MODULE -III

Airport Engineering
The airport forms an essential part of the air transport system because it is the
physical site at which a modal. Transfer is made from the air mode to the land mode
or vice versa. The planning of an airport is such a difficult process that the analysis of
one activity without regard to the effect on other activities will not provide acceptable
solutions. An airport includes a wide range of activities which have different and
often contradictory requirements. Yet they are co-dependent so that a single activity
may limit the capacity of the whole complex. In the past airport master plans were
developed on the basis of local aviation needs. In more recent times these plans have
been integrated into an airport system plan which assessed not only the needs at a
specific airport site but also the overall needs of the system of airports which service
an area, region, state, or country.

The site-selection process

The site-selection process for large airports can take many months;
in some notable cases it has extended over many years. The
procedure is complicated by the number of factors that must be
taken into account. First, the operational capability of the site is
assessed, particularly with respect to weather conditions such as
wind, snow, ice, fog, and low visibility and also with respect to
obstructions to air navigation around the airport, particularly on
the approach and takeoff paths. The location of the facility in
relation to air-traffic-controlled airspace is also operationally
important. In addition, there must be an evaluation of the capacity
of the available land to accommodate the expected configuration of
runways and other facilities. Flat or very gently undulating land is
necessary, because runways must be constructed according to
restrictions on maximum allowable slopes—which in turn are
governed by aircraft performance on landing and takeoff.

Airport Site Selection Criteria

1. Atmospheric & Meteorological Conditions
2. Availability of land for Expansion.
3. Availability of utilities
4. Development of the Surrounding Area
5. Economy of Construction
6. Ground Accessibility
7. Presence of other Airports
8. Regional Plan
9. Soil Characteristics
10. Topography
11. Use of airport

1. Atmospheric & Meteorological Conditions

  The presence of Fog, Haze & Smoke reduces the visibility & the Poor visibility Lowers the
traffic capacity of an Aircraft.
 The fog has a tendency to Settle into Areas where there is Little Wind.
 The lack of wind is caused by the Topographical Features of the Surrounding locality.
 In a similar way, the smoke & Haze are present at Sites very Near to the large industrial
Areas.

2. Availability of Land for Expansion

 The field of Aviation is Expanding day by day. It is Therefore Necessary to acquire land in
advance for future expanding of Airport.
 As the volume of Traffic increases, it will be necessary to lengthen the runways to provide
additional support facilities & to expand the terminal facilities.

3. Availability of utilities

 An airport, especially a large one, has to be Provided with utilities like Water electric
power, Telephone, sewer etc.
 For electric power, Most of the Major airports Provide their own generating plants to be
used in emergencies in the event when a commercial Source fails.

4. Development of Surrounding Area

 The study of the type of development of the Surrounding area is very important because
the airport activities, particularly from the Standpoint of Noise, are often Quite
objectionable to the Neighbours of the Airport.
 The proximity of Airport site to the residential areas, schools & hospitals should be
avoided whenever possible. Suitable zoning regulations should be Imposed to control the
use of the land adjacent to the airport so that conflicts in future are avoided.

5. Economy of construction

 It is clear that if alternative sites are available & equally well Suited, the site which is more
economical to construct should be Given preference.
 The sites having water logged areas or reclaimed lands are very costly to develop than
those of Natural Ground.
 The uneven terrain requires much more grading than flat or even terrain.
 The availability of local construction materials may also have a significant impact on the
cost of the Project.

6. Presence of other Airports

 The airports should be located at a sufficient distance Apart.

 This is necessary to prevent the aircrafts which are Manoeuvring for a landing at one
airport from interfering with the movements of the Aircrafts at other Aircrafts.

7. Soil characteristic
 The airport site with the favourable soil characteristic is desirable because it reduces the cost
of grading & drainage to a considerable extent.
 The area should as far as possible be self drained.
 The sites having water tables may require costly subsoil drainage.
 An elevated site provides better drainage & visibility

Topography
 The topographical features like ground contours, trees , streams, etc. should be avoided while
selecting the site for an Airport.
 A raised ground like a hill top is usually considered to be an ideal site for an Airport because
of the following facts.
 It grants better visibility due to less fog
 It permits easy Natural drainage
 The Approach & turning zones are less obstructed
 There is Natural drainage.

Use of Airport
 The airport site is decided also by the use of Airport, i.e Civil or military.
 In case of an emergency like War, the civilian Airports are taken over by Military.
 It is therefore necessary to see that the Airport site Grants Natural Protection from Possible
Air Attacks during War.

Air craft characteristics

COMPONENTS OF AIRPORT

The main components of airport are

1. Landing Area of Airport
It is the airport components used for landing and takeoff operations of an aircraft. Landing
Area includes Runways and taxiways. Landing area is the component of airport used for
landing and takeoff operations of an
aircraft. Landing area includes,
a. Runways
b. Taxiways
a. Runways
It is the most important part of an airport in the form of paved, long and narrow
rectangular strip which actually used for landing and takeoff operations. It has turfed (grassy)
shoulders on both sides. The width of runway and area of shoulders is called the landing strip.
The runway is located in the center of landing strip. The length of landing strip is somewhat
larger than the runway strip in order to accommodate the stop way to stop the aircraft in case
of abandoned takeoff. The length and width of runway should be sufficient to accommodate
the aircraft which is likely to be served by it. The length of runway should be sufficient to
accelerate the aircraft to the point of takeoff and should be enough such that the aircraft
clearing the threshold of runway by 15m should be brought to stop with in the 60% of
available runway length. The length of runway depends on various meteorological and
topographical conditions. Transverse gradients should not be less than 0.5% but should
always be greater than 0.5%.

Runway Taxiway

b. Taxiways
Taxiway is the paved way rigid or flexible which connects runway with loading apron or
service and maintenance hangers or with another runway. They are used for the movement of
aircraft on the airfields for various purposes such as exit or landing, exit for takeoff etc. The
speed of aircraft on taxiway is less than that during taking off or landing speed. The taxiway
should be laid on such a manner to provide the shortest possible path and to prevent the
interference of landed aircraft taxiing towards loading apron and the taxiing aircraft running
towards the runway. The intersection of runway and taxiway should be given proper attention
because during turning operation, this part comes under intense loading. If it is weaker then
the aeroplane may fell down from taxiway. Its longitudinal grade should not be greater than
3% while it s transverse gradient should not be less than 0.5%. It is also provided with a
shoulder of 7.5m width paved with bituminous surfacing. The taxiway should be visible from
a distance of 300m to a pilot at 3m height from the ground.
2. Terminal Area
The transition of passengers and goods from ground to air takes place in the terminal area.
Various methods are used to accommodate and transfer the public and its goods arriving
either by ground or by air. The degree of development in the terminal area depends up on
volume of airport, operations, type of air traffic using airport, number of passengers and the
airport employees to be served and the manner in which they are served and accommodated.
Terminal area consists of the following parts Terminal building, Apron, Automobile
Parking Area, Hangers.
 Terminal building

WIND ROSE DIAGRAM

The wind data direction duration and intensity are graphically represented by a diagram called
wind rose. The wind data should usually be collected for a period of at least 5 years and
preferably of 10 years so as to obtain an average data with sufficient accuracy. 910
Wind rose diagrams can be plotted in two types
➢ Showing direction and duration of wind
➢ Showing direction duration and intensity of wind.
Type – I: This type of wind rose is illustrated in fig. The radial lines indicate the wind
direction and each circle represents the duration of wind. The values are plotted along the
north direction in fig similarly other values are also plotted along the respective directions.
All plotted points are then joined by straight lines.

The best direction of runway is usually along the direction of the longest lone on wind rose
diagram. If deviation of wind direction up to 22.5º + 11.25ºfrom their direction of runway is
thus along NS direction of landing and takeoff is permissible the percentage of time in a year
during which runway can safely be used for landing and takeoff will be obtained by summing
the percentages of time along NNW, N, NNE, SSE, S and SSW directions. This comes to
57.6 percent. The total percentage of the time therefore comes to 57.0 + 13.5 = 70.5. This
type of wind rose does not account for the effect of cross wind component.
Type – II: This type of wind rose is illustrated in fig. the wind data as in the previous type is
used for this case. Each circle represents the wind intensity to some scale. The values entered
in each segment represent the percentage of time in a year during which the wind having a
particular intensity blows from the respective direction. The procedure for determining the
orientation of runway from this type of wind rose is described below.

Draw three equally spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper strip in such a way that the
distance between the two nearby parallel lines is equal to the permissible cross wind
component. This distance is measured with the same scale with which the wind rose diagram
is drawn the permissible cross wind component is 25kmph. Place the transparent paper strip
over the wind rose diagram in such a way that the central line passes through the centre of the
diagram. With the centre of wind rose rotate the tracing paper and place it in such a position
that the sum of all the values indicating the duration of wind within the two outer parallel
lines is the maximum. The runway should be thus oriented along the direction indicated by
the central line. The wind coverage can be calculated by summing up all the percentages.

4.1 Geometric Elements Of Runway And Taxiways

Length of Runway

The Basic runway length is given by ICAO in accordance with the classification of
airports. The actual runway length is computed after applying corrections in length
for: – Elevation Temperature, and Gradient

Longitudinal and Effective gradient

The longitudinal gradient increases the runway length Fuel consumption of aircraft
increases on uphill slope climbing during takeoff.
Safety Area
It includes runway, shoulders on either side of runway, and additional length The
shoulders are generally unpaved They are only used in case of emergency They are
generally turfed or made of stabilized soil Shoulders provide a sense of openness and
vastness to pilot

The length of safety area should extend by 60m on either side beyond runway ends
The total length of safety area is = Runway Length +120

Clearway A clearway is a defined area connected to the end of a runway It increases

the allowable airplane operating takeoff weight without increasing runway length.

Runway: Design Criteria It should be designed keeping in view the characteristics

of critical aircraft. The major design guidelines: Length, width, and orientation
(direction), configuration (multiple runways), Slope (Longitudinal and cross)
Pavement thickness of runways Immediate airfield area surrounding the runways
obstructions .

Function of Taxiways They connect runways with other areas, like terminal building,
cargo, and parking areas. Taxiways gives access for aircraft to and from the runways

Types of taxiways

 Parallel taxiway Provided parallel to an adjacent runway, It facilitates aircrafts

to reach the apron area from runway after landing and from apron area to runway
for take-off.
 Entrance taxiway Located near the runway threshold. It facilitates entry of an
aircraft to runway for take-off operation.
 Exit taxiways Located at various points along the runway to allow landing
aircraft to efficiently exit the runway after landing.
 Bypass taxiways Provided to give way to aircraft, Located at areas of congestion
at busy airports.

Taxiways: Design Criteria

Provide each runway with a parallel taxiway Design taxiways of optimum length
Provide bypass capability or multiple accesses to runway ends Minimize crossing
runways Provide large curves and fillet radii for easier maneuvering of aircrafts.
Provide airport traffic control tower line-of-sight

Aprons:-

1) Apron is the area of an airport where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded,
refueled, or boarded.
2) Although the use of the apron is covered by regulations, it is more accessible to
users than the runway or taxiway. However, the apron is not usually open to the
general public and a license may be required to gain access.
3) It is located close to the terminal building or hangars.
4) 4) The size of apron depends on: a) Type of aircraft. b) Number of Gate Positions.
c) Aircraft Parking System.

Holding Aprons
1) Holding aprons, holding pads, run-up pads, or holding bays as they are sometimes
called, are placed adjacent to the ends of runways.
2) The areas are used as storage areas for aircraft prior to takeoff. 3) They are
designed so that one aircraft can bypass another whenever this is necessary.

The Aircraft Parking Configuration:-

➢ Size of loading area required for each type of aircraft This area is also known as
gate position.
➢ The air-crafts are parked causing the least interference due to heat, fumes and blast
during maneuvering into and out of the gate position.
1) Nose in and Angle nose in
2) Nose out and Angle nose out
3) Parallel System

Terminal Building
1) The purpose of airport building is to provide shelter and space for the various
surface activities related to the air transportation.
2) Terminal building usually refers to a building mainly, used for passenger, airline
and administration facilities.
3) planned for the maximum efficiency, convenience and economy

Concept of Planning of Terminal Building:- There are two concepts of planning of

the terminal building for commercial airport:-
1) Centralization
2) Decentralization
Centralization : In centralized plan, All passengers, baggage and cargo are funneled
through a central building and are then dispersed to the respective aircraft positions.
Decentralization : In decentralization plan, the passengers and baggage arrive at the
point near the departing plane. All airline functions are carried out adjacent to the
departing plan .

Visual aids :- Visual aids are installed at the airport to achieve the following
purposed:
1) To avoid accidents during landing of the aircraft.
3) To convey to the pilot the ground to air visual information required during landing .
3) To direct the pilot to make the landing of the aircraft to the landing area only.
4) To enable the pilot to locate and identify the particular feature specified by the
making.
5) To provide safety to the persons and properties.
6) To maintain an orderly flow of aircraft without any congestion.
7) To satisfy the visual requirements for take-off and taxiing.

Airport Marking
➢ For assisting the pilots in guiding the aircraft on the runways and taxiways.
➢ The pavements are marked with lines and numbers.
➢ These airport marking are of benefits to the pilot.
The airport markings are divided into the following groups :
a) Runway Marking b)
b) Taxiway Marking
c) c) Runway and Taxiway shoulder marking
d) Apron Marking
e) Wind direction indicator
f) f) Landing direction indicator

Airport Lighting System:-

Night Landing Aids
➢ Airport Beacon or Rotating Beacon
➢ Boundary Lighting
➢ Approaching Lighting
➢ Threshold Lighting
➢ Runway Lighting
➢ Taxiway Lighting
➢ Apron & Hanger Lighting
➢ Illuminated Wind Direction Indicator
➢ Illuminated Landing Direction Indicator.

Approach Lighting System:-

1) While approaching the runway for landing, the approach lights are the only
elements of guidance to pilot.
2) The lighting within the approach zone therefore must be such that the pilot is able
to perceive the lights and has sufficient time to react and monoeuvre the aircraft to
bring it to the correct alignment at a safe distance away and at adequate height above
the runway level.