for the empty token to pass by. It seizes it and attaches data to it and o IEEE 802.11 gives specifications for wireless networking. These specifications, which include
then releases it to the medium. The token circulates until it gets to the destination computer that picks it 802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g, allow computers, printers, and other devices to
and retrieves the data. After retrieving the data, it regenerates the token and sends it back to the medium. communicate over a wireless local area network (LAN).
The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair or fiber optic cable. It can operate at o IEEE 802.14 is designed for bidirectional transmission to and from cable television networks over
transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. Due to the increasing popularity of Ethernet, the use of Token optical fiber and coaxial cable through transmission of fixed length ATM cells to support television,
Ring has decreased. data, voice, and Internet access.

d. Fiber Distributed Data Interface: Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a network protocol b. ISO: ISO is short for International Organization for Standardization. Often incorrectly identified as
that is used primarily to interconnect two or more local area networks, often over large distances. The an acronym for International Standards Organization, ISO is not an acronym; rather, it is derived from the

Greek word isos, which means “equal”. The ISO works to establish global standards for communications It establishes, maintains and terminates end-to-end connections (session) between two applications on
and information exchange. Primary among its accomplishments is the widely accepted ISO/OSI reference two network nodes. It controls the dialogue between the source and destination nodes, which node can
model, which defines standards for the interaction of computers connected by communications networks. send when and for how long. Examples of protocols that operate on this layer are: RPC, NETBIOS and
X.225
c. ITU: ITU is acronym for International Telecommunication Union, an international organization
based in Geneva, Switzerland, that is responsible for making recommendations and establishing standards Layer 4: Transport
governing telephone and data communications Austen's for public and private telecommunications It is responsible for end-to-end delivery of entire messages. It allows data to be transferred reliably and
organizations. Founded in 1865 under the name International Telegraph Union, it was renamed the uses sequencing to guarantee that it will be delivered in the same order it was sent. It also provides
International Telecommunication Union in 1934 to signify the full scope of its responsibilities. ITU services such as error checking and flow control. Examples of protocols at this layer are: TCP, UDP,
became an agency of the United Nations in 1947. A reorganization in 1992 aligned the ITU into three NETBEUI and SPX.
governing bodies: the Radiocommunication Sector, the Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-
TSS, ITU-T, for short), and the Telecommunication Development Sector. Layer 3: Network
The ITU-T develops communications recommendations for all analog and digital communications. It is responsible for path determination, routing, and the delivery of packets across internetworks. It is
also responsible for addressing (also known as logical addressing) for example IP addressing. Examples of
1.3.3. The OSI Reference Model protocols at this layer are: IP, IPX and ICMP.
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model is a layered architecture (plan) that standardizes Examples of devices that operate at this level are Layer-3 switches and routers. WAPs (wireless access
levels of service and types of interaction for computers exchanging information through a points) with built-in routing capabilities also act at this layer.
communications network. The OSI reference model separates computer-to-computer communications
into seven protocol layers, or levels. Each layer of the OSI model provides specific functions not provided Layer 2: Data Link
by any other layer. Sets of protocols allow the peer layers of the sending and receiving computers to It is responsible for reassembling bits taken off the wire by the physical layer to frames and makes sure
communicate with each other. Each level uses the services of the layer immediately below it and provides they are in the correct order and requests retransmission of frames in case an error occurs. It provides
services to the layer immediately above it. error checking by adding CRC to the frame. Examples of protocols at this layer are: Ethernet, Token Ring,
The table below shows the layered architecture of the OSI reference model. PPP and ISDN.
Examples of devices that operate at this layer are: switches, bridges, NICs and WAPs (Wireless Access
Points).
7 Application Layer

6 Presentation Layer Layer 1: Physical

This layer communicates directly with the communication medium. It is responsible for activating,
5 Session Layer maintaining and deactivating the physical link. It defines electrical and optical signaling, voltage levels,
data transmission rates, as well as mechanical specifications such as cable lengths, and connectors, the
4 Transport Layer amount of pins and their functions. Examples of devices that operate at this layer are: hubs, repeaters, and
NICs.
3 Network Layer
1.4. Benefits and Limitations of Computer Networks
2 Data Link Layer
a. Benefits
1 Physical Layer o Sharing devices such as printers saves money.
o Site (software) licenses are likely to be cheaper than buying several standalone licenses.
o Files can easily be shared between users.
ISO/OSI Reference Model
o Network users can communicate by email and instant messaging.
Layer 7: Application o Data is easy to backup as all the data is stored on the file server.
It provides network services directly to the user’s applications such as a web browser or e-mail client. o Organizations can organize videoconferences ( videoconferencing)
This layer is said to be “closest to the user”. Examples of protocols that operate at this layer are: TELNET, o Employees can work from home (telecommuting)
HTTP, FTP, SMTP and POP.

Layer 6: Presentation b. Limitations

The Presentation layer represents the data in a particular format to the Application layer. It defines o Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
encryption, compression, conversion and other coding functions. Examples of specifications defined at o Managing a large network is complicated. It requires training and a network manager usually
this layer are: GIF, JPEG, MPEG, MIME and ASCII. needs to be employed.
o If the file server breaks down the files on the server become inaccessible. Email might still work
Layer 5: Session if it is on a separate server. The computers can still be used but are isolated.

o Viruses can easily spread to other computers throughout the network, if one computer is is estimated to be half way between 1.2 and 1.3. The analogue meter can show any value between 1.2 and
infected. 1.3 but we are unable to read the scale more precisely than about half a division.
o There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security procedures are
needed to prevent such abuse, eg a firewall. 2.1.2. Digital Signals
A digital signal is one in which information is represented as a sequence of binary values 0 and 1. These
2. Data Communication two values represent two conditions, on or off, corresponding to two known levels of voltage or current.
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between two devices via some form of communication Digital signals do not continuously vary as analogue signals. A digital signal can be visually represented as
channel. In data communication the following basic terms are frequently used: follows:
o Data: a collection of facts in raw form that becomes information after processing.
o Signal: an electric or electromagnetic encoding of data.
o Signaling: propagation of signals across a communication channel.
o Transmission: sending of data from one place to another by means of signals.

There are five basic components in a data communication system: transmitter, message, transmission Digital signal
medium, receiver and protocol.
Digital systems contain devices such as logic gates, flip-flops, shift registers and counters. A computer is
an example of a digital system.
Message A digital meter can display many values, but not every value within its range.
Transmitter Receiver
For example the display on the right can show 6.25 and 6.26 but not a value
Transmission
between them. This is not a problem because digital meters normally have Digital meter display
medium
sufficient digits to show values more precisely than it is possible to read an
o Transmitter (sender): device that encodes data for transmission analogue display.
o Message: data/information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.
o Transmission medium: path through which the message travels from transmitter to receiver. 2.2. Broadband and Baseband Systems
o Receiver: device that decodes transmitted signals back to data 2.2.1. Baseband System
o Protocol: rules that govern data communication A baseband system is a communication system in which the medium of transmission carries a single
message at a time in digital form. Data is transmitted as a digital signal through the medium as a single
2.1. Analogue and Digital Signals channel that uses the entire bandwidth of the medium. Baseband communication is bi-directional, which
Data is transmitted from one point to another by means of signals that may be in analogue or digital form. means that the same channel can be used to send and receive signals. In baseband, frequency-division
multiplexing is not possible. Baseband communication is found in local area networks such as Ethernet
2.1.1. Analogue Signals and Token Ring.
An analogue signal is one in which information is represented as a continuous variation of some physical
property or quantity. Analogue signals are continuous waves that carry information by varying the 2.2.2. Broadband System
frequency or amplitude of the wave. When the amplitude of a signal is varied to encode information, the A broadband system is a communication system in which the medium of transmission carries multiple
technique is called amplitude modulation (AM). When the frequency is varied, the technique is called messages at a time, each message modulated on its own carrier frequency. Here, data is sent in the form of
frequency modulation (FM). An analogue signal can be visually represented as follows. analogue signals where each transmission is assigned a portion of the bandwidth. Broadband
communication is unidirectional, so in order to send and receive, two pathways are needed. This can be
accomplished either by assigning a frequency for sending and assigning another frequency for receiving
along the same cable or by using two cables, one for sending and one for receiving. Broadband
communication is found in wide area networks.

2.3. Transmission Modes and Techniques

Analogue signal Transmission modes simply refer to the direction of flow of information between two communicating
devices. It could be simplex, half duplex or full duplex.
Human speech is analogue. Telephone lines use analogue signals because they were originally designed
for speech. An audio amplifier is an example of an analogue system. The amplifier produces an output
2.3.1. Simplex
voltage which can be any value within the range of its power supply.
In simplex mode, signals are transmitted in only one direction all the time. The flow of information is
An analogue meter can display any value within the range available on its
unidirectional from transmitter to receiver always. Examples are television broadcasting, computer to the
scale. However, the precision of readings is limited by our ability to read
printer connection and CPU to monitor communication.
them. For example the meter on the right shows 1.25V because the pointer

Analogue meter display

A B 2.4. Switching Techniques

Switching is a communications method that uses temporary rather than permanent connections to
establish a link or to route information between two parties. Long distance transmission is done over a
2.3.2. Half Duplex network of switched nodes. Data is routed by being switched through intermediary stations that together
In half duplex mode, signals can be transmitted in both directions but only one way at a time. The flow of serve to connect the sender and the receiver. Three switching techniques exist: packet switching, circuit
information is bidirectional but information can only be sent if it is not being received. It is suitable for switching and message switching.
data transmission between a computer and dumb terminals. An example is the police radio (walkie-
talkie). 2.4.1. Packet Switching
Packet switching is a switching method in which the message to be transmitted is broken into small data
A B packets and sent over the network. The packets may take different routes to arrive their destination and
they may arrive in any other or out of sequence. On arrival, they are put back into order and the message
is reconstituted. Each packet is sent with a header address which tells what its destination is. The header
2.3.3. Full Duplex address also describes the sequence for reassembly at the destination. One packet contains information
In full duplex mode, signals can be transmitted in both directions simultaneously. The communicating on how many packets should be arriving. If a packet fails to arrive, the destination computer sends a
devices can transmit at the same time. The flow of information is bidirectional. It is suitable for interactive message to the sender’s computer asking it to send the missing packet again. This method is suitable for
systems. An example is the telephone. transmission of data. The Internet is an example of a packet-switching network. Standards for packet
switching on networks are documented in the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
A B recommendation X.25

2.4.2. Circuit Switching

2.3.4. Parallel Transmission Circuit switching is a switching method in which a dedicated communication path in physical form
Parallel transmission is the method of transferring several bits at the same time over separate channels. between two stations within a network is established, maintained and terminated for each
For example, eight separate channels will be required if a block of eight bits is to be transmitted in communication session. This channel remains open throughout the communication process and cannot be
parallel. Parallel transmission is fast but it is suited only for short distances as cabling for long distances used by anyone else. In circuit switching, the connection is made at a switching center, which physically
will be expensive. It is mainly used for connections within the computer and for connecting the computer connects the two parties and maintains an open line between them for as long as needed. It has basically
to the printer. three phases: circuit establishment, data transfer and circuit disconnect. The message is sent without
being broken up, so it is received in the order it was sent. This method was designed for voice
2.3.5. Serial Transmissions transmissions. Telephone networks use circuit switching for transmission of phone calls.
Serial transmission is the method of transferring data one bit at a time through the same channel. If a
block of 8 bits is to be transmitted in series, the bits will be transmitted one after the other on the same 2.5. Transmission Media
channel. Serial transmission can be asynchronous or synchronous. A transmission medium is a material or substance (solid, liquid or gas) which can transmit information.
For example, the transmission medium for sound received by the ears is usually air, but solids and liquids
a. Asynchronous transmission: Asynchronous transmission describes the process where transmitted may also act as transmission media for sound. There are two categories of transmission media: guided
data is encoded with start and stop bits, specifying respectively the beginning and end of each character. and unguided media.
Data is sent character by character with each character preceded by a start bit and a stop bit is added to
the end. Other control bits like the parity bit are added to the group before the stop bit and small gabs are 2.5.1. Guided Media
inserted to distinguish each group. Guided media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. They are made up
of an internal conductor bounded by jacket material. They are also called bounded or conducted media.
b. Synchronous transmission: Synchronous transmission describes a continuous and timed transfer Three common types of guided media are coaxial cable, twisted pair cable and fiber optical cable.
of data. Data is sent as one long bit stream or block of data without start or stop bits and with no gabs.
Upon reception, the receiver counts the bits and reconstructs bytes. It is essential that the same timing is a. Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable is a round flexible cable consisting of an inner copper core and an
maintained by both sender and receiver as there are no start and stop bits and no gaps. Another channel is outer flexible braided shield, separated by an insulator. The shield prevents signals transmitted on the
therefore used to transfer timing signals to keep the both parties synchronized. Accuracy is dependent on center wire from affecting nearby components and prevents external interference from affecting the
the receiver keeping an accurate count of the bits as they arrive. signal carried on the center wire. The most common form is the type used in cable TV. The most common
type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayonet-Neill-Concelmnan (BNC) connector. Different
Serial transmission is slower than parallel transmission but it is suited for long distances. It is cheaper as types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-connector, barrel connector, and a
only one transmission line is required. Synchronous transmission is faster than asynchronous terminator.
transmission because fewer bits have to be transmitted; only data bits and no extra control bits. For this
reason it is the choice for network communications links.

Coaxial cable BNC connector

o Single mode fiber: A SMFhas a core with a small diameter which allows only a single ray of light
to pass through. SMFs carry information for long distances.

b. Twisted pair cable: Twisted pair cable is the most common type of cabling used in LAN networks
today. It consists of a pair or pairs of insulated wires twisted together. Cable twisting helps reduce noise
pickup from outside sources and crosstalk on multi-pair cables. Twisted pair cabling comes in two
varieties: shielded and unshielded. o Multi-mode fiber (MMF): A MMF has a large diameter core which allows multiple rays of light to
be transmitted simultaneously with each ray of light running at a different reflection angle. MMFs
i. Shielded twisted pair (STP): STP has a sheath of foil and copper braid that provides an extra carry transmissions over short distances.
shielding that protects the twisted pairs from interference from outside. Less susceptible to noise
and attenuation than unshielded twisted pair, shielded twisted pair is suitable for environments
with electrical interference. However, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. It is
used on networks using Token Ring topology.

Multi-mode fiber
ii. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP): UTP has no additional shielding. It is the most common and is
generally the best option for LANs. UTP is more flexible and takes up less space than shielded
twisted-pair cable but has less bandwidth. The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair The advantages of optic fiber include greater bandwidth than copper, immunity to crosstalk, lower loss
cabling is an RJ-45 connector. and no electrical hazard. Optic fibers are replacing copper coaxial cables as the preferred transmission
medium for electromagnetic waves, thereby revolutionizing terrestrial communications. Applications
range from long-distance telephone and data communications to computer communications in a local area
network.

2.5.2. Unguided Media

UTP cable RJ-45 Connector Unguided media do not use physical means to define the path to be taken by transmitted data. They
transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor; as such they are not guided or
c. Fiber optic cable: Fiber optic cable is a form of cable that transmits data signals in the form of bound to a channel to follow. Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to
modulated light pulses. The light-conducting heart of a fiber optic cable is an extremely thin cylinder of anyone who has a device receiving them. Examples of unguided media are infrared waves, radio waves
glass or plastic, called the core, surrounded by a refractive layer called cladding that effectively traps the and microwaves.
light and keeps it bouncing along the fiber.
The core and cladding have different refractive indices with the refractive index of the cladding slightly a. Infrared: Infrared waves are electromagnetic radiations with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400
lower than that of the core. This causes light pulses incident to the core-cladding boundary at angles THz. They are used for short range communications. Infrared signals do not penetrate walls as such
greater than the critical angle to undergo total internal reflection. As a result, the light pulses are guided transceivers must be within line-of-sight either directly or via reflection. Line of sight means that the
through the core without refraction. Rays of greater inclination to the fiber axis lose part of their sender and receiver must be in view of each other without any obstacle between them. Infrared waves
power into the cladding at each reflection and are not guided. There are two types of optical fibers: cannot be used outside a building because the sun’s rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with
single mode fiber and multi-mode fiber. the communication.

b. Radio waves: Radio waves are electromagnetic radiations with frequencies between 3 kHz and 1
GHz. Radio and television systems transmit signals by modulation of radio waves. Radio waves are
omnidirectional. This means that signals spread out in all directions and can be received by many
antennas. Other uses of radio waves are Bluetooth and Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity).

c. Microwaves: Microwaves are electromagnetic radiations between 1 GHz and 300 GHz. Microwaves
are unidirectional. There are two types of microwave systems: terrestrial microwave systems and satellite
systems.

Terrestrial microwave systems are land-based. Microwaves being line-of-sight and traveling in a straight
line, the earth’s curvature poses a problem to long distance microwave transmissions. As such, long
distance transmissions require directional antennas (repeaters) to be used at intervals of 25 to 30
Fiber optic connectors
kilometers between the transmitting and receiving end.

Example 2: What are the parity bits for the following data units in even parity?

i) 01101010 ii)11000101 iii)10011100

2.6.2. Cyclic Redundancy Check

Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is an error-detection code in which the data to be transmitted is treated as
a binary number which is divided by another binary number called the polynomial. The remainder of the
Satellite systems use communication satellites to solve the problem posed by the earth’s curvature to division is appended to the actual data bits and transmitted. The division uses the Modulo-2 arithmetic
terrestrial microwave systems. A communication satellite is a microwave relay station placed in outer which is simply realized by XOR’ing two numbers. On reception, the receiver divides the message
space. A microwave signal is transmitted from earth to the satellite which amplifies the signal and sends it (including the calculated CRC), by the same polynomial the transmitter used. If the result of this division is
back to earth. The earth station transmits the signal to the satellite on an up-link, on one frequency and zero, then the transmission was successful. However, if the result is not equal to zero, an error occurred
the satellite repeats those signals on a down link which is on another frequency. during the transmission.

XOR function:
X Y X xor Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Advantages of microwave systems

o No cables needed Suppose we have the message: 110101 (x5 + x4 + x2 + x0)
o Multiple channels available And the code polynomial: 101 (x2 + x0)
o Wide bandwidth
To generate a CRC, we add k redundant bits to the message before diving by the code polynomial, where k
Disadvantages is the power of the code polynomial. In this case, k is 2 so we add two zeros to the message before dividing
o Line-of-sight will be disrupted if any obstacle, such as new buildings, are in the way it by the polynomial.
o Signal absorption by the atmosphere. Microwaves suffer from attenuation due to atmospheric
conditions. The message becomes: 11010100
o Towers are expensive to build

2.6. Error Detection

Errors resulting from noise, crosstalk, toggled or duplicated bits may corrupt data transmitted across
networks. Because of these transmission errors, network protocols very often use error-detection codes.
An error detection code is a method for discovering errors during transmissions. Examples of error-
detection codes include parity checking, checksums and cyclic redundancy checks.

111011
2.6.1. Parity Checking
101| 11010100
Parity checking refers to the use of a parity bit to check the accuracy of transmitted data. A parity bit is an 101
extra bit transmitted with a data unit that will be used to check its integrity. There are two types of parity: 111
odd parity and even parity. In odd parity, the parity bit is added such that the total number of bits at 1, in 101
the data unit, is an odd number. In even parity, the parity bit is added so that the total number of 1s is an 100
even number. An error in parity at the receiving end indicates that an error occurred during transmission. 101
If a parity error occurs in communications, all or part of a message must be retransmitted. 011
000
Example 1: What are the parity bits for the following data units in odd parity? 110 When the leftmost bit of the remainder is 0, we use 0 instead of the origin
101
110
i) 11101100 ii)00100101 iii)11010101
101
11

Message with CRC = 11010111
GHS BONADIKOMBO MILE 4, LIMBE ALevel Information and Communication Technology

3. The Internet
3.1. Brief History
Many years ago, the military of the United States of America desired to interconnect or link their
To check a message for CRC error at the receiving end, the message including the CRC is divided by the computers in order to better understand and manage information and communication with respect to
same polynomial. enemy attacks in times of crisis. In the year 1969 the Department of Defense (DoD) then developed an
experimental network called the Advanced Research Project Agency Network (ARPANET)
111011 In the year 1980, the National Science Foundation of the United States of America then developed the
101| 11010111 technology of ARPANET to produce the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) which now
101 enabled universities and other school establishments in the USA to be interconnected. After a great deal of
111
work, a network which enabled the transfer of large amounts of information at very high speed which is
101
100 today called the Internet was developed.
101 The Internet is defined as a worldwide/global system of interconnected computer networks. It is the
011 network of networks in which users can view information on the World Wide Web, exchange electronic
000 mail, participate in electronic discussion forums (newsgroups), send files from any computer to any other
111 and even use each other’s computers directly if they have appropriate passwords. Another name for the
101 Internet is information superhighway.
101
101
00 3.2. Internet Access
An Internet service provider (ISP), also sometimes referred to as an Internet access provider (IAP), is a
CRC checksum is zero, therefore, no transmission error company that offers Internet access to individuals and organizations. The ISP connects to its customers
using a data transmission technology appropriate for delivering Internet Protocol Paradigm, such as dial-
up, digital subscriber line (DSL), cable modem, wireless or dedicated high-speed interconnects.
2.7. Peripheral Device Control ISPs may provide Internet e-mail accounts to users which allow them to communicate with one another
2.7.1. Buffering by sending and receiving electronic messages through their ISP's servers. They may also provide services
Buffering is preloading data into a reserved area of memory called buffer. Buffering helps compensate for such as remotely storing data files on behalf of their customers, as well as other services unique to each
differences in rate of flow of data or time of occurrence of events, when transferring data from one device particular ISP.
to another. Routers use buffers to route data packets on the Internet. When a packet is sent from one Different methods exist for connection to the Internet.
router to another via one or more intermediate routers, the packet is received at each intermediate router
in its entirety, stored there until the required output line is free, then the packet is forwarded. In 3.2.1. Dial-Up Connection
streaming audio or video from the Internet, buffering refers to downloading a certain amount of data A dial-up connection is a connection that is established by dialing a telephone number through a modem.
before starting to play the music or movie. A dial-up connection uses a dial-up modem to transmit digital information over the Plain Old Telephone
System (POTS). POTwS refers to the standard telephone network designed for analog transmission of
2.7.2. Interrupt voice over copper wire. This type of connection offers relatively slow transfer rates and is established on
An interrupt is a signal to the processor emitted by hardware or software indicating an event that needs demand. This method has long been the most widely used method to connect to the Internet but it has
immediate attention. An interrupt alerts the processor of a high-priority condition requiring the been replaced by high-speed broadband and wireless connections.
interruption of the current task the processor is executing. Interrupts are used to handle such events as
data receipt from a modem or network, or a key press or mouse movement. 3.2.2. Digital Subscriber Line
S DSL uses the standard copper telephone wires, often already installed in homes and offices to provide a
2.7.3. Polling high-speed Internet connection. xDSL means that there are different types of DSL: asynchronous DSL
Polling is the process by which the central computer or communications controller in a network, "polls" or (ADSL), synchronous DSL (SDSL), High bit-rate DSL (HDSL), Rate Adaptive DSL (RADSL) and ISDN DSL
asks each device in the network if it has a message to send and then allows each in turn to transmit data. (IDSL).
Access and control of star network typically is maintained by a polling system. o ADSL allows the telephone wires to be used for analog POTS system and digital data transfer
simultaneously. The download speed (downstream) for ADSL is faster than the upload speed
2.7.4. Handshaking (upstream).
Handshaking is the process by which two devices initiate communications. It begins when one device o SDSL cannot share the physical medium with standard telephone communications and has a
sends a message to another device indicating that it wants to establish a communications channel. The download speed equal to the upload speed.
two devices then send several messages back and forth that enable them to agree on a communications
protocol.

A DSL connection requires a transceiver (DSL modem) which allows an Ethernet UTP or a USB connection resource resides such as //www.minsec.gov.cm, and, optionally, the path to a resource such as an HTML
directly to a PC, or to a hub, router, or switch to provide Internet access to an entire network. The document or a file on that server such as /homepage.html. For example
transceiver can be integrated into a router or switch. http://www.minsec.gov.cm/accueil.html.

3.2.3. Broadband Cable The part of the domain name after the dot is called top-level domain, and specifies the type of organization
TV channels only take up 6MHz of cable bandwidth each, which usually leaves several hundred MHz or the country the host server is located. Some common top-level domains are:
available. This additional space on cable is used for high-speed Internet connection. Information from the o .com - for commercial enterprises
Internet travels through the cable as a single TV channel. Just as with DSL, cable Internet requires a o .edu - for educational institutions and universities
special transceiver (cable modem) which allows information to be sent and received on frequencies not o .gov - for United States government agencies
used by TV channels. The cable modem provides one or more LAN interfaces, usually Ethernet or USB o .net - for organizations such as Internet Service Providers
which connect directly to a client or a device such as a hub, switch, or wireless router to allow additional o .org - for non-commercial organizations
clients or entire networks to use the same connection. The cable modem is also equipped with
connections for TV and radio. c. Web browser: A web browser (simply browser) is a computer program that enables a user to read
hypertext in files or on the World Wide Web. To access a web page or web site, the user simply types the
3.2.4. Wireless Internet Access URL of the page or site in the address bar of the browser. Popular browsers include Mozilla Firefox,
Wireless Internet access or wireless broadband is particularly useful for mobile users. With handheld Microsoft Internet Explorer, Opera Mini and Netscape.
devices becoming more advanced and increasingly popular, wireless access is becoming one of the major
ways of connecting to the Internet. This method provides an “always-on connection” which can be d. Search engine: A search engine is a computer program that searches for specific words on the
accessed from anywhere as long as you are geographically within network coverage. Wireless Internet World Wide Web and returns a list of documents in which they were found. Examples of search engines
access includes deploying Wi-Fi hotspots for accessing the Internet. Technologies such as GPRS (General include Google and yahoo.
Packet Radio Service) and UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) allow Smart phones and
other handhelds with Internet capabilities to access the Internet using existing cell phone networks. 3.3.2. Electronic Mail
Electronic mail or e-mail (email) is a means of sending messages, text, and computer files between
3.2.5. Internet over Satellite computers via the Internet. To send and receive e-mails, you need an Internet connection and an e-mail
Internet over satellite (IoS) allows a user to access the Internet via a satellite that orbits the earth. A account which can be created within a webmail service such as Yahoo, Hotmail or Gmail. When you create
satellite placed at a static point above the earth's surface, communicates with the ISP’s dish giving the user an e-mail account, you are given a unique email address that gives you access to your mail box. An email
access to the internet. address is made up of two parts separated by the symbol @ pronounced “at” in the format:
username@domain, where username is the name by which the user is identified and domain is the
3.3. Internet Services domain name that specifies the mail server on which the mail box is located. For example
The Internet provides lots of services to its users including the World Wide Web, electronic mail, [email protected].
electronic commerce, internet telephony, online banking and social networking.
3.3.3. Instant Messaging
3.3.1. The World Wide Web Instant messaging is a live (or real time) communication which occurs when brief text messages are
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system of interconnected documents that can be accessed via the exchanged instantly over the Internet. Instant Messaging requires that both users be on-line at the same
Internet. Documents on the World Wide Web, called web pages, are connected to other documents by time. Common IM applications are AOL Instant Messenger, Yahoo Messenger and Microsoft MSN
hypertext links (hyperlinks), which enable a user to move from one document to another by clicking on messaging.
the links. Web pages are written in HTML, identified by URLs, and transmitted from server to end user
under HTTP. 3.3.4. Internet Telephony
Internet telephony or voice over IP (VoIP) is the transmission of voice telephone conversations through
a. Hypertext Markup Language: HTML is a tag-based notation language used to format documents the Internet or IP networks. It allows users to have voice-talk with others through the Internet. The
that can then be interpreted and rendered by a web browser. It is the authoring language used for telephone calls are digitized and transmitted through the Internet. Internet telephone services can be
describing how a web page is to be displayed by a web browser. Hypertext means that the language mainly categorized into net-to-net and net-to-phone telephony.
provides ways of linking textin one part of a document with related text in another part of the document In net-to-net telephony, both caller and receiver must be online. When both are online, one dials the other
or in other documents. Markup means that it provides ways of indicating formatting (underlining, italics, person’s phone number. If they accept the call, then voice communication is established.
paragraph breaks, section headings, and so on) in text using tags. An extension of hypertext that In net-to-phone, only one person has to be online. This person dials the other person’s phone number and
integrates text, audio, video, graphics and animation is called hypermedia. the latter receives a ring on their phone. Yahoo messenger and Skype provide services for both types.

b. Uniform Resource Locator: A URL is the address of a resource on the Internet. URLs are used by
Web browsers to locate Internet resources. A URL specifies the protocol to be used in accessing the
resource such as http: for a World Wide Web page, the domain or name of the server on which the

3.3.5. Interpersonal Computing o Credit card fraud - hackers are able to steal credit card numbers on computers.
Interpersonal computing refers to person-to-person interactions facilitated by websites that enable o Certain websites spy or track the buying habits of their customers.
collaborative content creation, sharing and manipulation. Interpersonal computing involves: blogs, social o Some goods do not arrive after they are paid for.i
networks, wikis and viral video sites. o It lacks human interaction as one only sees pictures and some text descriptions.

a. Blogs: A blog (web log) is a chronological, journal-style website which its author (or "blogger") 3.3.7. Online Banking
maintains like an online diary, with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or other Online banking (Internet banking) is simply the use of the Internet to perform banking operations like
material such as graphics or video. Many blogs provide commentary or news on a particular subject; opening an account, accessing account information, transferring funds, getting a bank statement etc. In an
others function as more personal online diaries. They also provide the readers with the ability to leave Internet banking system, the bank has a centralized database that is web-enabled. All the services that the
comments in an interactive format. bank has permitted on the Internet are displayed in a menu. Any service can be selected and further
interaction is dictated by the nature of service.
b. Social Networking Sites: Social networking sites are websites that allow users to build
personalized communities to socialize with. Common features include a customizable profile, the ability to 3.4. Intranet and Extranet
add other users as friends, the ease of sharing pictures, music, text, and links, and built-in chat and mail An intranet is a private network that is set up using the same technology and protocols as the Internet but
features. Examples of social networking sites are Facebook, Twitter and MySpace. is restricted to users inside an organization. It provides similar services within an organization to those
provided by the Internet without necessarily being connected to the Internet. An intranet can be seen as a
c. Wikis: Wikis are websites that allow visitors to easily add, remove and edit content, hence enabling private version of the Internet. To access an intranet, some form of user authentication is usually required.
the collaborative authorship of comprehensive documents. The best example of a wiki is the multi-lingual, External access to an intranet is not always provided.
web-based encyclopedia Wikipedia, and which currently includes over two million articles. An extranet is an interconnection of two or more intranets. It allows an organization to share information
with other organizations using Internet standards but with security features preventing access to others.
d. Viral Video Sites: A viral video is a video that is distributed by sharing. Viral video sites are
websites that allow anybody to post videos online. Whilst it is now not difficult to put a video on any
website, the significance of viral video sites is that they provide somewhere to put videos where it is likely
that at least some other people will actually find them. Examples are YouTube and Kaltura.
***** END CHAPTER SIX *****
3.3.6. Electronic Commerce
E-commerce refers to the buying and selling on the Internet. Different models of e-commerce exists:
business-to-business, business-to-consumer, business-to-government and m-commerce

a. Business-to-Consumer: B2C model sells goods or services to the consumer, generally using online
catalog and shopping cart transaction systems. For example, an online pharmacy giving free medical
consultation and selling medicines to patients is following a B2C model. Jumia and kaymuare examples of
B2C services in Cameroon.

b. Business-to-Business: B2B describes commerce transactions between businesses, such as between

a manufacturer and a wholesaler, or between a wholesaler and a retailer. In this form, the buyers and
sellers are both business entities and do not involve an individual consumer.

c. Business-to-Government: B2G is a derivative of B2B marketing. B2G sites provide a platform for CHAPTER SEVEN
businesses to bid on government opportunities which are presented as solicitations requests for proposal INFORMATION SYSTEMS
(RFPs) to tender.
Introduction
Some advantages of setting up an e-commerce website are:
o Products can be sold to local customers and those from abroad.
In the case of information systems the inputs are the data – for example on sales, production and people –
o It is accessible 24 hours each day.
and the outputs are the information that can be used for decision-making in the organization. The process
o It needs a small number of staff to run.
involves storing and manipulating the data in order to transform the raw data into usable information.
o It does not need huge office space.
The process uses a combination of computer and communications technology.
o Products can be sold at cheap prices
An information system can therefore be defined as a set of interrelated components that collect and
process data to produce information.
Some disadvantages of e-commerce are:

1.2. Data Capture and Input Methods

1. Data and Information All computer systems need to have data input into them otherwise they have nothing to process.
Data is the plural of the Latin word datum, meaning an item of information. In practice, data is often used Collecting data for the computer to process is called data capture. Data capture can be manual or
for the singular as well as the plural form of the noun and, refer to raw facts and figures which have no automated.
context or purposeful meaning. When processed, data becomes information. Information is processed
data that has meaning and is presented in a context. 1.2.1. Manual Data Capture
In computing, data is simply any number, letter or symbol that can be entered into a computer system. For Manual data capture uses forms, questionnaires and other methods to collect data that is entered into the
example, the number 12.5 is data because we do not know why or in what context it is being used. computer by typing and clicking. Many different errors can occur when entering data into a system
However, if the number appears on a student’s report card to show that they have an average of 12.5, then manually. To try and reduce the amount of input errors, a system designer can build in validation and
this data has changed into information, because it has acquired a context (it’s an average) and meaning verification checks into the software that the data is entered into.
(the student has passed).
Also, the binary patterns on backing storage devices such as a disk, CD or DVD, or memory stick, are all → Questionnaires: A questionnaire is a set of questions used in a survey to collect data from people. A
classed as data. For example, the binary patterns that describe an icon on your desktop are data. They questionnaire may be in paper format or online.
become information after the operating system software has processed them, because then they become
meaningful to you as the icons representative of your hard disk, Internet explorer or document. → Interviews: An interview is a meeting during which somebody is asked questions. Interviews allow
you to collect a greater depth of data and understanding from people than is possible by just using a
In summary,
questionnaire.

→ Observation: In observation, the data gatherer observes what is happening during a process or
1.1. Characteristics of Information event and produces some kind of data file as a result. This method is advantageous in that it does
Good information is relevantfor its purpose, sufficiently accuratefor its purpose, completeenough for the not rely on people’s willingness to provide information. Also, the data gatherer directly sees what
problem, reliableand targetedto the right person. It is also communicated in timefor its purpose, contains people do rather than relying on what they say they do. The disadvantages are that, it is susceptible
the right level of detail (concise) and is communicated by an appropriate channel, i.e. one that is to observer bias and the results of the observation may suffer from the Hawthorne effect – people
understandableto the user. usually perform better when they know they are being observed.

Relevance: Information should be relevant or appropriate to the purpose. For example, a market research
→ Document review: Document review is getting relevant data from a document, an article or a book.
company may give information on users’ perceptions of the quality of a product. This may not be relevant
to the manager who wants to know opinions on relative prices of the product and its rivals.
a. Data Verification: Verification means checking the input data to make sure it has been entered
Accuracy: Wrong information given to decision-makers would result in wrong decisions. Accuracy means correctly. Verification tries to ensure there have been no transcription errors. It is a check on accuracy.
that information should be free from mistakes and errors. Two methods of data verification are double entry and proofreading.

Completeness: Information should have every necessary part or everything that is wanted. If information
→ Double entry: Double entry consists of entering the data twice. The two entries are then
is not complete, it may not be useful as the basis for making a decision or it may lead to wrong decisions
compared against each other and a warning given if they do not match. For example, a new
being made as only half of an entirety of the information is known.
password is always entered twice.
Reliability:Reliability deals with the truth of information or the objectivity with which it is presented. You
can only really use information confidently if you are sure of its reliability and objectivity. For example we → Proof reading: Proof reading consists of reading the data entered either on screen or printout, to
are confident that the information found in a book, especially one that the library has purchased, is more be sure that it matches the data source. It is also known as visual check.
reliable than information from the Internet where anybody can write unedited and unverified material
and ‘publish’ it on the web. b. Data Validation: Validation is a check on input data to ensure that the data is sensible or
reasonable. A validation check compares the input data with a set of rules that the computer has been told
Conciseness: Information should be in a form that is short enough to allow for its examination and use. the data must follow. If the data does not match up with the rules then there must be an error. Validation
There should be no extraneous information. For example, it is very common practice to summarise only checks that the data is valid but not its correctness. The data may be valid but not correct. Five types
financial data and present this information, both in the form of figures and by using a chart or graph. We of validation checks are:
would say that the graph is more concise than the tables of figures as there is little or no extraneous
information in the graph or chart. → Type check: A type check ensures that data entered in a field fits the required data type. For
Timeliness: Delay destroys the value of information. For effective decision making, information must example, a person’s name will consist of letters of the alphabet and sometimes hyphens and
reach the decision-maker at the right time. Timeliness means that information must reach its recipients apostrophe. Any name that contains numbers will be rejected as invalid.
within the prescribed timeframes.
→ Format check: A format check ensures that input data is in a particular format.The format that data
must be in is specified using an input mask. The input mask is made up of special characters which

indicate what characters may be typed where. For example, the input mask for a car registration
number is given as LL 999 LL, where L represents any letter and 9 represents any digit. SW 499 AO o Divide the total by 11. If the remainder is 0, then the number has passed the validation check
and CE 021 BA will be accepted as valid. and so it is likely that it has been inputted correctly.
231 / 11 = 21 remainder 0
→ Length check: A length check ensures that an entered value is not shorter or longer than a certain
number of characters. For example, a phone number has 9 digits. Entering fewer or more digits 1.2.2. Automated Data Capture
makes a number invalid. Automated data capture is a form of data input in which there is no data entry.This method uses
specialized input devices to collect data that is directly entered into the computer without the use of a
→ Range check: A range check is used to ensure that the data entered falls between a specified keyboard. Different automatic data collection methods are:
minimum and maximum values. For example, a mark in an exam is between 0 and 20. Any mark
below 0 or above 20 is rejected as invalid. a. Optical mark recognition (OMR): A technique used toreadmarks made with prescribed pens or
pencils on specially designed forms (OMR forms), and convert them into information in the
→ Presence check: A presence check ensures that an entry has been made in a particular field. If it has computer. This system is good for multiple choice examination questions.
not, the system will not allow the record to be saved or any entries to be made in later fields. Such
fields called mandatory fields are indicated on some systems by the used of an asterisk.

→ Check digits: A check digit is a digit attached to the end of a string of digits that can be used to
check that the string is correct. It is calculated from the other digits in the string. One example
where a check digit is used is in the 10 digit ISBN number which uniquely identifies books. The last
number of the ISBN is actually the check digit for the other numbers. For example, in the ISBN
1858134153, the 3 at the end of the number is the check digit.
b. Optical character recognition (OCR): A technique usedtoread characters from printed or
The check digit for ISBNs is obtained using a calculation method known as the Modulus-11 weighted handwritten text and transmit them to the computer as if they were typed from the keyboard. This
check digit calculation. method is suitable for capturing data from airline tickets; reading postal codes; capturing data from
telephone and electric bills.
o Start with original number i.e. 185813415
o Weight each digit by its position in the string and add up the results. c. Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR):A technique used to read specially-formatted
characters printed in magnetic ink.A good example of the use of MICR is in banking where magnetic
Position 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ink characters are used on the bottom of each cheque in a cheque book and on the back of credit
Digit 1 8 5 8 1 3 4 1 5 cards and bank cards.

Total =Weightings 10 72 40228 56

10+72+40+56+6+15+16+3+10= 6 15 16 3 10

o Divide the total by 11 and then subtract the remainder from 11. The check digit is the result of
this operation.
228 / 11 = 20 remainder 8 => Check digit is 11-8 = 3.

o Add the check digit to the end of the original number to get the complete product number. i.e.
1858134153.
d. Barcode reading:An optical device called barcode reader is used to read the barcode on products
and convert them into a form that can be processed by the computer. A bar code is a sequence of
To check whether the ISBN is correct,
vertical lines and numbers that identify a product. They are used in libraries, supermarkets and
o Input the number including the check digit.
retail shops.
o Weight each digit by its position in the string and add up the results.

Position 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Digit 1 8 5 8 1 3 4 1 5 3

Weightings 10 72 40 56 6 15 16 3 10 3

Total = 10+72+40+56+6+15+16+3+10+3 = 231

e. Voice Recognition:A technique used to convert speech into text or a sequence of computer At the operational level, employees with operational roles need information to help them carry out their
commands. It is most common for data entry and word processing environments, and fields where duties. Operational planning takes place based on the tactical plan. Results of operational work are passed
a user needs to interact with a computer without using their hands. upwards to let the tactical planners evaluate their plans.

2. Information System Components In order to meet with the information needs of the organization, different types of information systems
We defined an IS earlier as a set of interrelated components that collects and processes data to produce exist which can be grouped into two: operation support systems and management support systems.
information. There are five basic components in an information system: hardware, software, procedures,
data and people. 1.3. Operation Support Systems
Operation support systems process data generated by business operations. They act at the operational
Hardware: Hardware refers to the physical devices that make up the system. They are the whole set of level of the organization. Major categories of OSS are transaction processing systems, office automation
equipment used for input, processing, storage and communication of data. systems and process control systems.

Software: Software is the collection of computer programs used in the system. They provide the 1.3.1. Transaction Processing Systems
instructions that tell the computer what to do. A transaction is any event of interest to an organization. It may be a business activity such as a payment, a
deposit, a customer’s order, a reservation or a student’s registration. Transaction processing systems
Data: Data are raw, unorganized, potentially useful facts and figures that are processed to produce capture and process data generated during an organization’s day-to-day transactions and maintain
information. records about the transactions. They are vital for any organization or business as they gather all the input
necessary for other types of systems. TPS are also called Data Processing Systems.
People: People are the main actors of the system. They are the users of the information system. They
input data into the computer, give some direction to the computer to perform tasks and review There are two types of TPS: batch processing and online processing systems.
information on the computer for output.
Batch Processing: With batch processing, transaction data is collected into groups called batches, or over
Procedures: Procedures are the series of documented actions taken to achieve a particular goal. A a period of time and all processing is done as a group. Batch processing is ideal in situations where
procedure is more than a single simple task. It can be complex and involved, such as reinstalling software, processing is not time critical, and there are large amounts of data requiring similar processing. Examples
performing a backup etc. are Payroll systems for processing employee salaries and billing systems for processing consumer bills.

3. Organizational Information Systems Online Transaction Processing: With online transaction processing (OLTP) the system processes
Within an organisation planning, control and decision-making are carried out at various levels within the transactions as they are entered. Such systems are ideal for situations where the master file needs to be
structure of the organisation. There are three levels at which information can be used in an organisation: updated each time a transaction is made. Examples are stock control systems and reservation systems.
strategic, tactical and operational levels. This can be represented using the pyramid below. Stock control systems reduce automatically the number of items in stock once an item has been bought
and reservation systems reduce automatically the number of seats available on a flight or bus once a seat
has been booked.
1.3.2. Office Automation Systems
Office automation systems automate office procedures and enhance office communication and
Strategic productivity. They support a wide range of office activities such as creating and distributing documents,
Level Executives
sending messages and scheduling. The software an OAS uses to support these activities include word
Tactical processing, spreadsheets, databases, presentation, graphics, e-mail, Web browsers, personal information
Level Managers management, and groupware. They use communication technologies such as voice mail, facsimile (fax),
videoconferencing, and electronic data interchange (EDI) for the electronic exchange of text, graphics,
Operational
Level Workers audio, and video. OAS are also called Office Information Systems (OIS).

At the strategic level, information is needed by senior managers (chief executives and directors) to help 1.4. Management Support Systems
them with their business plans. Information at this level is used for making long term decisions. Management support systems provide information and support needed for effective planning and
Strategic information is broad based and will use a mixture of information gathered from both internal decision making by managers. They act at the tactical and strategic levels of the organization. Major
and external sources. categories of MSS are management information systems, decision support systems and executive
information systems.
At the tactical level, information is needed by middle managers to help them monitor and control business
activities. Tactical planning and decision-making takes place within the guidelines set by the strategic
1.4.1. Management Information Systems
plan. Short term decisions are tactical.
Management information systems generate accurate, timely and organized information needed by middle
managers to take decisions, solve problems, supervise activities, and track progress. They provide routine

information for routine tasks. The source of data for an MIS usually comes from numerous databases. inferences. An expert system is made up of three parts: a knowledge base, an inference engine and a user
These databases are usually the data storage for Transaction Processing Systems. MIS take information interface.
from TPS and summarize them into a series of management reports. As such, MIS are sometimes called o The knowledge base is a database that contains the accumulated body of knowledge of human
Management Reporting Systems (MRS). specialists in a particular field. It stores all of the facts, rules and information needed to represent
MIS generate three basic types of information or reports: detailed, summary and exception. the knowledge of the experts.
o The inference engine is the processing portion of an expert system. It matches input propositions
Detailed reports: They confirm transaction processing activities. A detailed order report is an example of
with facts and rules contained in the knowledge base and then derives a conclusion, on which the
a detail report.
expert system then acts.
Summary reports: They consolidate data into a format that an individual can review quickly and easily. o The user interface allows the user to query the system or developers to enter new knowledge into
To help synopsize information, a summary report typically contains totals, tables, or graphs. An inventory the system.
summary report is an example of a summary report.
Expert systems are one part of an exciting branch of computer science called artificial intelligence (AI). AI
Exception reports: Exceptions reports report information that is outside of a normal condition. These is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines which are able to simulate human behavior.
conditions called the exception criteria, define the range of what is considered normal activity or status. Artificial intelligence can be used in a wide range of fields including education, medical diagnosis, robot
An example of an exception report is an inventory exception report that notifies the purchasing control, computer games, law, scientific discovery, stock trading etc. Other branches of artificial
department of items it needs to reorder. Exception reports help managers save time because they do not intelligence include computer vision, speech recognition, epistemology, heuristics, neural networks and
have to search through a detailed report for exceptions. Instead, an exception report brings exceptions to logical reasoning,
the manager’s attention in an easily identifiable form. Exception reports thus help them focus on
situations that require immediate decisions or actions. 2.2. Geographic Information System
Examples of MIS are: Sales management systems, Inventory control systems and Budgeting systems. A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing, checking, and
displaying data related to positions on the earth’s surface. GIS stores information about the world as a
1.4.2. Decision Support Systems collection of layers that can be linked together by a common locational component such as latitude and
Decision support systems are designed to help tactical and strategic decision-making in situations where longitude, a postal zip code, census tract name, or road name.
there is uncertainty about the possible outcomes of those decisions. They provide interactive support for Data in many different forms can be entered into GIS. Data that are already in map form can be included in
non-routine decisions or problems. GIS. This includes such information as the location of rivers and roads, hills and valleys. Digital or
TPS and MIS provide information on a regular basis. However, managers need information not provided computerized data can also be entered into GIS. An example of this kind of information is data collected by
in their reports to help them make decisions. Decision support systems therefore use data from internal satellites that show land use - the location of farms, towns, or forests. GIS can also include data in table
(TPS and MIS) and external sources. form, such as population information. GIS technology allows all these different types of information, no
o Internal sources of data might include sales, manufacturing, inventory, or financial data from an matter their source or original format, to be overlaid on top of one another on a single map.
organization’s database.
o Data from external sources could include interest rates, population trends, and costs of new 3. Design of Information Systems
housing construction or raw material pricing. Most computer-based information systems are designed and implemented using some form of systematic
development process called system development life cycle (SDLC). In this process, end users and system
Examples of DSS are: Logistics Systems, Financial Planning Systems and Spreadsheet Models analysts design systems based on an analysis of the information requirements of the information system
to be built.
1.4.3. Executive Information Systems
Executive information systems (EIS) are designed to support the information needs of executive Definition: SDLC is a structured step-by-step approach for creating and maintaining information systems.
management. Their purpose is to analyse, compare and identify trends to help the strategic direction of
the organisation. Information in an EIS is presented in charts and tables that show trends, ratios, and SDLC consists of a number of stages that describe the activities involved in an information system
other managerial statistics. Because executives usually focus on strategic issues, EISs rely on external data development process. These stages are: investigation, analysis, design, construction, implementation, and
sources that can provide current information on interest rates, commodity prices, and other leading maintenance.
economic indicators. System Investigation
To store all the necessary decision-making data, DSSs or EISs often use extremely large databases, called
data warehouses.
Maintenance Systems Analysis
2. Other Information Systems
2.1. Expert Systems
An expert system is an application program that makes decisions or solves problems in a particular field,
Implementation Systems Design
such as finance or medicine, by using knowledge and analytical rules defined by experts in the field. It
does this by combining the knowledge of human experts and then, following a set of rules, it draws

GHS BONADIKOMBO MILE 4, LIMBE ALevel Information and Communication Technology

resource requirements, cost, benefits, and workability of a proposed project. Its goal is to evaluate
alternative systems and propose the most feasible and desirable system for development.
Feasibility of a system can be evaluated in terms of four major categories:

Organizational feasibility: focuses on how well a proposed information system supports the objectives of
the organization and its strategic plan for information systems.
3.1. System Investigation Technical feasibility: focuses on the reliability/capabilities of the hardware and software to meet the needs
System investigation is a brief study of the system under consideration that gives a clear picture of what of the proposed system, and whether they can be acquired or developed in the required time.
actually it is. During this phase, the system is evaluated and deficiencies are identified. This can be done
by interviewing users of the system and consulting with support personnel. Main activities at this stage Economic feasibility: focuses on whether the tangible costs and benefits of the proposed system will
are: exceed the costs of developing and operating it.
o Determining whether a business problem or opportunity exists. i.e. identifying problems and Operational feasibility: focuses on the ability of the end users to operate, use, and support the proposed
opportunities. system.
- A problem is a basic condition that is causing undesirable results
- An opportunity is a basic condition that presents the potential for desirable results. The outcome of a feasibility analysis is a feasibility report which is presented to the user management for
o Conducting a preliminary feasibility study to determine whether a new or improved information approval. It may be accepted or accepted with modifications or rejected.
system is a feasible solution.
o Developing a project management plan and obtaining management approval. Documenting systems analysis: The outcome of systems analysis is a system proposal or requirements
o Building the project team specification document which describes what the new system should do without specifying how to do it.
At the end of systems analysis phase, the system analyst produces a system proposal that will be used as
3.2. System Analysis basis for the design phase.
Systems analysis is an in-depth study of end user information needs which produces functional
requirements that are used as the basis for the design of a new information system . Here, the systems 3.3. System Design
analysts analyses end-user requirements and refines projects goals into defined functions and operations Systems design consists of design activities, which produce systems specifications satisfying the
of the intended system. System analysis describes what a system should do to meet the information needs functional requirements developed in the systems analysis stage. While system analysis specifies what is
of users. It involves: to be done by the new system, system design describes how the system will accomplish what is to be
done.
Analysis of the present (old) system:Analysis of present system involves: System design focuses on three main activities: user interface design, data design and process design.
o Collecting factual data about the present system (through questionnaires, interviews, observations,
etc.) User interface design: A user interface is a means of interaction between the user and the computer-
o Identifying how input, processing, storage and output are being accomplished. based application. This activity focuses on designing how data will be introduced into the system and how
o Analyzing how the present system uses resources (hardware, software and people) to convert the information generated will be retrieved. It produces detailed specifications for information products
input data into useful information such as:
o Understanding information flow within the system o Display screens
o Identifying problems with the system o Interactive user/computer dialogues
o Forms (on-screen forms for data input and output)
Gathering business requirement: Business requirements are the detailed set of knowledge users request o Reports (on-screen and printed)
the system must meet to be successful. They explain what has to be done by identifying the necessary
tasks, actions or activities that must be accomplished. Data design: Data design focuses on the design of the structure of data and files to be used by the
It involves: proposed (new) system. It provides detailed descriptions of:
o Determining specific information needs o Attributes (characteristics) of the entities about which the proposed system needs to maintain
o Determining the information processing capabilities required for each system activity (input, information.
processing, output, storage, and control) to meet the needs. The goal here is to identify “what” o Relationships between these entities (E-R diagrams, data flow diagrams)
should be done not “how” to do it. o Specific data elements (databases, files, records, etc.) that need to be maintained for each entity.
o Determining functional requirements (information requirements that are not tied to the hardware, o Data dictionary
software, and people resources that end users presently use or might use in the new system). o Integrity rules (data validation and verification) that govern how each data element is specified and
used in the system.
Feasibility analysis: Feasibility is the measure of how suitable the development of a system will be to the
organization. Feasibility study investigates the information needs of prospective users and determines the

Process design: Process design focuses on the design of software resources, that is, computer programs Using these test data, the following test runs can be carried out:
and of procedures needed by the proposed system. It concentrates on developing detailed specifications
Unit testing tests the individual units or modules separately with prepared test data so that any errors can
for the program modules that will have to be purchased as software packages or developed by custom
be corrected.
programming. Process design produces:
o Detailed specification of algorithms (pseudo-codes, flow charts, etc.)
Integration testingtests the complete system after the individual units have been tested and put together.
o Detailed specifications of the procedures needed to meet the user interface and data design
This tests that separately developed modules/units work together as planned without error.
specifications.
o Detailed specification of the database schema (E-R diagram, object diagrams)
System testingtests the integrated system to evaluate the system's compliance with its specified
The design stage is very important because it is the place where quality is fostered in software requirements.
engineering. Design provides us with representations of software that can be assessed for quality. Design
is the only way that we can accurately translate a customer's requirements into a finished software Two testing techniques that can be used are black-box testing and white-box testing.
product or system.
Black-box Testing: Black-box testing is a test that relies on the input/output behavior of the system,
3.4. Construction without any assumptions to what is happening within the system. It examines some fundamental aspects
Once the design of the system is complete, it has to be converted into a computer understandable form. of a system with little regard for the internal logical structure of the system. Black-box tests are used to
Development is the stage where the design is converted into a computer program. demonstrate that system functions are operational, that input is properly accepted and output is correctly
produced, while at the same time searching for errors in each function. Simply put, black-box testing tests
Coding (programming): Coding is an important activity by which a programmer converts the systems the functionality of the system.
specifications from the design stage into computer instructions referred to as programs. It is generally felt
that the programs must be modular in nature. This helps in fast development, maintenance and future White-box Testing: White-box testing, also called glass-box testing, is a test that relies on information
change if required. about how the system has been designed and constructed. It requires knowledge of the internal structure
or implementation of the system. White-box testing tests the code rather the functionality of the system.
Prototyping: Prototyping is the rapid development and testing of a working model of a product in an White-box tests are conducted to ensure that internal operations are performed according to
interactive and iterative process involving both systems analysts and end users. This working model or specifications and all internal components have been adequately exercised.
prototype, is a partially developed product that enables customers and developers to examine some
aspects of the proposed product and decide if it is suitable for a finished product. Documentation: The job of the programmer does not end with the code or software instructions. The
Various types of prototyping exist. organization or users need to know how to get the best out of the system. This is done through
documentation. System documentation ensures continuity of the system. There are two types of
Throw-away prototyping: In throw-away prototyping, the prototype is discarded once the actual documentation; user documentation and technical documentation.
requirements have been understood and the final system is developed with a much clear understanding of
user requirements. User Documentation: It is a complete description of the system from the user’s point of view detailing how
to use or operate the system. It could be a paper-based user manual or help incorporated into the
Evolutionary Prototyping: In evolutionary prototyping, a functional prototype with minimal functionality
software that can be accessed when the software is installed. User documentation always covers the
is built in the beginning and is refined over time, as requirements are better understood.
following:
Incremental Prototyping: In incremental prototyping, functional prototypes of the various subsystems are - A guide that describes what the system is supposed to do in non-technical terms
built and then integrated to form a complete system. In other words, the product is built as separate - Instructions for installing and running the program
prototypes which are later merged into a final product. - Definition for hardware and Operating System requirements
- The format of the output data
Testing: It is the process of executing a program with the intent of finding an error. During testing, trial - Explanation of common error messages and how to recover from them
runs are done to check for errors and whether or not the new system meets the users' needs. Once source - Description of how to make backups against accidental data loss
code has been generated, the software must be tested to uncover and correct as many errors as possible
before delivery. Technical Documentation:This is a description from the designer’s point of view. Technical documentation
There are three sets of data that can be used to test the system: normal data and abnormal data. often contains:
- Detail functioning of the software showing algorithms, formulae, source codes etc.
Normal data: This is valid data which the system will accept. - Description of data structures
Abnormal data: This erroneous or invalid data which the system will reject. - Test plans and testing procedures
- User interface and reports
Extreme data: These are data values that are chosen at the absolute limits of the normal range. This is to - Location and version of the software
ensure that all normal values will be accepted and processed correctly.

3.5. Implementation/Conversion
Implementation is the conversion from the use of the present (old) system to the operation of the new → Perfective maintenance: This refers to enhancements to the product in order to either add new
system. It involves: capabilities or modify existing functions. Making changes to enhance the system and improve such
o Installation of new system things as processing performance and usability.
o Loading of data into new system
o Education and training of users of the system 4. Project Management
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result. Project
There are different types of conversions: management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to deliver projects successfully.
The project manager is the individual responsible for maintaining this expertise and ensuring that a
Direct conversion or plunge: In this type of conversion the old system is completely replaced by the new project is delivered successfully.
one. Its disadvantage is that, if the new system fails, there is no back-up system, so data can be lost. A project is considered constrained by three functions:

→ Scope: what it is intended to accomplish. In other words, a project’s scope is the customer’s
Pilot conversion: Here the new system is installed in one part of the business or organization. This allows
requirements for the project.
the new system to be fully developed and tested. Once the pilot system is running successfully, the new
→ Time allocation: the time schedule for the project.
system is introduced to all of the business/organization.
→ Cost: the money, budget, and resources for a project.
Its advantages are that, if something goes wrong with the new system, only a small part of the
organization is affected, and the staff that were part of the pilot scheme can help train other staff. These three functions are called the Triple Constraint. The relationship between them is represented
As a disadvantage, there is no back-up system for the office/department doing the pilot, if things go using the Project Management Triangle.
wrong.

Parallel conversion: In parallel cutover, the old system and new system operate alongside each other (in
parallel) until new system is proven capable.
It is advantageous in that, if the new system fails, the old system will act as a back-up. Also, the outputs
from the old and new systems can be compared to check that the new system is running correctly.
Its disadvantage is that, entering data into two systems, and running two systems together, takes a lot of
extra time and effort.

Phased conversion: in which the new system is installed in phases (stages or steps) gradually replacing The Project Management Triangle visualizes the fact that time, cost and scope of a project are
parts of the old system until eventually, the new system takes over. interdependent; changing one of them causes changes in one of the other two. For example, if you want to
Its advantages are that, it allows users to gradually get used to the new system, and training of staff can be shorten a schedule, you can hire more resources which would increase cost, or reduce customer
done in stages. requirements which would affect quality. This simply means “you can have any two of fast, good or cheap,
Its disadvantage is that, if a part of the new system fails, there is no back-up system, so data can be lost but not all three.”

3.6. Maintenance Definition: Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to activities of a
Maintenance is the general process of changing a system after delivery to correct faults, improve project for the achievement of the project’s objectives/requirements.
performance or adapt the system to a changing environment or business requirements. Maintenance is
necessary to eliminate errors in the system during its working life and to tune the system to any Project management ensures that an acceptable system is developed within time and budget.
variations in its working environment.
Maintenance can be adaptive, preventive, corrective or perfective. 4.1. Project Life Cycle
The activities related to a project can be structured and grouped into stages according to the aim of the
→ Adaptive maintenance: This focuses on adjusting a software product to properly interface with a activities. A typical project goes through the following stages called project life cycle: initiation, planning,
changing environment. Changes are made to increase system functionality to meet new business execution, monitoring and control, and closing.
requirements.
a. Initiation: Project initiation determines the main objective of the project and forms a clear
→ Preventive maintenance: This aims in retaining the system’s capabilities before the occurrence of understanding about the necessity and suitability of the project. This stage answers the questions
any problem (e.g. system failure). It locates weaknesses in the system and provides repairs in order “what?” and “why?” Common activities at this stage are:
to avoid any eventual breakdown of the system. Making changes to prevent future system failures. o Identification and initial analysis of the business needs.
o Determination of the main objective(s).
→ Corrective maintenance: This aims in restoring a defective system to a required state. This implies o Resource analysis (people, equipment, financial; needs and availability).
that repairs are made after a breakdown of the system. (Making changes to repair system defects) o Composition of the project charter.

(Project charter - document issued by the project initiator or sponsor that formally authorizes the existence
of a project, and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to Performing a phase review at the end of execution to ensure the project has achieved its objectives as
project activities.) planned.

b. Planning: Project planning involves the project plan development and approval. It determines an
e. Closing: Once all the deliverables have been produced and the customer has accepted the final
optimal scheme/algorithm for project execution. This stage answers the question “how?” The main
solution, the project is ready for closure.
activities at this stage are:
Project closure involves:
o Needs analysis
o releasing the final deliverables to the customer
o Description of the project (including determination of activities and necessary resources)
o handing over project documentation to the business
o Composition of project plan
o terminating supplier contracts,
o Planning and performing necessary PR-activities.
o releasing project resources
(PR is the practice of managing the spread of information between an individual or an organization and the
o communicating the closure of the project to all stakeholders
public. Public relations activities include: launchings, media conferences, sales promotions, open day, product
testing, websites, press release, newsletters.)
4.2. Project Management Terms
c. Execution: Project execution is the phase within which the deliverables are physically constructed
and presented to the customer for acceptance. It integrates people and other resources to carry out the → Task/Activity: Anything that needs to be done that requires time and consumes resources.
project management plan for the project. The activities undertaken to construct each deliverable will
vary depending on the type of project being undertaken. Main activities are: → Dependent task: A task that can only begin after a previous one is finished. For example, roofing a
o Starting up the execution. house depends on the construction of the walls.
o Building the deliverables
o Day-to-day management and reporting Slack time or float time: The amount of delay that can be tolerated between the starting time and
completion time of a task without causing a delay in the completion date of the entire project. If we
d. Monitoring and Control: Project control measures and monitors progress to identify variances have tasks A and B that start at the same time and task C that is dependent on both tasks A and B. If
from the project management plan so that corrective action can be taken when necessary to meet project task A takes 3 days and task B takes 5 days, then task A has 2 days slack time. That is, it can run for 2
objectives. Control occurs throughout the duration of the project and has a range relatively similar to days before it affects the planned starting time for task C.
that of execution. While the project is being executed, a series of management processes are undertaken → Lag time: The delay or amount of time that passes between the end of one activity and the
to monitor and control the deliverables being output by the project. This includes: beginning of another if the two are dependent. For example, if task A is laying of cement blocks and
dependent task B is building the walls of the house, there would be some lag time between the end
→ Change management: Requesting, evaluating and approving changes to the project scope, of task A and the start of task B to let the blocks get dry.
deliverables, timescales or resources.
→ Lead time: Occurs when a task should theoretically wait for its predecessor to finish, but can
→ Time management: Controlling the amount of time spent undertaking each activity within the actually start a little early. The time that the tasks overlap is lead time.
project.
→ Milestone: An event that signifies the accomplishment or completion of a major deliverable during
→ Cost management: Identifying, approving and paying cost/expenses incurred on project. a project.

→ Quality management: Reviewing deliverable quality. → Deliverable: Some concrete thing which is to be delivered, to the client or internally to the
development team.
→ Risk management: Identifying, quantifying and managing risks to the project.
→ Critical path: A sequence of dependent tasks that have the largest sum of most likely durations. In
→ Issue management: Identifying and handling issues currently affecting the ability of the project to other words, it is asequence of tasks that determine the earliest possible completion date of the
produce the required deliverables. project.

→ Acceptance management: Measuring each deliverable produced against acceptance criteria. → Critical task: A task found on the critical path. A critical task cannot be delayed without delaying
the entire project schedule. Critical task have 0 float.
→ Procurement management: Handling sourcing of products from an external supplier.
→ Work Breakdown Structure: a hierarchical decomposition of the project into phases, activities,
→ Communication management: Identifying, creating, and reviewing communication messages and tasks.
within the project.

→ Project management plan(PMP): a document that describes how the project is to be executed, o Joining tasks A and B to E shows that both task A and B must be completed before task E can be
monitored and controlled, which includes creating a project work breakdown structure, identifying started.
and planning to mitigate risk, identifying manners in which to effectively communicate with o The number marked on each arc (arrow) shows the duration of the task from which the arc starts.
stakeholders and other project team members, and developing a plan to manage changes.
The critical path can be identified by determining the following four parameters for each activity:
4.3. Project Analysis and Scheduling o ES – earliest start time: the earliest time at which an activity can begin given that its predecessor
Project scheduling is the process of converting a general or outline plan for a project into a time-based activities must be completed first.
schedule based on the available resources and time constraints. Different techniques exist for analyzing o EF – earliest finish time, equal to the earliest start time for the activity plus the time required to
and scheduling project activities. complete the activity.
o LF – latest finish time: the latest time at which an activity can be completed without delaying the
a. Critical path method: CPM is an analysis technique used to predict project duration by analyzing project.
which sequence of activities (which path) has the least amount of scheduling flexibility (the least amount o LS – latest start time, equal to the latest finish time minus the time required to complete the
of total float). Early dates are calculated by means of a forward pass using a specified start date while late activity.
dates are calculated by means of a backward pass starting from a specified completion date, usually the
forward pass’s calculated project early finish date. Activities with the same earliest and latest start times (ES=LS) or with same earliest and latest finish times
(EF=LF) define the critical path. This means that these activities have a float time of 0.
Forward pass: The calculation of the early start and early finish dates for the uncompleted portions of all
network activities, determined by working forward through the schedule network logic from the project’s For the above network diagram, we have:
start date.
Start times Float
Backward pass: The calculation of late finish and late start dates for the uncompleted portions of all Activity Duration
Earliest Latest time
schedule activities, determined by working backward through the schedule network logic from the project’s
A 7 0 0 0
end date.
B 2 0 5 5
CPM models the events and activities of a project as a network. Activities are depicted as nodes on the C 15 0 12 12
network and events that signify the beginning or ending of activities are depicted as arcs or lines between E 10 7 7 0
the nodes.
D 8 17 17 0
a)
F 2 25 25 0

G 5 17 19 2

H 8 22 24 2

I 2 27 27 0

J 3 29 29 0
b) Finish 32 32

The critical path is A-E-D-F-I-J

Total estimated duration project = sum of duration of critical tasks =

Exercise 1: Given the task description table below:

Network diagrams

In the above network diagram,

o Tasks are lettered from A to J. There are two ways of representing the activities on a network
diagram: (a) activity on node and (b) activity on arc.
o Joining task A to E shows that task A must be completed before task E can be started.

Activity Duration Precedence

A 3 - m= most likely time estimate, (mode)
B 3 A a = optimistic time estimate (best case)
C 4 - b = pessimistic time estimate (worst case)
D 1 C
These three estimates are then used to calculate a weighted duration for each task by using the formula
E 3 B, D
The weighted durations are then used as a more realistic estimate of task durations for constructing a
F 2 A, B, D
PERT chart (network diagram).
G 2 C, F Using PERT, the probability of completing the project by a certain date t, can now be found by finding
H 4 G
I 1 C
J 3 E, G Where
is the expected completion time of the project
K 5 F, H, I
And

1. Draw the corresponding PERT diagram for this project is the variance of T = S(variances of activities on the critical path).
2. Determine the critical path
3. Calculate the total estimated duration of the project Example:
4. State the float time for all non-critical activities If a project’s expected completion time is with its variance , then what is the probability that the project
a) is actually completed within 246 days?
Exercise 2: Find the critical path for each of the activity networks below. b) is actually completed within 240 days?
c) is actually completed within 256 days
a.
Solution
a) , and

b) and

c) , and

Definition: A PERT chart/diagram is a graphic illustration of a project as a network diagram consisting of

numbered nodes (either circles or rectangles) representing events, or milestones in the project linked by
labeled vectors (directional lines) representing tasks in the project. The direction of the arrows on the lines
c. indicates the sequence of tasks.

c. Ganttchart: A Gantt chart is a horizontal bar graph that helps plan and monitor project
development or resource allocation on a horizontal time scale. It depicts project tasks against a calendar.
A Gantt chart is constructed with a horizontal axis representing the total time span of the project, broken
down into increments (days, weeks, or months) and a vertical axis representing the tasks that make up
the project. Horizontal bars of varying lengths represent the sequences, timing, and time span for each
task. The bar spans may overlap, as, for example, you may conduct research and choose software during
the same time span. As the project progresses, secondary bars, arrowheads, or darkened bars may be
b. Program Evaluation and Review Technique: PERT is an event-oriented network analysis added to indicate completed tasks, or the portions of tasks that have been completed. A vertical line is
technique used to estimate project duration when there is a high degree of uncertainty with the individual used to represent the report date.
activity duration estimates. Each activity is assigned three time estimates.

A Gantt chart

The critical path is A-C-D-F-H = 5+6+4+2 = 17 days

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A Level ICT

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A Level ICT

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GHS BONADIKOMBO MILE 4, LIMBE ALevel Information and Communication Technology

CHAPTER ONE 2. Generations of Computers

1.4. Supercomputers 2.4. Fourth Generation (1975-)

2.1. Types of Computer Crimes

2.1.2. Software Piracy 2.1.5. Cyber Stalking

3.1.2. Smart Card 3.5. Digital Signatures

3.3. Firewall 4.2. Codes of Ethics and Professional Conduct

4.2.1. ACM Code of Ethics 4.3. Netiquette

2. More Specific Professional Responsibilities. 5. Legislation

o Tendonitis - inflammation of the tendons

6. Computers in the Workplace 6.2. Ergonomics

Some of the most common types of RSI are:

6.2.2. Sitting Posture Introduction

6.2.3. Lighting Consider the number 23410

Where, is the ones (units) place

1.2. The Binary System 2 25 R

Example: the binary number is expressed as

Example 1: Convert to base

1.2.2. Binary to Decimal Conversion

Example 2: Convert to binary

1.2.3. Binary Arithmetic

b. Subtraction: Rules for subtraction: 000 0 100 4

d. Division: Rules for division:

Example 2: Convert to base 8

1.3. The Octal System

2) Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to octal.

Binary Hexadecimal Binary Hexadecimal

0010 2 1010 A 2.1. Representation of Unsigned Integers

Example 2: Convert to base 16 Example 1: Suppose and the binary representation.

Example 2: Suppose and the binary representation.

2.2.2. 1’s Complement Representation

b. Subtraction in 1’s complement

Example: subtract 37 from 51 in binary

o Add binary representations of the two numbers

b. Subtraction in 2’s Complement

Example: subtract 37 from 51

37 = 0100101 37 = 1011010 (1’s C) – 37 = 1 1011011 (2’s C)

2.3. Representation of Characters

3.1. Boolean Algebra

Example 3: Use De Morgan’s theorem to simplify the following

Example 4: Show that

o Associative law: | ( 3.1.3. Truth Tables

o De Morgan’s theorem: | Example 2: Construct a truth table for the expression

3.1.2. Simplifying Boolean Expressions

Example 1: Simplify the expression

Example 2: Simplify the expression

1.1. General Purpose Software

1.2. Special Purpose Software

2.2. Device Drivers

o No preemption: No preemption can be prevented by allowing preemption such that if a process

Scheduling can be preemptive or non-preemptive.

Bit  Byte (character) Field Record  File  Database

2.2.4. Hypermedia File Formats 2.3.3. Indexed Sequential File Organization

2.2.5. Other File Formats 2.3.4. Random File Organization

2.3.1. Serial File Organization

2.3.2. Sequential File Organization

a. Client/Server:Client/server is a network architecture in which a more powerful computer called

1.2.1. Network Operating System

1.2.3. Hub 1.2.7. Router

1.3. Protocols and Standards

6 Presentation Layer Layer 1: Physical

Layer 6: Presentation b. Limitations

2.3. Transmission Modes and Techniques

Analogue meter display

A B 2.4. Switching Techniques

2.4.2. Circuit Switching

Coaxial cable BNC connector

2.5.2. Unguided Media

i) 01101010 ii)11000101 iii)10011100

2.6.2. Cyclic Redundancy Check

Advantages of microwave systems

2.6. Error Detection

© 2016 - 2017 Remainder = CRC checksum 32

b. Business-to-Business: B2B describes commerce transactions between businesses, such as between

1.2. Data Capture and Input Methods

Total =Weightings 10 72 40228 56