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Lecture notes in engine design

Technical Report · February 2024

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.35721.21609

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Lecture Notes in

Engine Design

Barhm Abdullah Mohamad

Erbil Polytechnic University

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1
 Contents
Overview

1.1 Energy Conversion

1.1.1 Definition of ‘Engine’
1.1.2 Definition of ‘Heat Engine’
1.1.3 Classification and Some Basic Details of Heat Engines
1.1.4 External Combustion and Internal Combustion Engines
1.2 Basic Engine Components and Nomenclature
1.2.1 Engine Components
1.2.2 Nomenclature
1.3 The Working Principle of Engines
1.3.1 Four-Stroke Spark-Ignition Engine
1.3.2 Four-Stroke Compression-Ignition Engine
1.3.3 Four-stroke SI and CI Engines
1.3.4 Two-Stroke Engine
1.3.5 Comparison of Four-Stroke and Two-Stroke Engines
1.4 Classification of IC Engines
1.4.1 Cycle of Operation
1.4.2 Type of Fuel Used
1.4.3 Method of Charging
1.4.4 Type of Ignition
1.4.5 Type of Cooling
1.4.6 Cylinder Arrangements
1.5 Application of IC Engines
1.5.1 Two-Stroke Gasoline Engines
1.5.2 Two-Stroke Diesel Engines
1.5.3 Four-Stroke Gasoline Engines
1.5.4 Four-Stroke Diesel Engines
1.6 The First Law Analysis of Engine Cycle
1.7 Engine Performance Parameters
1.7.1 Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ηith)
1.7.2 Brake Thermal Efficiency (ηbth)

2
1.7.3 Mechanical Efficiency (ηm)
1.7.4 Volumetric Efficiency (ηv )
1.7.5 Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio (ηrel )
1.7.6 Mean Effective Pressure (pm)
1.7.7 Mean Piston Speed (sp)
1.7.8 Specific Power Output (Ps)
1.7.9 Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc)
1.7.10 Inlet-Valve Mach Index (Z)
1.7.11 Fuel-Air (F/A) or Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F )
1.7.12 Calorific Value (CV )
1.8 Design and Performance Data

2.1 Brief of cycles

2.2 The Carnot Cycle
2.3 The Otto Cycle
2.3.1 Thermal Efficiency
2.3.2 Work Output
2.3.3 Mean Effective Pressure
2.4 The Diesel Cycle
2.4.1 Thermal Efficiency
2.4.2 Work Output
2.4.3 Mean Effective Pressure
2.5 The Dual Cycle
2.5.1 Thermal Efficiency
2.5.2 Work Output
2.5.3 Mean Effective Pressure
2.6 The Brayton cycle

3.1 Functional Requirements of an Injection System

3.2 Classification of Injection Systems
3.2.1 Air Injection System
3.3.2 Solid Injection System
3.4 Types of Injection Systems
3.4.1 Components of Injection System
3.5 Factors Affecting the Delay Period

3
3.5.1 Compression Ratio
3.5.2 Engine Speed
3.5.3 Output
3.5.4 Atomization and Duration of Injection
3.6 Injection Timing
3.7 Quality of Fuel
3.7.1 Intake Temperature
3.7.2 Intake Pressure
3.8 The Phenomenon of Knock in CI Engines
3.8.1 Comparison of Knock in SI and CI Engines
3.9 Combustion Chambers for CI Engines
3.9.1 Direct–Injection Chambers
3.9.2 Indirect–Injection Chambers

4.1 Direct Frictional Losses

4.1.1 Pumping Loss
4.1.2 Power Loss to Drive Components to Charge
4.2 Engine Power
4.2.1 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (pim)
4.2.2 Indicated Power (ip)
4.2.3 Brake Power (bp)
4.2.4 Brake Mean Effective Pressure (pbm)
4.3 Engine Efficiencies
4.3.1 Air-Standard Efficiency
4.3.2 Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiencies
8.3.3 Mechanical Efficiency
4.3.4 Relative Efficiency
4.3.5 Volumetric Efficiency
4.3.6 Scavenging Efficiency
4.3.7 Charge Efficiency
4.3.8 Combustion Efficiency
4.4 Engine Performance Characteristics
4.4.1 Air-Fuel Ratio
4.4.2 Compression Ratio
4.4.3 Engine Speed

4
4.4.4 Mass of Inducted Charge
4.4.5 Heat Losses
4.5 Methods of Improving Engine Performance
4.6 Heat Balance

5
 Chapter 1

1.1 Energy conversion

The distinctive feature of our civilization today, one that makes it different from all
others, is the wide use of mechanical power. At one time, the primary source of
power for the work of peace or war was chiefly man’s muscles. Later, animals were
trained to help and afterwards the wind and the running stream were harnessed.
But the great step was taken in this direction when man learned the art of energy
conversion from one form to another. The machine which does this job of energy
conversion is called an engine.

1.1.1 Definition of ‘Engine’

An engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another form.
However, while transforming energy from one form to another, the efficiency of
conversion plays an important role. Normally, most of the engines convert thermal
energy into mechanical work and therefore they are called ‘heat
engines’.

1.1.2 Definition of ‘Heat Engine’

Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal
energy and utilizes this thermal energy to perform useful work. Thus, thermal
energy is converted to mechanical energy in a heat engine. Heat engines can be
broadly classified into two categories:
(i) Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines)
(ii) External Combustion Engines (EC Engines)

1.1.3 Classification and Some Basic Details of Heat Engines

Engines whether Internal Combustion or External Combustion are of two
types:
(i) Rotary engines (ii) Reciprocating engines
A detailed classification of heat engines is given in Fig.1.1. Of the various types of
heat engines, the most widely used ones are the reciprocating internal combustion
engine, the gas turbine and the steam turbine. The steam engine is slowly phased

6
out nowadays. The reciprocating internal combustion engine enjoys some
advantages over the steam turbine due to the absence of heat exchangers in the
passage of the working fluid (boilers and condensers in steam turbine plant). This
results in a considerable mechanical simplicity and improved power plant
efficiency of the internal combustion engine.

Fig. 1 Classification of heat engines

Another advantage of the reciprocating internal combustion engine over the other
two types is that all its components work at an average temperature which is much
below the maximum temperature of the working fluid in the cycle. This is because
the high temperature of the working fluid in the cycle persists only for a very small
fraction of the cycle time. Therefore, very high working fluid temperatures can be
employed resulting in higher thermal efficiency.

Further, in internal combustion engines, higher thermal efficiency can be obtained

with moderate maximum working pressure of the fluid in the cycle, and therefore,
the weight to power ratio is quite less compared to steam turbine power plant.
Also, it has been possible to develop reciprocating internal combustion engines of
very small power output (power output of even a fraction of a kilowatt) with

7
reasonable thermal efficiency and cost. The main disadvantage of this type of
engine is the problem of vibration caused by the reciprocating components. Also,
it is not possible to use a variety of fuels in these engines. Only liquid or gaseous
fuels of given specification can be effectively used. These fuels are relatively more
expensive.

Considering all the above factors the reciprocating internal combustion engines
have been found suitable for use in automobiles, motor-cycles and scooters, power
boats, ships, slow speed aircraft, locomotives and power units of relatively small
output [1].

1.1.4 External Combustion and Internal Combustion Engines

External combustion engines are those in which combustion takes place outside
the engine whereas in internal combustion engines combustion takes place within
the engine. For example, in a steam engine or a steam turbine, the heat generated
due to the combustion of fuel is employed to generate high pressure steam which
is used as the working fluid in a reciprocating engine or a turbine. In case of
gasoline or diesel engines, the products of combustion generated by the
combustion of fuel and air within the cylinder form the working fluid.

Fig. 2 Cross-section of a spark-ignition engine

8
Cylinder Block : The cylinder block is the main supporting structure for the various
components. The cylinder of a multicylinder engine are cast as a single unit, called
cylinder block. The cylinder head is mounted on the cylinder block. The cylinder
head and cylinder block are provided with water jackets in the case of water
cooling or with cooling fins in the case of air cooling. Cylinder head gasket is
incorporated between the cylinder block and cylinder head. The cylinder head is
held tight to the cylinder block by number of bolts or studs. The bottom portion of
the cylinder block is called crankcase. A cover called crankcase which becomes a
sump for lubricating oil is fastened to the bottom of the crankcase. The inner
surface of the cylinder block which is machined and finished accurately to
cylindrical shape is called bore or face.
Cylinder : As the name implies it is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston
makes a reciprocating motion. The varying volume created in the cylinder during
the operation of the engine is filled with the working fluid and subjected to different
thermodynamic processes. The cylinder is supported in the cylinder block.
Piston : It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving
boundary of the combustion system. It fits perfectly (snugly) into the cylinder
providing a gas-tight space with the piston rings and the lubricant. It forms the first
link in transmitting the gas forces to the output shaft.
Combustion Chamber : The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by
the cylinder head and the piston top during the combustion process, is called the
combustion chamber. The combustion of fuel and the consequent release of
thermal energy results in the building up of pressure in this part of the cylinder.
Inlet Manifold : The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the
engine and through which air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called
the inlet manifold.
Exhaust Manifold : The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust
valve of the engine and through which the products of combustion escape into the
atmosphere is called the exhaust manifold.
Inlet and Exhaust Valves : Valves are commonly mushroom shaped poppet type.
They are provided either on the cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder for
regulating the charge coming into the cylinder (inlet valve) and for discharging the
products of combustion (exhaust valve) from the cylinder.

9
Spark Plug : It is a component to initiate the combustion process in Spark- Ignition
(SI) engines and is usually located on the cylinder head.
Connecting Rod : It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the
gas forces from the piston to the crankshaft. The two ends of the connecting rod
are called as small end and the big end (Fig. 3). Small end is connected to the
piston by gudgeon pin and the big end is connected to the crankshaft by crankpin.
Crankshaft : It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary
motion of the output shaft. In the crankshaft of a single cylinder engine there are
a pair of crank arms and balance weights. The balance weights are provided for
static and dynamic balancing of the rotating system. The crankshaft is enclosed in
a crankcase.
Piston Rings : Piston rings, fitted into the slots around the piston, provide a tight
seal between the piston and the cylinder wall thus preventing leakage of
combustion gases.
Gudgeon Pin : It links the small end of the connecting rod and the piston.
Camshaft : The camshaft (not shown in the figure) and its associated parts control
the opening and closing of the two valves. The associated parts are push rods,
rocker arms, valve springs and tappets. This shaft also provides the drive to the
ignition system. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing gears.
Cams : These are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are so designed to
open the valves at the correct timing and to keep them open for the necessary
duration.
Fly Wheel : The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete cycle
of operation of the engine fluctuates causing a change in the angular velocity of
the shaft. In order to achieve a uniform torque an inertia mass in the form of a
wheel is attached to the output shaft and this wheel is called the flywheel.

1.2.2 Nomenclature
Cylinder Bore (d) : The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder is called the
cylinder bore and is designated by the letter d and is usually expressed in
millimeter (mm).
Piston Area (A) : The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore is called
the piston area and is designated by the letter A and is usually expressed in square
centimeter (cm2).

10
Stroke (L) : The nominal distance through which a working piston moves between
two successive reversals of its direction of motion is called the stroke and is
designated by the letter L and is expressed usually in millimeter (mm).
Stroke to Bore Ratio : L/d ratio is an important parameter in classifying the size of
the engine. If d < L, it is called under-square engine. If d = L, it is called square
engine. If d > L, it is called over-square engine. An over-square engine can operate
at higher speeds because of larger bore and shorter stroke.
Dead Centre : The position of the working piston and the moving parts which are
mechanically connected to it, at the moment when the direction of the piston
motion is reversed at either end of the stroke is called the dead centre. There are
two dead centres in the engine as indicated in Fig.3 . They are: (i) Top Dead Centre
(ii) Bottom Dead Centre

Fig. 3 Top and bottom dead centres

(i) Top Dead Centre (TDC) : It is the dead centre when the piston is farthest from
the crankshaft. It is designated as T DC for vertical engines and Inner Dead Centre
(IDC) for horizontal engines.
(ii) Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) : It is the dead centre when the piston is nearest to
the crankshaft. It is designated as BDC for vertical engines and Outer Dead Centre
(ODC) for horizontal engines.

11
Displacement or Swept Volume (Vs) : The nominal volume swept by the working
piston when travelling from one dead centre to the other is called the displacement
volume. It is expressed in terms of cubic centimeter (cc) and given by
π
Vs = A × L = d2 L (1)
4

Cubic Capacity or Engine Capacity : The displacement volume of a cylinder

multiplied by number of cylinders in an engine will give the cubic capacity or the
engine capacity. For example, if there are K cylinders in an engine, then

Cubic capacity = Vs × K (2)

Clearance Volume (VC ) : The nominal volume of the combustion chamber above
the piston when it is at the top dead centre is the clearance volume. It is designated
as VC and expressed in cubic centimeter (cc). Compression Ratio (r) : It is the ratio
of the total cylinder volume when the piston is at the bottom dead centre, VT , to
the clearance volume, VC . It is designated by the letter r.

VT Vc + Vs Vs
r= = = 1+
Vc Vc Vc

1.3 THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ENGINES

If an engine is to work successfully then it has to follow a cycle of operations in a

sequential manner. The sequence is quite rigid and cannot be changed. In the
following sections the working principle of both SI and CI engines is described.
Even though both engines have much in common there are certain fundamental
differences. The credit of inventing the spark-ignition engine goes to Nicolaus A.
Otto (1876) whereas compression-ignition engine was invented by Rudolf Diesel
(1892). Therefore, they are often referred to as Otto engine and Diesel engine.

1.3.1 Four-Stroke Spark-Ignition Engine

In a four-stroke engine, the cycle of operations is completed in four strokes of the

piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft. During the four strokes, there are five

12
events to be completed, viz., suction, compression, combustion, expansion and
exhaust. Each stroke consists of 180◦ of crankshaft rotation and hence a four-
stroke cycle is completed through 720◦ of crank rotation. The cycle of operation for
an ideal four-stroke SI engine consists of the following four strokes : (i) suction or
intake stroke; (ii) compression stroke; (iii) expansion or power stroke and (iv)
exhaust stroke [2].

The details of various processes of a four-stroke spark-ignition engine with

overhead valves are shown in Fig. 4(a-d). When the engine completes all the five
events under ideal cycle mode, the pressure-volume (p-V) diagram will be as
shown in Fig.5.

Fig. 4 Working principle of a four-stroke SI engine

Fig. 5 Ideal p-V diagram of a four-stroke SI engine

13
1.3.2 Four-Stroke Compression-Ignition Engine

The four-stroke CI engine is similar to the four-stroke SI engine, but it operates at

a much higher compression ratio. The compression ratio of an SI engine is between
6 and 10 while for a CI engine it is from 16 to 20. In the CI engine during suction
stroke, air, instead of a fuel-air mixture, is inducted. Due to higher compression
ratios employed, the temperature at the end of the compression stroke is
sufficiently high to self-ignite the fuel which is injected into the combustion
chamber. In CI engines, a high-pressure fuel pump and an injector are provided to
inject the fuel into the combustion chamber. The carburettor and ignition system
necessary in the SI engine are not required in the CI engine.

Fig. 6 Cycle of operation of a CI engine

(i) Suction Stroke, (ii) Compression Stroke, (iii) Expansion Stroke and (iv)
Exhaust Stroke.

14
 Fig. 7 Ideal p-V diagram for a four-stroke CI engine

1.3.3 Four-stroke SI and CI Engines

In both SI and CI four-stroke engines, there is one power stroke for every two
revolutions of the crankshaft.

1.3.4 Two-Stroke Engine

In two-stroke engines the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft.

Fig. 8 Crankcase scavenged two-stroke SI engine

15
 Fig. 9 Ideal p-V diagram of a two-stroke SI engine

1.3.5 Comparison of Four-Stroke and Two-Stroke Engines

The two-stroke engine was developed to obtain higher output from the same size
of the engine. The engine has no valves and valve actuating mechanism making it
mechanically simpler. Almost all two-stroke engines have no conventional valves
but only ports (some have an exhaust valve). This makes the two-stroke engine
cheaper to produce and easy to maintain [3].

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES

Internal combustion engines are usually classified on the basis of the
thermodynamic cycle of operation, type of fuel used, method of charging the
cylinder, type of ignition, type of cooling and the cylinder arrangement etc.

16
 Fig. 11 Classification of internal combustion engines

1.4.1 Cycle of Operation

According to the cycle of operation, IC engines are basically classified into two
categories.
(i) Constant volume heat addition engine or Otto cycle engine. It is also called a
Spark-Ignition engine, SI engine or Gasoline engine.
(ii) Constant-pressure heat addition engine or Diesel cycle engine. It is also
called a compression-ignition engine, CI engine or Diesel engine.

17
1.4.2 Type of Fuel Used
Based on the type of fuel used engines are classified as (i) Engines using volatile
liquid fuels, For example, gasoline, alcohol, kerosene, benzene etc. The fuel is
generally mixed with air to form a homogeneous charge in a carburettor outside
the cylinder and drawn into the cylinder in its suction stroke. The charge is ignited
near the end of the compression stroke by an externally applied spark and
therefore these engines are called spark-ignition engines.

(ii) Engines using gaseous fuels like Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), Liquefied
Petroleum Gas (LPG), blast furnace gas and biogas. Gaseous fuels are
comparatively better compared to liquid fuels because of the reduced ignition
delay. The gas is mixed with air and the mixture is introduced into the cylinder
during the suction process. Working of this type of engine is similar to that of the
engines using volatile liquid fuels (SI gas engine).

(iii) Engine using solid fuels like charcoal, powdered coal etc. Solid fuels are
generally converted into gaseous fuels outside the engine in a separate gas
producer and the engine works as a gas engine.

(iv) Engines using viscous (low volatility at normal atmospheric temperatures)

liquid fuels like heavy and light diesel oils. The fuel is generally introduced into the
cylinder in the form of minute droplets by a fuel injection system near the end of
the compression process. Combustion of the fuel takes place due to its coming
into contact with the high temperature compressed air in the cylinder. Therefore,
these engines are called compression-ignition engines.

(v) Engines using two fuels. A gaseous fuel or a highly volatile liquid fuel is supplied
along with air during the suction stroke or during the initial part of compression
through a gas valve in the cylinder head and the other fuel (a viscous liquid fuel)
is injected into the combustion space near the end of the compression stroke.
These are called dual-fuel engines [4-8].

18
1.4.3 Method of Charging
According to the method of charging, the engines are classified as
(i) Naturally aspirated engines : Admission of air or fuel-air mixture at near
atmospheric pressure.
(ii) Supercharged Engines : Admission of air or fuel-air mixture under pressure,
i.e., above atmospheric pressure.

Fig. 12 Engine classification by cylinder arrangements

19
Table 1 Application of Engines

1.7 THE FIRST LAW ANALYSIS OF ENGINE CYCLE

Before a detailed thermodynamic analysis of the engine cycle is done, it is

desirable to have a general picture of the energy flow or energy balance of the
system so that one becomes familiar with the various performance parameters.

Fig. 13 Energy flow through reciprocating engine

According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to another.

20
 Fig. 14 shows its block diagram as an open system.

driving the piston as there are losses through the engine exhaust, to the coolant
and due to radiation. The heat energy which is converted to power at this stage is
called the indicated power, ip and it is utilized to drive the piston. The energy
represented by the gas forces on the piston passes through the connecting rod to
the crankshaft. In this transmission there are energy losses due to bearing friction,
pumping losses etc. In addition, a part of the energy available is utilized in driving
the auxiliary devices like feed pump, valve mechanisms, ignition systems etc. The
sum of all these losses, expressed in units of power is termed as frictional power,
fp . The remaining energy is the useful mechanical energy and is termed as the
brake power, bp [9].

1.8 ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

The engine performance is indicated by the term efficiency, η. Five important
engine efficiencies and other related engine performance parameters are:
(i) Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith)
(ii) Brake thermal efficiency (ηbth)
(iii) Mechanical efficiency (ηm)
(iv) Volumetric efficiency (ηv )
(v) Relative efficiency or Efficiency ratio (ηrel)
(vi) Mean effective pressure (pm)
(vii) Mean piston speed (sp)
(viii) Specific power output (Ps)
(ix) Specific fuel consumption (sfc)
(x) Inlet-valve Mach Index (Z)

21
(x) Fuel-air or air-fuel ratio (F/A or A/F )
(xi) Calorific value of the fuel (CV )

Fig. 15 Energy distribution [5]

Table 2 Typical Design and Performance Data for Modern Internal Combustion
Engines

22
23
24
 Chapter 2

2.1 Brief of cycles

The operating cycle of an internal combustion engine can be broken down into a
sequence of separate processes viz., intake, compression, combustion, expansion
and exhaust. The internal combustion engine does not operate on a
thermodynamic cycle as it involves an open system i.e., the working fluid enters
the system at one set of conditions and leaves at another.

2.2 THE CARNOT CYCLE

Sadi Carnot, a French engineer, proposed a reversible cycle in 1824, in which the
working medium receives heat at a higher temperature and rejects heat at a lower
temperature. The cycle will consist of two isothermal and two reversible adiabatic
processes as shown in Fig. 16.

Fig. 16 Carnot engine

25
Analyzing the cycle thermodynamically the efficiency of the cycle can be written
as:

Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K M = 29 kg/kmol

Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg K γ = 1.4

26
The lower temperature i.e., sink temperature, T1, is normally the atmospheric
temperature or the cooling water temperature and hence fixed. So the increase in
thermal efficiency can be achieved only by increasing the source temperature. In
other words, the upper temperature is required to be maintained as high as
possible, to achieve maximum thermal efficiency. Between two fixed temperatures
Carnot cycle (and other reversible cycles) has the maximum possible efficiency
compared to other air-standard cycles.

2.3 THE OTTO CYCLE

When the engine is working on full throttle, the processes 0→1 and 1→0 on the p-
V diagram represents suction and exhaust processes and their effect is nullified.
The process 1→2 represents isentropic compression of the air when the piston
moves from bottom dead centre to top dead centre. During the process 2→3 heat
is supplied reversibly at constant volume. This process corresponds to spark-
ignition and combustion in the actual engine. The processes 3→4 and 4→1
represent isentropic expansion and constant volume heat rejection respectively.

Fig. 17 Otto cycle

The thermal efficiency of Otto cycle can be written as:

𝑄𝑆 − 𝑄𝑅
ηOtto =
𝑄𝑆

1
= 1 − 𝛾(𝛾−1) (3)

27
2.3.1 Work Output
The net work output for an Otto cycle can be expressed as:
𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊= (𝑟𝑝 − 1)(𝑟 𝛾 − 1) (4)
𝛾−1

2.3.2 Mean Effective Pressure

The mean effective pressure of the cycle is given by:

(5)

2.4 THE DIESEL CYCLE

In actual spark-ignition engines, the upper limit of compression ratio is
limited by the self-ignition temperature of the fuel. This limitation on the
compression ratio can be circumvented if air and fuel are compressed separately
and brought together at the time of combustion.

Fig. 18 Diesel cycle

28
To analyze the diesel cycle the suction and exhaust strokes, represented by 0→1
𝑉
and 1→0, are neglected as in the case of the Otto cycle. Here, the volume ratio 𝑉1
2
𝑉3
is the compression ratio, r. The volume ratio 𝑉 is called the cut-off ratio, rc.
2

2.4.1 Thermal Efficiency

The thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle is given by:

(6)

(7)

29
 (8)

2.4.2 Work Output

The net work output for a Diesel cycle is given by:

30
 (9)

2.4.3 Mean Effective Pressure

The expression for mean effective pressure can be shown to be:

(10)

2.5 THE DUAL CYCLE

In the Otto cycle, combustion is assumed at constant volume while in Diesel
cycle combustion is at constant pressure. In practice they are far from real. Since,
sometime interval is required for the chemical reactions during combustion
process, the combustion cannot take place at constant volume. Similarly, due to
rapid uncontrolled combustion in diesel engines, combustion does not occur at
constant pressure [10].

31
 2.5.1 Thermal Efficiency
The efficiency of the cycle may be written as:

(11)

Fig. 19 Dual cycle

(12)

2.5.2 Work Output

The net work output for a Diesel cycle is given by:

(13)

2.5.3 Mean Effective Pressure

The expression for mean effective pressure can be shown to be:

(14)

32
2.6 The Brayton cycle
Brayton cycle is a theoretical cycle for gas turbines. This cycle consists of two
reversible adiabatic or isentropic processes and two constant pressure processes.
Figure 20 shows the Brayton cycle on p-V and T-S coordinates. The cycle is similar
to the Diesel cycle in compression and heat addition.

Fig. 20 Brayton cycle

(15)

33
34
35
36
 Chapter 3

3.1 Functional requirements of an injection system

The fuel-injection system is the most vital component in the working of CI engines.
The engine performance viz., power output, economy etc. is greatly dependent on
the effectiveness of the fuel-injection system. The injection system has to perform
the important duty of initiating and controlling the combustion process. For a
proper running and good performance from the engine, the following requirements
must be met by the injection system:

(i) Accurate metering of the fuel injected per cycle. This is very critical due to the
fact that very small quantities of fuel being handled. Metering errors may cause
drastic variation from the desired output. The quantity of the fuel metered should
vary to meet changing speed and load requirements of the engine.
(ii) Timing the injection of the fuel correctly in the cycle so that maximum power is
obtained ensuring fuel economy and clean burning.
(iii) Proper control of rate of injection so that the desired heat-release pattern is
achieved during combustion.
(iv) Proper atomization of fuel into very fine droplets.
(v) Proper spray pattern to ensure rapid mixing of fuel and air.
(vi) Uniform distribution of fuel droplets in the combustion chamber.
(vii) To supply equal quantities of metered fuel to all cylinders in case of multi
cylinder engines.
(viii) No lag during beginning and end of injection i.e., to eliminate dribbling of
fuel droplets into the cylinder.

3.2 Classification of Injection Systems

In a constant-pressure cycle or diesel engine, only air is compressed in the
cylinder and then fuel is injected into the cylinder by means of a fuel-injection
system. For producing the required pressure for atomizing the fuel either air
or a mechanical means is used. Accordingly the injection systems can be
classified as:

37
(i) Air injection systems
(ii) Solid injection systems

3.3.1 Air Injection System

In this system, fuel is forced into the cylinder by means of compressed air. This
system is little used nowadays, because it requires a bulky multi-stage air
compressor. This causes an increase in engine weight and reduces the brake
power output further. One advantage that is claimed for the air injection system is
good mixing of fuel with the air with resultant higher mean effective pressure.
Another is the ability to utilize fuels of high viscosity which are less expensive than
those used by the engines with solid injection systems. These advantages are off-
set by the requirement of a multistage compressor thereby making the air-injection
system obsolete.
3.3.2 Solid Injection System
In this system the liquid fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber
without the aid of compressed air. Hence, it is also called airless mechanical
injection or solid injection system. Solid injection systems can be classified
as:
(i) Individual pump and nozzle system
(ii) Unit injector system
(iii) Common rail system
(iv) Distributor system
All the above systems comprise mainly of the following components.
(i) fuel tank,
(ii) fuel feed pump to supply fuel from the main fuel tank to the injection
system,
(iii) injection pump to meter and pressurize the fuel for injection,
(iv) governor to ensure that the amount of fuel injected is in accordance with
variation in load,
(v) injector to take the fuel from the pump and distribute it in the combustion
chamber by atomizing it into fine droplets,
(vi) fuel filters to prevent dust and abrasive particles from entering the pump
and injectors thereby minimizing the wear and tear of the components.
A typical arrangement of various components for the solid injection system

38
used in a CI engine is shown in Fig. 21. Fuel from the fuel tank first enters the
coarse filter from which is drawn into the plunger feed pump where the pressure
is raised very slightly. Then the fuel enters the fine filter where all the dust and dirt
particles are removed. From the fine filter the fuel enters the fuel pump where it is
pressurized to about 200 bar and injected into the engine cylinder by means of the
injector. Any spill over in the injector is returned to the fine filter. A pressure relief
valve is also provided for the safety of the system. The above functions are
achieved with the components listed above. The types of solid injection system
described in the following sections differ only in the manner of operation and
control of the components mentioned above [11].

Fig. 21 Typical fuel feed system for a CI engine

3.4 Types of Injection Systems

The fuel injection system can be classified as:
(i) Gasoline direct injection into the cylinder (GDI)
(ii) Port injection
(a) Timed, and (b) Continuous
(iii) Manifold injection
The above fuel injection systems can be grouped under two heads, viz., single-
point and multi-point injection. In the single point injection system, one or two
injectors are mounted inside the throttle body assembly. Fuel sprays are directed
at one point or at the center of the intake manifold. Another name of the single
point injection is throttle body injection. Multipoint injection has one injector for

39
each engine cylinder. In this system, fuel is injected in more than one location. This
is more common and is often called port injection system.
As already mentioned the gasoline fuel injection system used in a spark ignition
engine can be either of continuous injection or timed injection.
(i) Continuous injection systems: This system usually has a rotary pump.
The pump maintains a fuel line gauge pressure of about 0.75 to 1.5 bar. The system
injects the fuel through a nozzle located in the manifold immediately downstream
of the throttle plate. In a supercharged engine, fuel is injected at the entrance of
the supercharger. The timing and duration of the fuel injection is determined by
Electronic Control Unit (ECU) depending upon the load and speed.
(ii) Timed fuel injection system: This system has a fuel supply pump which sends
fuel at a low pressure of about 2 bar when the engine is running at maximum
speed. A fuel metering or injection pump and a nozzle are the other parts of the
system. The nozzle injects the fuel in the manifold or the cylinder head port at
about 6.5 bar or into the combustion chamber at pressures that range from 16 to
35 bar. Timed injection system injects fuel usually during the early part of the
suction stroke. During maximum power operation injection begins after the closure
of the exhaust valve and ends usually after BDC. Direct in-cylinder injection is
superior and always desirable and better compared to manifold injection. In this
case both low and high volatile fuels can be used and higher volumetric efficiencies
can be achieved. However, it was noticed that direct injection caused oil dilution
in the frequent warm up phases if the car is used for daily transportation.

40
3.4.1 Components of Injection System

The objectives of the fuel injection system are to meter, atomize and uniformly
distribute the fuel throughout the air mass in the cylinder. At the same time it must
maintain the required air-fuel ratio as per the load and speed requirement of the
engine. To achieve all the above tasks, a number of components are required in
the fuel injection system, the functions of which are mentioned below.

(i) Pumping element – moves the fuel from the fuel tank to the injector. This
includes necessary piping, filter etc.

(ii) Metering element – measures and supplies the fuel at the rate demanded by
load and speed conditions of the engine.

(iii) Mixing element – atomizes the fuel and mixes it with air to form a homogenous
mixture.

(iv) Metering control – adjusts the rate of metering in accordance with load and
speed of the engine.

(v) Mixture control – adjusts fuel-air ratio as demanded by the load and speed. (vi)
Distributing element – divides the metered fuel equally among the cylinders

41
 Fig. 22 Different methods of fuel injection

3.5 Factors Affecting the Delay Period

Many design and operating factors affect the delay period. The important
ones are:
(i) compression ratio
(ii) engine speed
(iii) output

42
 Fig. 23 Block diagram illustrating the combustion process in a CI engine

3.5.1 Compression Ratio

The increase in the compression temperature of the air with increase in
compression ratio evaluated at the end of the compression stroke is shown in Fig.
24. It is also seen from the same figure that the minimum autoignition temperature
of a fuel decreases due to increased density of the compressed air. This results in
a closer contact between the molecules of fuel and oxygen reducing the time of
reaction. The increase in the compression temperature as well as the decrease in
the minimum autoignition temperature decreases the delay period. The peak
pressure during the combustion process is only marginally affected by the
compression ratio (because delay period is shorter with higher compression ratio
and hence the pressure rise is lower).

43
 Fig. 24 Effect of compression ratio on maximum air temperature and minimum
auto ignition temperature

3.5.2 Engine Speed

Suppose an engine has got ignition advance of d degrees and operating speed
is N rpm. Then time available for combustion is:
𝑑
𝑚𝑖𝑛 (16)
360 𝑁
Now if the engine rpm is increased to 2N , then in order to have the same time
available for combustion an ignition advance of 2d degrees is required. Thus, if the
combustion time for a given mixture strength, compression ratio and volumetric
efficiency be assumed constant, then as the engine speed is
increased it will be necessary to advance the ignition progressively in order to
follow Upton’s rule for optimum advance. The variation of ignition advance required
at different speeds is shown in Fig. 25 shows indicator diagrams taken for a petrol
engine running at 1000 and 2000 rpm respectively but with the ignition advance
adjusted in each case to give the maximum pressure peak at about 12 degrees
after top dead centre. It is seen that at the higher speed a spark advance of 20
degrees is necessary as against 10 degrees at the lower speed. Corresponding

44
delay periods between the passage of the spark and commencement of pressure
rise were 20 and 10 degrees respectively, i.e. proportional to the engine speeds.

Fig. 25 Variation in ignition advance with speed

3.5.3 Output
With an increase in engine output the air-fuel ratio decreases, operating
temperatures increase and hence delay period decreases. The rate of pressure rise
is unaffected but the peak pressure reached may be high.

3.5.4 Atomization and Duration of Injection

Higher fuel-injection pressures increase the degree of atomization. The fineness
of atomization reduces ignition delay, due to higher surface volume ratio. Smaller
droplet size will have low depth of penetration due to less momentum of the droplet
and less velocity relative to air from where it has to find oxygen after vapourisation.
Because of this air utilization factor will be reduced due to fuel spray path being
shorter. Also with smaller droplets, the aggregate area of inflammation will
increase after ignition, resulting in higher pressure rise during the second stage of
combustion. Thus, lower injection pressure, giving larger droplet size may give
lower pressure rise during the second stage of combustion and probably smoother
running. Hence, an optimum group mean diameter of the droplet size should be
attempted as a compromise. Also the fuel delivery law i.e., change in the quantity

45
of fuel supplied with the crank angle travel will affect the rates of pressure rise
during second stage of combustion though ignition delay remains unaffected by
the same.

3.6 Injection Timing

The effect of injection advance on the pressure variation is shown in Fig.26 for
three injection advance timings of 9◦, 18◦, and 27◦ before TDC. The injected
quantity of fuel per cycle is constant. As the pressure and temperature at the
beginning of injection are lower for higher ignition advance, the delay period
increases with increase in injection advance. The optimum angle of injection
advance depends on many factors but generally it is about 20◦bT DC.

Fig. 26 Effect of injection timing on indicator diagram

3.7 Quality of Fuel

Self-ignition temperature is the most important property of the fuel which affects
the delay period. A lower self-ignition temperature results in a lower delay period.
Also, fuels with higher cetane number give lower delay period and smoother engine
operation. Other properties of the fuel which affect the delay period are volatility,
latent heat, viscosity and surface tension.

3.7.1 Intake Temperature

46
Increase in intake temperature increases the compressed air temperature
resulting in reduced delay period.

3.7.2 Intake Pressure

Increase in intake pressure or supercharging reduces the autoignition temperature
and hence reduces the delay period. The peak pressure will be higher since the
compression pressure will increase with intake pressure.

3.8 The Phenomenon of Knock in SI and CI Engines

In a spark-ignition engine combustion which is initiated between the spark plug
electrodes spreads across the combustible mixture. A definite flame front which
separates the fresh mixture from the products of combustion travels from the
spark plug to the other end of the combustion chamber. Heat-release due to
combustion increases the temperature and consequently the pressure, of the
burned part of the mixture above those of the unburned mixture. In order to effect
pressure equalization the burned part of the mixture will expand, and compress
the unburned mixture adiabatically thereby increasing its pressure and
temperature. This process continues as the flame front advances through the
mixture and the temperature and pressure of the unburned mixture are increased
further. If the temperature of the unburnt mixture exceeds the self-ignition
temperature of the fuel and remains at or above this temperature during the period
of preflame reactions (ignition lag), spontaneous ignition or autoignition occurs
at various pin-point locations. This phenomenon is called knocking. The process
of autoignition leads towards engine knock.

3.8.1 Comparison of Knock in SI and CI Engines

It may be interesting to note that knocking in spark-ignition engines and
compression-ignition engines is fundamentally due to the autoignition of the fuel-
air mixture. In both the cases, the knocking depends on the autoignition lag of the
fuel-air mixture. But careful examination of the knocking phenomenon in spark-
ignition and the compression-ignition engines reveals the following differences. A

47
comparison of the knocking process in SI and CI engines is shown on the pressure-
time diagrams of Fig. 27.
(i) In spark-ignition engines, the autoignition of the end gas away from the spark
plug, most likely near the end of the combustion causes knocking. But in
compression-ignition engines the autoignition of the charge causing knocking is at
the start of combustion. It is the first charge that auto ignites and causes knocking
in the compression-ignition engines.
explosive auto- ignition is more or less over before the peak pressure for the
compression-ignition engines. But for spark-ignition engines, the condition for
explosive autoignition of the end charge is more favourable after the peak
pressure. In order to avoid knocking in spark-ignition engines, it is necessary to
prevent autoignition of the end gas to take place at all. In compression-ignition
engine, the earliest possible autoignition is necessary to avoid knocking.
(ii) In spark-ignition engine, the charge that auto ignites is homogeneous and
therefore intensity of knocking or the rate of pressure rise at explosive autoignition
is likely to be more than that in compression-ignition engines where the fuel and
air are not homogeneously mixed even when explosive autoignition of the charge
occurs. Therefore, it is often called detonation in SI engines.
(iii) In compression-ignition engines, only air is compressed during the
compression stroke and the ignition can take place only after fuel is injected
just before the top dead centre. Thus there can be no preignition in compression-
ignition engines as in spark-ignition engines.
(iv) It has already been pointed out that, the normal process of combustion in
compression-ignition engines is by autoignition. And thus normal rate of pressure
rise for the first part of the charge for compression ignition are higher than those
for spark-ignition engine, in terms of per degree crank rotation. And normally,
audible knock is always present.

48
 Fig. 27 Diagrams illustrating the effect of ignition delay on the rate of
pressure rise in a CI engine

3.9 Combustion Chambers for CI Engines

The most important function of the CI engine combustion chamber is to provide
proper mixing of fuel and air in a short time. In order to achieve this, an organized
air movement called the air swirl is provided to produce high relative velocity
between the fuel droplets and the air. The effect of swirl has already been
discussed in Section 11.13. The fuel is injected into the combustion chamber by
an injector having a single or multihole orifices. The increase in the number of jets

49
reduces the intensity of air swirl needed. When the liquid fuel is injected into the
combustion chamber, the spray cone gets disturbed due to the air motion and
turbulence inside. The onset of combustion will cause an added turbulence that
can be guided by the shape of the combustion chamber. Since the turbulence is
necessary for better mixing, and the fact that it can be controlled by the shape of
the combustion chamber, makes it necessary to study the combustion chamber
design in detail. CI engine combustion chambers are classified into two categories:

3.9.1 Direct–Injection Chambers

An open combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion space is
essentially a single cavity with little restriction from one part of the chamber to the
other and hence with no large difference in pressure between parts of the chamber
during the combustion process. There are many designs of open chamber some of
which are shown in Fig. 28.
In four-stroke engines with open combustion chambers, induction swirl is obtained
either by careful formation of the air intake passages or by masking a portion of
the circumference of the inlet valve whereas in two-stroke engines it is created by
suitable form for the inlet ports. These chambers mainly consist of space formed
between a flat cylinder head and a cavity in the piston crown in different shapes.
The fuel is injected directly into this space.

50
 Fig. 28 Open combustion chambers
The injector nozzles used for this type of chamber are generally of multihole type
working at a relatively high pressure (about 200 bar). The main advantages of this
type of chambers are:
(i) Minimum heat loss during compression because of lower surface area to
volume ratio and hence, better efficiency.
(ii) No cold starting problems.
(iii) Fine atomization because of multihole nozzle.

The drawbacks of these combustion chambers are:

(i) High fuel-injection pressure required and hence complex design of fuel injection
pump.
(ii) Necessity of accurate metering of fuel by the injection system, particularly
for small engines.

3.9.2 Indirect–Injection Chambers

A divided combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion space is
divided into two or more distinct compartments connected by restricted passages.
This creates considerable pressure differences between them during the
combustion process.

51
• Swirl Chamber
• Precombustion Chamber
• Air-Cell Chamber

52
 Chapter 4

4.1 Direct Frictional Losses

It is the power absorbed due to the relative motion of different bearing surfaces
such as piston rings, main bearings, cam shaft bearings etc. Since, there are a
number of moving parts, the frictional losses are comparatively higher in
reciprocating engines.

4.1.1 Pumping Loss

In case of the four-stroke engines a considerable amount of energy is spent during
intake and exhaust processes. The pumping loss is the net power spent by the
engine (piston) on the working medium (gases) during intake and exhaust strokes.
In the case of two-stroke engines this is negligible since the incoming fresh mixture
is used to scavenge the exhaust gases.

4.1.2 Power Loss to Drive Components to Charge and Scavenge

In certain types of four-stroke engines the intake charge is supplied at a higher
pressure than the naturally aspirated engines. For this purpose a mechanically
driven compressor or a turbine driven compressor is used. Accordingly the engine
is called the supercharged or turbocharged engine. In case of a supercharged
engine, the engine itself supplies power to drive the compressor whereas in a
turbocharged engine, the turbine is driven by the exhaust gases of the engine.
These devices take away a part of the engine output. This loss is considered as
negative frictional loss. In case of two-stroke engines with a scavenging pump, the
power to drive the pump is supplied by the engine.

4.2 Engine Power

In general, the energy flow through the engine is expressed in three distinct terms.
They are indicated power, ip, friction power fp and brake power, bp. Indicated
power can be computed from the measurement of forces in the cylinder and brake
power may be computed from the measurement of forces at the crankshaft of the
engine. It can also be calculated as the difference between the ip and

53
bp if these two are known, It can be calculated as the difference between the ip
and bp if these two are known, then:
ip=bp+fp (16)

4.2.2 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (pim)

ip can be computed from the measurement of forces developed in the cylinder, the
pressure of the expanding gases. As already described, in chapters dealing with
cycles, the pressure in the cylinder varies throughout the cycle and the variation
can be expressed with respect to volume or crank angle to obtain p-V or p-θ
diagrams respectively.

pim × (V1 − V2) = Net work of cycle

Fig. 29 p-V diagram for an ideal four-stroke cycle engine

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

𝑝𝑖𝑚 = = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 (17)
𝑉1 −𝑉2

54
4.2.2 Indicated Power (ip)
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. In the analysis of cycles the net work
is expressed in kJ/kg of air. This may be converted to power by multiplying by the
mass flow rate of air through the engine in kg per unit time.
Since, the net work obtained from the p-V diagram is the net work produced in the
cylinder as measured by an indicator diagram, the power based there on is termed
indicated power, ip.
ip = m˙a × net work (18)
where m˙a is in kg/s, network is in kJ/kg of air and ip is in kW.
In working with actual engines, it is often desirable to compute ip from a given pim
and given engine operating conditions. The necessary formula may be developed
from the equation of net work based on the mean effective pressure and piston
displacement:

Indicated net work/cycle = pim Vs (19)

By definition,
Indicated power = Indicated net work × cycles/s (20)

𝑝 𝑉 𝑛𝐾 𝑝𝑖𝑚 𝐿𝐴𝑛𝐾
𝑖𝑚 𝑠
𝑖𝑝 = 1000 × 60
= 60000
kw (21)

55
4.2.3 Brake Power (bp)
Indicated power is based on indicated net work and is thus a measure of the forces
developed within the cylinder. More practical interest is the rotational force
available at the delivery point, at the engine crankshaft (termed the drive-shaft),
and the power corresponding to it. This power is interchangeably referred to as
brake power, shaft power or delivered power. In general, only the term brake
power, bp, has been used in this book to indicate the power actually delivered by
the engine.
The bp is usually measured by attaching a power absorption device to the drive-
shaft of the engine. Such a device sets up measurable forces counteracting the
forces delivered by the engine, and the determined value of these measured forces
is indicative of the forces being delivered.
By using the geometry of a simple prony brake as the basis, a formula can now be
developed for computing the bp delivered by an engine. Work has been defined as
the product of a force and the distance through which the point of application of
force moves. Then the drive-shaft of the engine turns through one revolution, any
point on the periphery of the rigidly attached wheel moves through a distance equal
to 2πr (Fig. 30). During this movement, a friction force, f is acting against the wheel.
The force, f is thus acting through the distance 2πr, and producing work. Thus,
Work during one revolution = Distance × Force (21)
= (2πr) × f

Fig. 30 Adaptation of prony brake for power measurement

56
The torque, rf , produced by the drive-shaft is opposed by a turning moment
equal to the product of the length of the moment arm R and the force F measured
by the scale

(22)

It should be noted that N is the rpm of the engine. The friction force is acting during
every revolution of the crankshaft, regardless of whether or not that revolution
contains a power stroke.
The product of the moment arm R and the measured force, F is termed the torque
of the engine and is usually expressed in Nm. Torque, T is the uniform or
fluctuating turning moment, or twist, exerted by a tangential force acting at a
distance from the axis of rotation. For an engine operating at a given speed and
delivering a given power, the torque must be a fixed amount,
or the product of F and R must be constant (T = F R). In such a case, if R is
decreased, F will increase proportionately and vice versa.
The brake power, bp, can also be written as:

2𝜋𝑁 𝑇
𝑏𝑝 = 60000 𝐾𝑊 (23)

57
4.2.4 Brake Mean Effective Pressure (pbm)
Indicated mean effective pressure may be considered to consist of fmep and bmep,
two hypothetical pressures. Friction mean effective pressure is that portion of imep
which is required to overcome friction losses, and brake mean effective pressure
is the portion which produces the useful power delivered by the engine.

imep = bmep + fmep (24)

Since bmep is that portion of imep which goes into the development of useful
power, it has the same relationship to bp as imep has to ip, or :
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 𝑏𝑝
= (25)
𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 𝑖𝑝

Equation 25 was developed as a means of computing ip when imep is determined

from an engine indicator diagram

𝑃𝑖𝑚 𝐿𝐴𝑛𝐾
𝑖𝑝 = (26)
60000

For a given engine, L, A, n and K are constants. Since bp and bmep have the
same relationship to one another as do ip and imep, bp can be expressed as:

𝑃𝑏𝑚 𝐿𝐴𝑛𝐾
𝑏𝑝 = (27)
60000

where pbm is brake mean effective pressure (N/m2).

And due to the same relationship, the mechanical efficiency, ηm of the

engine can be expressed as the ratio of bmep to imep.

𝑏𝑝 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝
𝜂𝑚 = = (28)
𝑖𝑝 𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝

It should be noted that for a given engine operating under given conditions,
the torque developed is proportional to the bmep.

58
4.3 Engine Efficiencies
Apart from expressing engine performance in terms of power, it is also essential
to express in terms of efficiencies. Various engine efficiencies are:

4.3.1 Air-Standard Efficiency

The air-standard efficiency is also known as thermodynamic efficiency. It is mainly
a function of compression ratio and other parameters. It gives the upper limit of
the efficiency obtainable from an engine.

4.3.2 Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiencies

The indicated and brake thermal efficiencies are based on the ip and bp of the
engine respectively. These efficiencies give an idea of the output generated by the
engine with respect to heat supplied in the form of fuel. In modern engines an
indicated thermal efficiency of almost 28 per cent is obtainable with gas and
gasoline spark-ignition engines having a moderate compression ratio and as high
as 36 per cent or even more with high compression ratio oil engines.

4.3.3 Mechanical Efficiency

The various losses described above can be clubbed into one heading, viz., the
mechanical losses. The mechanical losses can be written in terms of mean
effective pressure that is frictional torque divided by engine displacement volume
per unit time. Therefore, frictional mean effective pressure, fmep, can be expressed
as:

fmep = mmep + pmep + amep + cmep (17)

Where
mmep : mean effective pressure required to overcome mechanical friction
pmep : mean effective pressure required for charging and scavenging
amep : mean effective pressure required to drive the auxiliary components
cmep : mean effective pressure required to drive the compressor or scavenging
pump
Because of the various mechanical losses in the engine the term mechanical

59
efficiency is usually associated with the reciprocating internal combustion engine.
mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of bp to ip or bmep to imep. It is written
as:

𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝
𝜂𝑀 = (18)
𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝

4.3.4 Relative Efficiency

The relative efficiency or efficiency ratio as it is sometimes called is the ratio of the
actual efficiency obtained from an engine to the theoretical efficiency of the engine
cycle.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = (19)
𝐴𝑖𝑟−𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

Relative efficiency for most of the engines varies from 75 to 95% with theoretical
air and decreases rapidly with insufficient air to about 75% with 90% air.

4.3.5 Volumetric Efficiency

Volumetric efficiency is a measure of the success with which the air supply, and
thus the charge, is inducted into the engine. It is a very important parameter, since
it indicates the breathing capacity of the engine. Volumetric efficiency is defined
as the ratio of the actual mass of air drawn into the engine during a given period
of time to the theoretical mass which should have been drawn in during that same
period of time, based upon the total piston displacement of the engine, and the
temperature and pressure of the surrounding atmosphere.
̇
𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝜂𝑉 = ̇
(20)
𝑚𝑡ℎ

𝑚̇𝑡ℎ = 𝜌𝑎𝑛𝑉𝑠 (21)

Where n is the number of intake strokes per minute. For a four-stroke engine n =
N/2 and for a two-stroke engine n = N , where N is the speed of the engine in
rev/min. The actual mass is a measured quantity. The theoretical mass is
computed from the geometry of the cylinder, the number of cylinders, and the
speed of the engine, in conjunction with the density of the surrounding
atmosphere.

60
4.3.6 Scavenging Efficiency
In case of two-stroke engines (discussed in detail in the next chapter) scavenging
efficiency is defined as the ratio of the amount of air or gas-air mixture, which
remains in the cylinder, at the actual beginning of the compression to the product
of the total volume and air density of the inlet. Scavenging efficiency for most of
the two-stroke engines varies from 40 to 95 per cent depending upon the type of
scavenging provided.

4.3.7 Charge Efficiency

The charge efficiency shows how well the piston displacement of a four-stroke
engine is utilized. Various factors affecting charge efficiency are:
(i) the compression ratio.
(ii) the amount of heat picked up during passage of the charge through
intake manifold.
(iii) the valve timing of the engine.
(iv) the resistance offered to air-fuel charge during its passage through induction
manifold.

4.3.8 Combustion Efficiency

Combustion efficiency is the ratio of heat liberated to the theoretical heat in the
fuel. The amount of heat liberated is less than the theoretical value because of
incomplete combustion either due to dissociation or due to lack of available
oxygen. Combustion efficiency in a well-adjusted engine varies from 92% to 97%.

4.4 Engine Performance Characteristics

Engines are so designed that the maximum air consumption point is not reached
within the operating speed of the engine. Increase in air consumption means that
increased quantities of fuel can be added per unit time increasing the power
output. In fact the ip produced in the cylinder is almost directly proportional to the
engine air consumption. The relationship between air charge per cylinder per cycle
and torque, as well as air consumption and ip is illustrated in Fig. 31. Note that the
maximum torque occurs at a lower speed than the maximum ip.

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 Fig. 31 Typical performance plot with respect to speed

Figure 32 shows some of the other important performance characteristics for a

typical SI engine. In this figure, torque, ip, bp and f p are plotted against engine
speed throughout the operating range of the engine, at full throttle and variable
load. The difference between the ip produced in the cylinder, and the bp realized
at the drive-shaft, is the fp. At low engine speeds, the fp is relatively low, and bp
is close to ip. As engine speed increases, the fp increases at a greater rate. At
engine speeds above the usual operating range, fp increases very rapidly. Also, at
these higher speeds, ip will reach a maximum and then fall off. At some point, ip
and fp will be equal, and bp will then drop to zero. Note that the torque reaches a
maximum at approximately 60% of the rated rpm of the engine, while the ip has
not reached maximum even at the rated speed. Figure 33 shows fuel consumption
and bsfc plotted against the engine speed, for the same engine operating under
the same conditions. The quantity of fuel consumed increases with engine speed.
The bsfc, on the other hand, drops as the speed is increased in the low-speed
range, nearly levels off at medium speeds, and increases in the high-speed range,
At low speeds, the heat loss to the combustion chamber walls is proportionately
greater and combustion efficiency is poorer, resulting in higher fuel consumption
for the power produced. At the high speeds, the fp is increasing at a rapid rate,

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resulting in a slower increase in bp than in fuel consumption, with a consequent
increase in bsfc.

Fig. 32 Typical SI engine performance curves

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 Fig. 33 Typical fuel consumption curves for an SI engine

4.4.1 Air-Fuel Ratio

This ratio must be set to fulfill engine requirements. Consistent with these
requirements, however, it is usually set as close as possible to the best economy
proportions during normal cruising speeds, and as close as possible to the best
power proportions when maximum performance is required.

4.4.2 Compression Ratio

An increase in compression ratio increases the thermal efficiency, and is,
therefore, generally advantageous. The compression ratio in most SI engines is
limited by knock, and the use of economically feasible antiknock quality fuels.
Increasing compression ratio also increases the friction of the engine, particularly
between piston rings and the cylinder walls, and there is a point at which further
increase in compression ratio would not be profitable, though this point appears
to be rather high [8].

4.4.3 Engine Speed

Friction increases rapidly with increasing speed. At higher speeds mechanical
efficiency starts deteriorating considerably. This is one of the reasons for
restricting the speeds of engines.

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4.4.4 Mass of Inducted Charge
The greater the mass of the charge inducted, the higher the power produced. For
a given engine, the geometry is fixed, and it is desirable to induct a charge to a
maximum possible density giving the highest volumetric efficiency.

4.4.5 Heat Losses

It should be noted that the large proportion of the available energy is lost in a non-
usable form, i.e., heat losses. Any method which can be employed to prevent the
excessive heat loss and cause this energy to leave the engine is a usable form will
tend to increase engine performance. Higher coolant temperatures, for instance,
provide a smaller temperature gradient around combustion chamber walls and a
reduction in heat loss, but are limited by the possibility of damage to engine parts.

4.5 Methods of Improving Engine Performance

The engine designer is always interested in methods through which engine
performance may be improved. By referring to Fig. 13, it can be seen that there are
two general areas in which methods can be utilized to improve performance:
(i) the energy put into the engine at the start may be increased, and/or
(ii) the efficiency with which the fuel energy is converted to mechanical
energy may be increased.
Energy supply may be increased by increasing the mass of charge entering the
combustion chamber. Supercharging is one method of accomplishing this. Larger
piston displacement is another solution, but is limited by engine weight and cooling
problems. Improvement in volumetric efficiency would also increase the mass of
charge. Higher engine speeds may be utilized, but these result in increased friction
losses, and above a certain point, in lowered volumetric efficiency. Improvements
in fuels resulting in greater usable energy content without detonation would also
help. The use of higher compression ratios would increase the efficiency of
conversion of the energy in the fuel into useful mechanical energy. This requires
the development of economically feasible higher antiknock quality fuels. Even with
such fuels, as pointed out earlier, there appears to be a limit to the advantage in
increasing the compression ratio. Another solution would be to reduce the losses
between the air cycle and the actual cycle, and thereby

65
increase the proportion of energy which can be mechanically utilized. Also, it is
possible to take advantage of the kinetic energy in the exhaust gas to increase the
engine output through use of exhaust driven turbines. In this case, the exhaust gas
from engine cylinders drives a turbine which is connected to the engine crankshaft,
thus increasing engine output. Engines having this type of power booster are
known as turbo compound engines.

4.6 Heat Balance

Energy supplied to an engine is the heat value of the fuel consumed. As has been
repeatedly pointed out, only a part of this energy is transformed into useful work.
The rest of it is either wasted or utilized in special application like turbo
compounding. The two main parts of the heat not available for work are the heat
carried away by the exhaust gases and the cooling medium. Figure 34 illustrates
the same for spark-ignition engines. A typical heat balance for compression-
ignition engines is illustrated in Fig. 35. To give sufficient data for the preparation
of a heat balance sheet, a test should include a method of determining the friction
power and the measurement of speed, load, fuel consumption, air consumption,
exhaust temperature, rate of flow of cooling water and its temperature rise while
flowing through the water jackets. Besides, the small losses, such as radiation and
incomplete combustion, the above enumerated data makes it possible to account
for the heat supplied by the fuel and indicate its distribution [2].

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Fig. 34 Heat balance diagram for a typical SI engine

Fig. 35 Heat balance diagram for a typical CI engine

67
4.1

68
4.2

69
4.3

70
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