CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Livestock production is an integral part of rural livelihood system and provides

employment to majority of rural communities (Singh et al., 2020). However, despite its

importance, the productivity of ruminant livestock is low due to deteriorating forage quality

(Mustaring et al., 2023).

Livestock are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting in order to

provide labour and produce diversified products for consumption such

as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to animals

who are raised for consumption, and sometimes used to refer solely to farmed ruminants, such

as cattle, sheep, and goats. (Britannica.com.2024). Horses are considered livestock in the United

States. (American Horse Council. 2021). The USDA classifies pork, veal, beef, and lamb

(mutton) as livestock, and all livestock as red meat. Poultry and fish are not included in the

category. The latter is likely due to the fact that fish products are not governed by the USDA, but

by the FDA.

The breeding, maintenance, slaughter and general subjugation of livestock, called animal

husbandry, is a part of modern agriculture and has been practiced in many cultures since

humanity's transition to farming from hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animal husbandry practices

have varied widely across cultures and time periods. It continues to play a major economic and

cultural role in numerous communities.

Livestock farming practices have largely shifted to intensive animal farming. Intensive animal

farming increases the yield of the various commercial outputs, but also negatively

1
impacts animal welfare, the environment, and public health. (Anomaly Jonathan, 2020). In

particular, beef, dairy and sheep are an outsized source of greenhouse gas emissions from

agriculture.

Types of Livestock Farming

The practice of breeding animals for their meat, milk, and other products is known as livestock

farming, sometimes referred to as animal husbandry or animal agriculture. Here are a few

examples of farming livestock:

Buffalo Farming

Buffalo farming is an important part of the livestock business that generates milk, meat, hides,

and bones in addition to providing draft power for farming activities.

Poultry Farming

Raising live animals such as pigs, chickens, and cows is the focus of this kind of agriculture.

Fish Farming

Fish are raised in this approach using waste products from cattle without the need for

additional nutrients.

Precision Farming of livestock

This technology, also referred to as "livestock smart farming," helps in the management of

livestock by automatically tracking their welfare, health, and productivity.

Extensive Farming

Livestock roam freely in pastures and feeding places in this kind of livestock farming.

Pig Farming

Raising pigs can be done as a specialization or as a component of mixed farming.

2
Dairy Farming

This kind of farming produces milk for human use over an extended period.

Other Types of Livestock Farming

Animal agriculture, cattle farming, horse and dog breeding, sheep farming, beekeeping, and

aquaculture are some more types of livestock farming.

Uses of livestock

Domestic animals have, for more than 10 thousand years, contributed to human needs for food

and agricultural products. These products include meat, dairy products, eggs, fibre and leather,

draft power and transport, and manure to fertilize crops and for fuel. These animals have always

played a large cultural role for livestock keepers. Livestock also play an important economic role

as capital and for social security.

The value of livestock has also been clearly demonstrated for soil nutrient management,

especially in soils in rapidly intensifying crop-livestock systems (Tarawali et al., 2004) and in

those already intensified (Olson, 1998; Olson et al., 2004). Integration of livestock into crop

systems enhances smallholder farm productivity and profitability (Peden et al., 2005).

The multiple uses of livestock also include their cultural roles in many societies. Consequently,

the use of animal resources varies considerably in different parts of the world, as the social,

environmental and other conditions for animal production differ enormously.

Currently, an estimated 30-40% of the world’s total agricultural output is produced by its variety

of livestock (FAO, 2005a). In some parts of the world, including some parts of Africa where

intensive mixed livestock-crop systems are practised, as much as 70-80% of the farm income is

from livestock. In such systems, much of the crops produced are fed to livestock and converted

to high quality food for human consumption.

3
Adaptation to environment a necessity

In most parts of the developing world, difficult environmental conditions and a lack of

availability of capital, technology, infrastructure and human resources have not allowed

intensification of agriculture, including development of genetic resources. Instead, harsh climate,

little feed of low nutritional value, irregular feed availability, diseases, and lack of education and

infrastructure, have kept the agricultural output per animal at a low and rather unchanged level

for a long time. However, livestock breeds in the tropical parts of the world have during

thousands of years become adapted to cope with harsh environments, including disease

challenges (ICAR, 2020), and to produce under conditions in which breeds developed in more

favourable environments will not even survive (Kharel et al. 2022). Such differences among

animal populations have a genetic background and are the result of the interaction between

genetic constitution and environment. This has evolved over time from natural and human

selection of animals for performance in different environments. That is why there is such a

variety of indigenous breeds. However, when appropriately utilized in pure or cross-breeding

programmes, indigenous breeds can contribute to increased productivity in smallholder

production systems (Panandam and Raymond, 2023).

Increased productivity to avoid degradation of natural resources

The challenge now is to find ways to exploit the potential for improved and sustainable livestock

production that the variability among and within the indigenous breeds may offer different

environments and production systems in various parts of the tropics and sub-tropics. Otherwise,

it will not be possible to produce what is needed for the people of the developing world to

survive. To date, demand for increased livestock production has largely been met by increasing

the number of indigenous animals without improving yield or efficiency per animal or area used.

4
Such trends will not hold in future as industrialization is predicted to continue at a higher pace,

especially for pig and poultry production, using mainly genetically improved breeds and

composites. Non-structured cross-breeding of indigenous breeds with imported high yielding

breeds has been practised too often in the tropics, sometimes with disastrous results (Okeyo,

2023; Payne and Hodges, 2024; Ahuya et al., 2021; Kosgey et al., 2023). This development

cannot continue.

Land degradation and the increasing amount of resources required to just maintain the animal

populations must be replaced by more efficient systems demanding higher outputs per animal or

area of land used to meet the future demands of livestock products (Taneja, 2020). For

sustainability, these systems must emphasize effective resource input/output ratios and more

integration of livestock and crop production rather than industrialized mono-cultural production

systems that seriously challenge the wise use and care of our natural resources.

Consumer concern and consumer perceptions in light of the increasing global push for product

standardization and wider impacts of production systems on environments are of increasing

concern. Whereas such trends provide potential scope for environmentally friendly produced

livestock products, the effects of over-exploitation (deforestation and overgrazing) of common

and open access resources, especially by the rural poor, may undermine the potential gains.

Besides, to fully benefit from better prices offered by niche markets for more naturally produced

products, better levels of producer organization, in terms of product quality assurance,

standardization and general marketing, will be required of producers to enable such potentials to

be exploited.

It is rightly argued that animal production systems, especially with ruminants, contribute to

undesired methane emissions. However, it is also well established that these greenhouse

5
emissions can be substantially reduced by increasing productivity and lowering the number of

animals kept for a given total amount of produce (Kirchgeâner et al., 1995; McCrabb et al.,

2003). Hence, increased productivity per animal concentrating production on fewer but more

valuable animals is a way forward in reducing the negative environmental impacts of livestock

production. This intensification must, however, also be designed to effectively manage all other

risks to environmental degradation of land and water, e.g. efficient ways of using manure and

wastes from other farm products. For example, in large commercial tree plantation systems such

as those in Malaysia, increased resource utilization and profitability may arise from integration

of livestock in rubber and palm oil plantations. Such integration also has the potential for

reducing the country’s annual demands for imported beef and milk to meet the domestic deficits.

More productive breeds of a number of livestock species have been genetically developed to fit

different markets and environments for both developed and developing countries (Chako, 2022).

Such genetic changes, in combination with better and continuously available feeds and

management, have in a few decades led to the doubling of food production in a number of breeds

and species. Such increases in agricultural produce require high technology and large inputs of

feed, labour, energy and capital, and good disease control and management practices. However,

in high input and resourceful industrialized systems, limited considerations regarding total

efficiency in nutrient cycling and pollution have been made. Without such considerations, these

production systems will not be sustainable. Conversely, in low and medium input pasture

production systems small ruminants, camels and beef cattle provide the most efficient way of

utilizing such environments to produce valuable livestock products (milk, meat and leather). To

date, the potentials of many of the indigenous livestock populations and breeds remain largely

unexploited. Through well organized conventional selection programmes much more could be

6
achieved see breed information on Kenya Boran, Tuli, Butana and Kenana cattle breeds in

Africa; Khari and Boer goats in Africa and Asia and the Murray and Nili Ravi buffaloes from

India and Pakistan. Exploitation of local and foreign niche markets that favour the smaller and

more adapted indigenous breeds exist in the Middle East and in many Asian countries. Strategic

use of such breeds as dam-lines/breeds in terminal cross-breeding programmes presents great

potential and prospects.

Most local breeds are kept under smallholder systems, though pastoralists may also keep large

herds. The role of the smallholder farmers may also be important in the future, but most likely

the production will need to be intensified. Smallholder animal production may need to be

combined with crop production, and be relocated to peri-urban and urban areas. This will require

increasing focus on environmental and product quality issues and on market access and

competitiveness. The interaction between genotypes and environments would continue to be a

key element in choice and development of future breeding stocks while some environmental

changes, such as improved feeding (including concentrates) and management practices, will also

have to take place (Okeyo and Baker, 2023).

According to FAO, (2022), the use of improved forage plants as a feed source is

recommended to address the livestock feed shortage. Improvements in animal nutrition resulting

in better performance of livestock can be achieved by utilizing improved forage varieties. One of

the potential forage grasses with promising results to address ruminant feed shortage is

Brachiaria grass. These grasses are one of the most important tropical grasses widely available

around the world. Brachiaria grass is drought resistant, perform well with low level of fertilizer

inputs and control soil erosion (Wassie et al., 2021). It produces high herbage biomass with high

7
nutritive value and palatability and has potential to reduce carbon foot print from livestock

production through carbon sequestration (Djikeng et al. 2014).

With the adoption of improved breeds and good management practices, dairy farmers are

gradually transforming from subsistence to commercial farming (Dendup and Dorji 2020).

According to livestock statistics 2019, there are 92,449 milch cows including 11,000 milking

yaks with annual milk production of 57,546.774 MT. The average annual milk yield per cow in

the country is calculated around 622 kg which is one of the lowest in the South Asian region.

At present, Africa has limited choice of fodder species and most popular grass species for

subtropical belt is Ruzi grass (Brachiaria ruziziensis). Ruzi grasss is commonly used for pasture

development and forage production.

The Brachiaria hybrid was the second hybrid introduced by Centro International De

Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) from crosses and selections of Brachiaria ruziziensis, Brachiaria

decumbens and Brachiaria brizantha (Magalhaes et al., 2020).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The rise in demand for livestock products in sub- Sahara Africa, the supply has not been

in square with the available demands primarily due to inadequate production (Balehgn et al.,

2021). Among the major drivers of the regions chronic low productivity is insufficient quality

feed options with high nutrients. This is mainly caused by deforestation and low soil fertility that

prompt other effects like fodder deficit (Foley et al., 11; Barrow, 2023). Moreover, livestock

growth rates and production depends much on the quality of feeds available to the livestock

(Lissu et al., 2022).

However, most livestock keepers in Africa depends heavily on crop residue as well as the

native pastures, which does not provide sufficient nutrients to livestock (Lissu et al., 2022). For

8
improving pasture, various attempts including the application of organic as well as inorganic

fertilizers have been used to add nutrients in the soil (Lissu et al., 2022). Unlike organic

fertilizers that are too expensive and need reapplication frequent use of chemical fertilizers

without organic manures cause reduction in soil health (Hamaiel et al., 2021).

The feed shortage and quality are the main problems of ruminant animals and this often

leads to clashes between farmers and herders as a result of encroachment into the farmlands.

1.3 Justification of the Study

Ruminants in such areas depend largely on availability of crop residues most especially

during the long dry season of the year. This can be met by deliberately cultivating forage plants

to feed animals which may offer solution. Availability of high- quality sown forages is important

in the sense that their potential values lie in the provision of protein, vitamins and also the

mineral elements that are inadequate in natural grassland pastures during the dry season

(Bamikole et al., 2020).

Brachiaria cultivars have impacted the economy of Brazil and Zaire, because the plant
has the ability to grow so well in low fertility acid soils of the countries and is also able to
produce highly nutritious forage for many ruminants. Its crude protein (CP) content commonly
ranged from 7-13% and sometimes to 20%, with dry matter digestibility of 55-75%. In the past
25-30 years, Brachiaria cultivation and export has become a major component of sown pastures
in the tropics (Singh, 2020).
1.4 Aims
The aim of the study is to determine the growth and yield performance of Brachiaria ruziziensis
and Brachiaria mulato cultivated on different soils in Kogi State, Nigeria.
1.5 Objectives of the Study
i. To cultivate of Brachiaria ruziziensis and B. mulato on different agricultural soils
obtained from different parts of Kogi State.
ii. To determine the performance of B. ruzi and B. mulato.

9
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Brachiaria: Origin

The genus, Brachiaria and its species originated from Africa but found their way to the

sub tropical and tropical regions of Australia and South America (Parsons, 2020). In Brazil,

introduction of Brachiaria spp date back to 500 years ago, when B. mutica was introduced

through African slaves. The new forage grasses were favoured by stock owners due to their

persistence under grazing and higher nutrient value compared to indigenous grasses. Brachiaria

species are common constituents of the natural vegetation in East Africa. (Ndikumana and De

Leeuw, 1996) observed that sown pastures still play no role in livestock production in East

Africa except in small holder dairies in the highland regions. Within those areas cut and carry or

extensive grazed pasture is more often practiced. (Miles et al.,2021), found that the forage

potential of these grasses was first recognized about 40 years ago in restricted niches in tropical

Australia. The major impact of the genus was however realized between 1976-1981 when a

handful of germplasm was sown in Tropical America where numerous cultivars have been

developed to date.

Brachiaria species are mainly found in Lake Edward and Lake Kivu districts of Congo,

Rwanda, Burundi, and the Ruzizi plains in Zaire, but are now widely distributed in the tropics.

They occur in grasslands, disturbed areas and are naturalised throughout the humid tropics and

also cultivated and grown in Queensland (Australia), Srilanka, Thailand and tropical America in

places like Korovinia (Fiji), Quilichao (Colombia), French Guyana, Honduras and Costa rica

(McGregor, 2021).

10
 Ruminants production are been faced with the limitation of high quality and quantity

forages due to prolonged annual dry season that negatively affects the plant’s performance. In

order to mitigate the problem of poor nutrition for ruminant animals, the use of sown and

purposely managed pastures have been widely suggested (Olanite, 2020; Ojo et al., 2019a).

Bracharia species are low-growing decumbent perennial grass with the aggressive growth habit

that provides a dense ground cover able to suppress weeds. However, many grasslands are

characterized by low productivity and can benefit from manure incorporation from different

sources (Ojo et al., 2019b). Utilization of manure on low nutrient status of tropical soils can

reduce fertilization cost associated with synthetic fertilizers (Van Wieringen et al., 2021). The

objective of this study was to evaluate the growth and yield of Brachiaria ruziziensis and

Brachiaria mulato as affected by swine manure application rates.

2.2 Biology and Growth Requirements

Several commercially grown Brachiaria species are well adapted to low-fertility, acid soils of

the tropics. Research to identify plant attributes that contribute to efficient acquisition and use of

nutrients for plant growth is recent. Several root and shoot attributes are shown to contribute to

the adaptation of Brachiaria species to acid soils, These include their ability to change the

partitioning of fixed carbon to favor root growth, to acquire nitrogen (N) through associative

fixation, to acquire phosphorus (P) through extensive root systems and mycorrhizal association

and to acquire calcium (Ca) through highly branched root systems. Differences in adaptation to

acid soils among Brachiaria species cannot be attributed to aluminum (Al) toxicity (Singh,

2020).

Brachiaria forages are annual or perennial grasses, lacking rhizomes except for B.

ruziziensis, B. brizantha and B. decumbens having short rhizomes. The inflorescence has panicle

11
branches composed of racemes, dense and spikelike racemes, the spikelets are all sessile and

close together while the rachis of the racemes is winged, broad and over 3 mm wide (Watson and

Dallwitz, 2022).the entire plant usually does not grow taller than 1 m. The flowers are fleshy

with 3 anthers and the plants are bisexual. Some members of the genus have a prominent vein in

the center of the leaf whereas others do not. Brachiaria are C4 plants able to tolerate drier

conditions, are spreading perennials with short rhizomes similar in habit to Para grass. A tufted,

creeping perennial with short rhizomes forming a dense leafy cover. Culms arise from many-

noded creeping shoots and short rhizomes, growing to a height of 1.5 m when flowering. Leaves

are soft but hairy and up to 25 cm long and 15 mm wide. Inflorescence consists of 3–9 relatively

long racemes (4–10 cm), bearing spike lets in 1 or 2 rows on one side of a broad, flattened and

winged rachis. Spikelet’s are hairy, 5 mm long with an average seed weight of 250,000/kg. B.

ruziziensisis very closely related to B. decumbens, being differentiated morphologically on rachis

shape, which is sub-foliolate and 2–3.5 mm wide and flat in B. ruziziensis and 1–1.7 mm wide in

B. decumbens and on the position of the lower glume, which is 0.5–1 mm distant from the rest of

the spikelet in the former and very close to the upper glume in the latter (Rao et al., 2021).

Fig 2.1: Brachiaria image

2.2.0 Climate

12
2.2.1 Soil requirement

B. ruziziensis grass requires loam soils of moderately high fertility with pH range of 5.0–

6.8 and cannot tolerate strongly acid conditions. (Rao et al., 2022), in their reviews suggested

that Brachiaria species can adapt to a wide range of soil types, from Oxisols and Ultisols (low-

fertility acid soils) to Alfisols and Mollisols which are high-fertility neutral soils. They perform,

much better on acid soils than other grasses, such as Panicum species, and also perform well on

moderately fertile to very fertile soils. Requirements for phosphorus, calcium, and potassium for

growth of B. humidicola are much lower than those for other species. Greenhouse and field

studies have demonstrated stricking responses in forage yield to phosphorus, but no response to

lime or micronutrient applications. Rapid and reliable screening procedures are urgently needed

to improve the efficiency of evaluation and genetic improvement of Brachiaria germ plasm (Rao

et al., 2023).

2.2.1 Temperature requirement

Temperature for optimal growth of B. decumbens is 30-35°C. It is not frost tolerant

(Dienum and Dirven, 2019). It is readily frosted, but its winter production is better than Digitaria

decumbens in frost free areas. Low temperature depresses growth and hence, Brachiaria in

general performs poorly at altitudes above 1,800m above sea level (Ndikumana and de Leeuw,

2020). The optimum temperature for growth of B. ruziziensis is 33°C during the day and 28°C at

night, with a minimum night temperature of 19oC. Low yields resulted from a 24oC temperature

during the day and 19°C temperature at night. Ludlow (2022) found Brachiaria species among

several tropical grasses to be the most affected by low temperatures. It is highly affected by

heavy frosts, and spring re-growth is very slow after light frosts.

13
2.2.3 Light requirement

Fisher and Kerridge (2021) reported that Brachiaria species are used as soil covers in

many plantation crops, such as rubber and coconut, in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands.

Their tolerance of shade is therefore of interest. In one experiment, thirty-five (35) forage grass

accessions were grown under coconut on fertile soils in North Sulawesi and Bali, Indonesia, with

light transmissions of 73%, respectively. Rainfall (amount and distribution) was confounded

with light transmission, higher total rainfall and more even distribution occurred at the site with

greater light transmission. Brachiaria decumbens cv. Basilisk was the top performer at the site

with higher rainfall, less shade, and a 12-month growing season (Kaligis and Sumolang, 2023). It

was also one of the best species that performed very well at the site with lower rainfall, more

shade, and a more marked dry season (Rika et al., 2022).

2.2.4 Moisture requirement

B. ruziziensis tolerate rainfall of up to 2,000mm in the humid tropics with a minimum of 1,200

mm average annual rainfall. However, it can tolerate a dry season of 4 months but will die out in

extended dry conditions. Having poor tolerance to flooding, it thrives best on well-drained soils.

B. decumbens is essentially a grass of the wet tropics, but it has good drought tolerance and is

adapted to a dry season of four or five months. However, it prefers 1,500 mm or more of rain. It

does not do well where the dry season is more than five months, but is more productive than

Digitaria decumbens, Panicum maximum and Brachiaria mutica in the late dry season. In

Australia, Loch (2019) assessed B. decumbens as better adapted to the humid tropics, with a dry

season of less than 4 months and an annual rainfall of more than 1,400 mm. However, in strongly

seasonal climate of the isothermic savannas of the Brazilian Cerrados, B. decumbens cv. Basilisk

is grown in areas where the dry season is as long as 7 months and rainfall as low as 1,300 mm. It

14
extends further into drier zones than B. humidicola. Brachiaria brizantha is reputed to tolerate

drought better than either B. decumbens or B. humidicola (Thomas and Grof, 2022). All three

species grow well throughout the year in the piedmont of the eastern Cordillera of the Andes in

Colombia, where rainfall is more than 4,000 mm (Fisher et al., 2023). Gayalin (2020) compared

the performance of B. decumbens with Panicum maximum, Pennisetum purpeureum, and

Tripsacum laxum as forages for deferred grazing in the dry season. Although B. decumbens is

widely grown by farmers for its drought resistance, it was out yielded by T. laxum, which

retained three to seven times more green leaf P. purpeureum yielded two to three times more

total forage than B. decumbens and had between one and three times as much green leaf dry

matter (DM).

2.3 Proximate composition

In recent years, intercropping between annual crops and tropical forages, known as

integrated crop-livestock G. A. Maia et al. 934 system, has been increasingly adopted by farmers

in the Cerrado [1], especially because studies demonstrated the feasibility of the intercrop

between the annual culture and the various forage species simultaneously planted [2]. This

system consists of the exploitation of the same area with the purpose of producing grains and

livestock farming (production of meat, milk, etc.) [3], with the potential to increase yield and

reduce the risk of degradation of pastures, thus improving the chemical, physical and biological

soil properties, and yield potential of grain, forage and silage [4]. Moreover, [5] it is reported that

this technique stands out as being part of sustainable and competitive technologies to boost the

Brazilian agribusiness. Among the forages for crop rotation, succession or intercropping in the

Cerrado region [6] stands out the Brachiaria grasses. The advantages of using this genus in

integrated system are because these species have abundant roots which contribute to the

15
collection of water, soil aggregation and aeration [7]. Furthermore, these forages have good

adaptability, tolerance, and resistance to biotic factors and show high dry matter production with

good nutritional value, capable of meeting the requirements of animals, especially in the dry

season [8]. Identifying the best association between annual crops and different species of

Brachiaria allows the exploitation of grain and biomass. After harvesting the grain, the area will

be used as a standard pasture. The use of more productive forages during the dry season is

important because they minimize the effect of the seasonality of production. In this way, the

forage is suitable for intercropping in addition to promoting grain production of annual crops,

and it must have good establishment and growth when intercropped, as well as major forage

production [9]. However, most studies on crop-livestock integration evaluate the use of

Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu, Brachiaria decumbens and Brachiaria ruziziensis [10], and

the release of new cultivars of Brachiaria brizantha is lacking in information about the cultivars

xaraés and piatã, especially regarding the yield and quality of these forages when subjected to

intercropping in the offseason. Therefore, the identification of the best association between

annual crops of different Brachiaria species allows the exploitation of grain production [11] and

forage production in the winter, which shows low forage production. Once restored, the pastures

have better nutritional value in autumn-winter, alleviating the pronounced effect of seasonality.

In view of this, considering the importance of supplying better quality food, the present study

aimed to evaluate the dry matter production and chemical composition of Brachiaria forage

grasses in the offseason after corn harvest in integrated crop-livestock system.

Conclusion

Intercropping corn with Brachiaria species favors the production of high quality forage

in the offseason, and the cultivars of Brachiaria brizantha and Brachiaria decumbens show

16
higher production of dry matter. And cultivars of Brachiaria brizantha (Marandu palisadegrass,

Xaraes palisadegrass and Piata palisadegrass) are the most suitable for presenting food of better

quality, compared with Brachiaria brizantha cv. MG-4, Brachiaria decumbens and Brachiaria

ruziziensis.

2.4 Major Weeds, Pests and Diseases

Although it is able to form a dense ground cover to compete with weeds, Congo Grass is

susceptible to certain pests and diseases. It is severely attacked by the spittlebug who cause

significant damage to the plant in Tropical America affecting the development and persistence of

the plants.[4] As well the plant seeds are known to be affected by the fungus Sphacelia in the

Congo.[1] 6 Genetic stocks Currently the only cultivar is the Kennedy Ruzi which can be found

in both Thailand and Australia. It performs well on the wet tropical coast and has a high seed

yield.[1] Very little breeding has occurred current, but research into microsatellite markers could

lead to further developments in genetic stocks and diversification of the crop.[2] 7 Uses and

consumption Congo Grass can be used as both a permanent or semi permanent grass for pastures.

It can be used to graze animals on or for cutting for green feed and conservation. This forage

crop is found across much of the humid tropics through South America, Africa and Southeast

Asia. 8 Nutritional information With large proportions of the tropics grazing their cattle, a forage

crop like this that proves better than most other Brachiaria species could have significant

advantages to poor farmers. It is a very palatable crop with as well as having an overall

digestibility of 55–75%. For ruzi grass hay that was cut 45 days after seeding in northeast

Thailand, the in vitro dry matter digestibility, crude fibre, and neutral detergent fibre were 61%,

80.5%, and 72.8% respectively.[1] Nutrient values include 0.43g/100g Calcium, 0.22g/100g

Phosphorus, 2.4g/100g Potassium, 0.1g/100g Sodium, 0.28g/100g Magnesium.[4] 9 Economics

17
Congo grass has an important role as a forage crop and significant value can be added by

increases crop yields and working on breeding out certain susceptibilities to pests. 10 Constraints

to wider adoption General knowledge is keeping this forage crop from wider and better usage

around the world. Due to the almost complete lack of information that currently exists regarding

Congo grass and its genome, there is little to support breeding programs for the crop. But

because Congo grass is similar to other model cereals, in the fact that it has a relatively small

genome, it enables genome analysis initiatives to support future breeding. There is potential here

to diversify pasture and develop new cultivars of the species. Recent research has shown

developed markers that are readily suitable for analysis and there is a promising future for

research into this crop. (Silver Kraft et al., 2021) 11 Practical Information Pairing Brachiaria

ruziziensis with legumes can significantly affect the production levels of the crop. Studies have

shown that plots planted with legumes showed a boost in total dry matter production of 524%.

Not only does it increase production but the nitrogen fixing capacities of legumes offers a much

cheaper alternative to expensive fertilizers.

18
 Chapter three

3.0 Materials and methods

3.1 Materials

Experimental site The experiment was carried out at the Federal Polytechnic, Idah Kogi State,

Nigeria, located in the derived savannah o zone of the southwest Nigeria on latitude 7 o 10' N,

longitude 3 2'E and altitude of 76m above sea level while the laboratory experiment took place at

the Department Of Pasture and Range Management laboratory Federal Polytechnic Idah, Kogi

State

Land preparation

The land was ploughed and allowed to rest for two weeks before it was harrowed. The 2

experimental land measuring 798m was mapped out after harrowing. Prior to planting, soil

samples were randomly collected from the field at depth of 0–15cm using soil auger to represent

the topsoil. The samples were bulked per replicate, mixed thoroughly and sub-samples were

analyzed to determine the pre-planting nutrient status of the soil. Sourcing and establishment of

plant material The seeds planted were Brachiaria ruziziensis and Chloris gayana. The seeds were

obtained from National Animal Production Research Institute (NAPRI) Zaria and the seeds were

broadcasted at the rate 10kg/ha.

Experimental design

The study was laid out in a 2 x 3 factorial experiment in a split plot design. Two grasses

(B.ruziziensis and C.gayana) constituted the main plot while the three (3) ages at harvest (3, 6

and 9 weeks) were in three replicates. The inter plot and intra-plot spaces were kept weed free

throughout the experimental period by hand weeding. Laboratory analysis Proximate

composition (dry matter, crude protein, ether extract and ash) was determined according to

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A.O.A.C. (2000) Okukenu, Eesuola, Dele, Akinyemi, Amisu, Onifade, Jolaosho, Owuye and

Adegboyega 314 while non-fibre carbohydrate was calculated as NFC = 100 - (CP+ Ash + EE +

NDF).Fibre fraction(Neutral detergent fibre (NDF), Acid detergent fibre (ADF) and Acid

detergent lignin (ADL)) were determined with the procedure of Van Soest et al, (1991).

Cellulose content was taken as the difference between ADF and ADLwhile hemicellulose

content was calculated as the difference between NDF and ADF. Macro mineral (Ca, P, K, Mg

and Na) and micro mineral contents (Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn) was determined. The content of

Potassium (K) was estimated with a flame photometer after wet digestion in nitric acid and

Hydrochloric acid (3:1). Contents of calcium, phosphorus, zinc, copper and iron were determined

with atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Fritz and Schenk, 1979). Statistical analysis Data

collected was subjected to two-way analysis of variance and the treatment means were separated

using Duncan's Multiple Range Test using SAS (1999) package. Results There were no

significant (p>0.05) differences on the proximate and fibre composition of B. ruziziensis and

Chloris gayana except for Crude protein (CP) and Ash contents (Table 1). The C. gayana had

higher (10.08%) CP content and least (8.78%) ash contents. Age at harvest had significant

(p0.05) difference between grasses harvested at 6 and 9 weeks. Structural constituents (NDF,

ADF and ADL) increased as the grasses advance in maturity which follows this order 3 < 6 < 9

weeks and the grasses harvested at 9 weeks had highest NDF (61.33%), ADF (39.50%) and ADL

(10.00) contents (Table 1). The C. gayana harvested at 3 weeks had highest (10.95%) CP content

with the least (8.91%) content recorded in B. ruziziensis harvested at 6 weeks. There were no

significant (p>0.05) difference in ash content of B. ruziziensis harvested at 6 and 9 weeks while

C. gayana harvested at 6 weeks had the least (7.33%) content. NDF contents ranged from

56.00% in B. ruziziensis harvested at 3 weeks to 61.33% in both B. ruziziensis and C. gayana

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harvested at 9 weeks. C. gayana harvested at 9 weeks had highest (39.67%) ADF content while

B. ruziziensis harvested at 9 weeks had highest (10.67%) ADL content (Table 2).

Discussion

It is quite evident that there were great variations in the chemical composition of the grasses

harvested at different agesof harvest as revealed in the study and there are many factors affecting

chemical composition of forages such as stage of growth maturity, species or variety (Promkot

and Wanapat, 2004). The decline in the CP contents with the advancement of plant age in this

study agrees with the reports of Bilal et al. (2001) and Olanite et al. (2006). This might be due to

increase in the cell wall structure and a decrease in the leaf-stem ratio of the grasses with the

advancement in the age of the grasses. The non fibre carbohydrate (NFC) recorded in this study

fell within the range (127-259 g/kg) reported by Anele et al. (2009) and this indicates that the

NFC of the grasses can be easily degraded or fermented as NFC is a crude estimate of the

carbohydrate pool that differ in digestibility from NDF. It has also been reported that NFC has a

positive relationship with ammonia nitrogen (NH -3 N) utilization in the rumen (Tylutki et al.,

2008). The structural constituents increased as harvesting age was delayed while the increasing

NDF content with increase in harvesting age agreed with the report of Asmare (2016) for grass

species. NDF content of forage varies widely, depending on species, maturity, and growing

environment (Mahyuddin 2007). The NDF recorded is within the range of 600-650 g/kg

suggested as the critical limit above which efficiency of utilization of tropical forages by

ruminants would be impaired (Van Soest, 1982; Muia, 2000) and the consistent increase in the

concentration of NDF with advancement in plant age is in line with the report of Arthington and

Brown (2005). The results obtained also showed a linear increase in ADF content with

21
corresponding changes in the maturity age, which might be due to changes in leaf to stem ratio of

the plants and an increase in cell wall lignification with advanced stages of growth as reported

(Adane, 2003; Yihalem, 2004).The moderate fibre levels of the grasses in this study will be of

help in facilitating the colonization of ingesta by rumen microorganism which in turn might

induce higher fermentation rates, hence improving digestibility, intake and animal performance.

The increase in the hemicellulose and cellulose contents was as a result of advancement in age of

the plants. This is in consonance with report of Johnson et al. (1973). This will however,

eventually lead to lower digestibility and consumption by livestock (Twidwell and Wegenhoft,

1999). Minerals are required by both plants and animals in critical and balance amount, the

excess and deficiency both reduce the efficiency of vegetation and dependant livestock

production. According to Onwuka and Akinsoyinu (1988), the presence of mineral elements in

animal feed is vital for the metabolic processes of the animals. Calcium is a mineral element

required for the maintenance, growth, production, and milk or beef production of animal species

and ruminant animals require Ca and other minerals to maintain the microbial population in the

rumen. Calcium contents of the grasses revealed a highly significant difference which agrees

with the report of Gomide et al. (1969) that observed the range of calcium contents from 2.4 -

8.4g/kg in tropical grasses. This result meets the dietary calcium requirement of between 1.6-6.0

g/kg for beef animals (NRC, 1980) and the requirement of different ruminant animals in terms of

Ca concentration ranged between 1.8 to 8.2 g/kg as reported by McDowell (1992; 1997).The

trend in the change in content of Pwith plant maturity is in line with the report of Minson (1990).

The P contents of the grasses fell within the recommended (1-4.8 g/kg) requirements for

different classes of ruminant animals as stated by McDowell (1992; 1997). 317 Chemical

composition of Brachiaria ruziziensis and Chloris gayana Conclusion The study showed

22
variation in the chemical composition of Chloris gayana and Brachiaria ruziziensis in which C.

gayana had higher crude protein (CP) content and CP content declined as the plant advance in

age while the structural constituents increases. B. ruziziensis had the least content of mineral

contents as compared to C. gayana and at different age at harvest, there was no specific trend in

the mineral contents. Acknowledgements We profoundly appreciate Mr Idehen, John, the

laboratory technologist of the Department of Pasture and Range Management for his assistant in

the laboratory analysis of this research.

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