Transmission
• Sending an information (signals: analog or digital, electrical or
optical) from one end to another; i.e., communication
• In telecommunications, transmission is the forwarding of
signal traffic over long distances
• In general information theory transmission is taken to mean
the complete process of communication of information via a
channel
• The channel
– Tx Line, Tx channel, Tx Link, Tx Medium
– Guided: Copper ( STP, UTP, simple pair,.) ,Coax, Optical
Fiber, Wave Guide.
– Unguided: water, air, space
Data transmission: Energy Forms
• Electric current
• Audible sounds
• Omni-directional electromagnetic waves
– Radio Frequency
– InfraRed
• Directional electromagnetic waves
– Point-to-point satellite channel
– Limited broadcast (spot beam)
– Microwave
– Laser beam
Telecom Diploma
Microwave Systems
Radio
• Radio is the wireless transmission of signals, by modulation of
electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of
visible light
• When radio waves pass an electrical conductor, the oscillating
fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. This can
be detected and transformed into sound or other signals that
carry information.
• The word 'radio' is used to describe this phenomenon, and
radio transmissions are classed as radio frequency emissions .
• Today, the term 'radio' often refers to the actual transceiver
device or chip, whereas 'wireless' refers to the system and/or
method used for radio communication
Uses of radio
• Radar (RAdio Detection And Ranging)
• WLAN
• Mobile communications
• Radio broadcasting (AM or FM)
• Aircraft comm using VHF.
• Marine voice
• Government, police, fire and commercial voice services
• Civil and military
• TETRA (Terrestrial Trunked Radio) is a digital cell phone system for
military, police and ambulances
• TV
• satellite navigation
• GPS
Radio Frequencies
• Ultra-low frequency (ULF): 0-3 Hz
• Extremely low frequency (ELF): 3 Hz - 3 kHz
• Very low frequency (VLF): 3kHz - 30 kHz
• Low frequency (LF): 30 kHz - 300 kHz
• Medium frequency (MF): 300 kHz - 3 MHz
• High frequency (HF): 3MHz - 30 MHz
• Very high frequency (VHF): 30 MHz - 300 MHz
• Ultra-high frequency (UHF): 300MHz - 3 GHz
• Super high frequency (SHF): 3GHz - 30 GHz
• Extremely high frequency (EHF): 30GHz - 300 GHz
Radio Spectrum
Microwaves
• Microwaves generally refers to radio signals with frequencies
between 300 MHz and 300 GHz (UHF, SHF, EHF)
• However ,its range is usually defined as 1 to 1000 GHz
• Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range
• Microwave radio is used in broadcasting and
telecommunication transmissions because, due to their short
wavelength, highly directive antennas are smaller and
therefore more practical than they would be at longer
wavelengths
• There is also more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum
than in the rest of the radio spectrum; the usable bandwidth
below 300 MHz is less than 300 MHz while many GHz can be
used above 300 MHz.
Microwave: Frequency Bands
• L band ◼ Q band
– 1 to 2 GHz ❑ 30 to 50 GHz
• S band ◼ U band
– 2 to 4 GHz ❑ 40 to 60 GHz
• C band ◼ V band
– 4 to 8 GHz ❑ 50 to 75 GHz
• X band ◼ E band
– 8 to 12 GHz ❑ 60 to 90 GHz
• Ku band ◼ W band
– 12 to 18 GHz ❑ 75 to 110 GHz
• K band ◼ F band
– 18 to 26.5 GHz ❑ 90 to 140 GHz
• Ka band ◼ D band
– 26.5 to 40 GHz ❑ 110 to 170 GHz
Radio path
Reflections
1. Fresnelzone
Rain loss
Obstruction loss
Reflection
Basic System Structure
Modulation
Spectrum forming
Coding
C
Radiation Interference
MOD TX 1 1
n POL POL n DEM
RX
Branching Branching
Fading
1
DEM 1 XPD
RX
Free space loss
n TX MOD
n
Branching Branching
Adaptive Equalization System loss
Bit error correction Spectrum forming
Correctionektur Equalization
Split mounting System (Indoor-outdoor systems), or Fully indoor systems
Antenna Radiation
Antenna and transmitter (receiver) have the same impedance.
Return loss is the ratio between the reflected power and
the maximum possible power related to a reference
impedance.
The real antenna of the parabolic antenna is a short dipole just
mounted at the transmitter output (receiver input); the parabolic
dish is used as reflector only in order to get the directivity
Polarization: According to the direction of the electrical field with respect to
the ground
polarization is vertical/horizontal if the electrical field is
vertical/horizontal
At the receiver site the antenna has to have the same polarization as at the
transmitter site in order to transmit the maximum of energy.
The de-coupling between vertical and horizontal polarization is called Cross
Polarization Discrimination (XPD)
Antenna Types
Line-of-Sight Considerations
• Microwave radio communication requires a clear line-of-sight
(LOS) condition
• Radius of the first Fresnel zone
R=17.32(x(d-x)/fd)1/2
where d = distance between antennas (in Km)
R= first Fresnel zone radius in meters
f= frequency in GHz
R y
x d=x+y
Receive Signal Level (RSL)
Link Budget
RSL = Po – Lctx + Gatx – Lcrx + Gatx – FSL
Link feasibility formula
RSL Rx (receiver sensitivity threshold)
Po = output power of the transmitter (dBm)
Lctx, Lcrx = Loss (cable,connectors, branching unit) between transmitter/receiver and
antenna(dB)
Gatx = gain of transmitter/receiver antenna (dBi)
FSL = free space loss (dB)
• Free-space loss - when the transmitter and receiver have a clear,
unobstructed line-of-sight
Lfsl= 92.45 + 20log(f) + 20log(d) [dB]
where f = frequency (GHz), d = LOS range between antennas (km)
Radio path link budget
waveguide
Transmitter 1 Transmitter 2
Splitter Splitter
Receiver 1 Receiver 2
Antenna Gain
Propagation
Output Branching
Losses
Power (Tx) Losses Branching
Losses
Received
Power (Rx)
Fade Margin
Receiver threshold Value
Microwave Applications
• Before the advent of fiber optic transmission, most long distance
telephone calls were carried via microwave point-to-point links
• Starting in the early 1950's, FDM was used to send up to 5400 telephone
channels on each microwave radio channel, with as many as ten radio
channels combined into one antenna for the hop ot pu ,etis txen eht ot
70 km away .
• WLAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11
• MAN protocols, such as WiMAX
• Wide Area Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) protocols based on
standards specifications such as IEEE 802.20
• Cable TV and Internet access on coax cable as well as broadcast television
use some of the lower microwave frequencies
• Some mobile phone networks, like GSM
• Most radio astronomy uses microwaves.
Applications: Cellular backhaul
Mobile Switching Center
Base Station
Controller
Applications: Customers wireless access
Business
Districts
Central Office
High traffic
Customers
Applications: long distance connecting
regional networks
Local
Exchange
Regional
Network
Applications: private voice/data networks
Universities
Headquarters
Hospitals
Corporate
Networks
Branch
Branch Office
Office
Telecom Diploma
VSAT
Comsat
• A communications satellite (COMSAT) is an artificial satellite
stationed in space for the purpose of telecommunications
• For fixed (point-to-point) services, comsats provide a
microwave radio relay technology complementary to that of
submarine communication cables: a microwave repeater in
the sky
• They are also used for mobile applications such as
communications to ships, vehicles, planes and hand-held
terminals, and for TV and radio broadcasting, for which
application of other technologies, such as cable, is impractical
or impossible
Satellite Orbits
• High earth orbits (HEO) . More than 36000 Km
• Geostationary orbit (GEO).
• Medium earth orbits (MEO) .
• Low earth orbits (LEO) .
Satellite Types: LEO
• Low Earth-Orbiting Communications Satellites
• In its low earth orbit, a LEO satellite circles the earth in a short
period of time
• Although virtually everybody on earth would eventually see it,
no one person, ever saw it for more than 10 minutes or so out
of every orbit
• As a result, both the earth station and the satellite need some
sort of tracking capability which will allow its antennas to
follow the target during the time that it is visible.
Telstar (LEO)
Types: GEO
• Geosynchronous Communications Satellites
• A GEO satellite must orbit at 22,300 miles (above
36,000 km) altitude and it must be over the
earth's equator.
• As a result, there are a limited number of "slots"
for satellites.
• A system of three GEO satellites, with the ability
to relay messages from one to the other could
interconnect virtually all of the earth except the
polar regions.
• One disadvantage is that the time to transmit a
signal from earth to the satellite and back is
approximately 250 ms (2x36000 km at the speed
of light)
• For those who could "see" it, the satellite is
available 100% of the time, 24 hours a day.
• For those outside of the foot print, of course, the
satellite is NEVER available.
Syncom II (GEO)
Components
• Every communications satellite in its simplest form (LEO or
GEO) involves the transmission of information from an
originating ground station to the satellite (the uplink),
followed by a retransmission of the information from the
satellite back to the ground (the downlink).
• The downlink may either be to a selected number of ground
stations or it may be broadcast to everyone in a large area.
• Hence the satellite must have
– a receiver and a receive antenna
– a transmitter and a transmit antenna
– some method for connecting the uplink to the downlink
for retransmission
– and prime electrical power to run all of the electronics.
For any satellite link, the transmit signal is huge compared to our receive signal
because it has to go a long way to the satellite, and back.
Basic Components of a Communications Satellite Link
◼ The elevation is the angle up from horizontal (0 degrees) that the antenna
must point at to see the satellite
◼ The azimuth is the compass angle from true north that the antenna must
be pointed at to see the satellite in conjunction with elevation
Terminal Components
• Circulator.
– Used to separate the Tx/Rx signals
• Tx/Rx filter.
– A waveguide filter which tightly controls the
frequencies allowed into the transmit/receive
chain
• LNA.
– Low Noise Amplifier
– or LNB (low noise block or converter, LNC) on
receive only terminals (e.g., in broadcast
systems)
– Amplifies the small signals picked up by the
antenna without amplifying the noise
• HPA.
– High Power Amplifier
– It amplifies a specific band of frequencies by a
large amount, sufficiently large (~1000 watts) to
enable the antenna to beam them up to the
satellite
Power Generation
• On board a communications satellite, power is generated by large solar
panels
• Since there is a practical limit to how big a solar panel can be, there is
also a practical limit to the amount of power which can be generated.
• In addition, transmitters' efficiency (converting input power to radiated
power) is 10 or 15%
• Satellites must also be prepared for those periods when the sun is not
visible, usually because the earth is passing between the satellite and
the sun. This requires that the satellite have batteries on board which
can supply the required power for the necessary time and then
recharge by the time of the next period of eclipse
Transponders
• Communications satellite’s channels, each of which is a separate
transceiver or repeater.
• With digital video data compression and multiplexing, several video
and audio channels may travel through a single transponder on a single
wideband carrier.
• Original analog video only has one channel per transponder
• Non-multiplexed radio stations can also travel in single channel per
carrier (SCPC) mode, with multiple carriers (analog or digital) per
transponder.
• This allows each station to transmit directly to the satellite, rather than
paying for a whole transponder, or using landlines to send it to an
earth station for multiplexing with other stations
Frequency Conversion
• Down Converters.
– The signals are received by the dish, filtered and amplified
– The down-converter mixes the signals with another frequency, the
result is both the sum and difference of the signals.
– By filtering out the original and the sum frequencies the result is the
difference frequencies
– This is then ready for the demodulator.
• Up Converters.
– The up-converter mixes the signals with another frequency
– By filtering out the original and the difference frequencies the result is
the sum frequencies
– This is then ready for the HPA to transmit through the antenna
Radiation Hazards
• Radiation Hazards exist where ever any transmitter is radiating into any
space
• The safest way to work with RF radiation is to avoid it: Never stand in front
of any radiating antenna
• The recommended safe level is 5 mW per cm squared
• For a particular antenna the power will fall below the safe level after an
unsafe distance has been exceeded
VSAT
• Very Small Aperture Terminal
– Intelligent satellite earth station
Frequency Converter
LNA
Power Amplifier
COAXIAL CABLE
DEMODULATOR
BASE BAND NETWORK
CONTROLLER INTERFACE
MODULATOR
VSAT Networks - Definition
⚫ Network of sites
linked via satellite:
⚫ From 3 sites to
thousands
⚫ All sites view the
same
transponder
⚫ All share the
same bandwidth
Applications
• Retail Networks • Rural telephony and network
– Point-of-Sale (POS) extensions
– Banking, inventory – PSTN extensions
– Gaming – Payphones
– Reservations – WLL interconnections
• Corporate Networks • High-speed internet access
– Internet/Intranet access – Browsing
– Corporate voice – E-mail
– File transfers – Internet trunking
– Video-conferencing – E-commerce
• Video Applications
• Distance Learning
Typical Network Architecture
IDU
VSAT Networks - Components
Indoor Unit (IDU)
– Hub Traffic Terminal
• Network Management System (NMS)
• Indoor Electronics
– VSAT Traffic Terminal
• Indoor Electronics
Outdoor Unit (ODU)
– Communications Equipment
• Hub Traffic Terminal
• VSAT Traffic Terminal
Star Networks
• Small configurations at the remote
– Small antennas (as small as 1.8 m)
– Simple IDUs
– Limited HPA power (1 to 5 W)
• Large configurations at the hub
– Large antennas (as small as 3.8 m)
– Complex baseband equipment
• NMS located at the hub
Mesh Networks
• Every site can talk to any other site
• No hub is required
• NMS remains required
• Larger configuration at the remote sites:
– Larger antennas (as small as 2.4 m)
– More complex IDUs
– Bigger HPA size (5 to 20 W)
• Smaller number of sites than
in star networks
Frequency Bands
• C-Band • Ku-band
• Benefits
• Benefits
– Lower or no Terrestrial
– Lower Rain Attenuation Interference
– Lower Space – More Satellite Power
Segment Cost – Higher Antenna G/T
– Available Everywhere – Smaller Antennas
– Wider, Even Global Coverage • Issues for network planning
• Some limitations – Higher Rain Attenuation
– Terrestrial Interference – Higher Space
– Lower Antenna G/T Segment Cost
– Limited Coverage Area
– Larger Antennas
– Narrower Beam
FDMA Technique
Transponder Layout:
Frequency
Carriers access the transponder:
- At the same Time
- At a different Frequency
TDMA Technique
Transponder Layout:
CARRIER CARRIER
#1 #2
BURSTS IN BURSTS IN
CARRIER # 1 CARRIER # 2
Carriers access the transponder:
- At a different Time
- At the same Frequency
Demand Assignment Method
• Demand Assignment Multiple Access (DAMA):
– Remote ask for a time slot or a frequency to
transmit their traffic
– NMS attributes each remote a time slot or a
frequency to transmit this traffic
– The attributed frequency or time slot will not be
released until the end of the transmission
– Often used for voice traffic
VSAT Networks - Benefits
• Low Terminal Cost • Superior Quality
• Distance Insensitive – High Reliability
• Re-configurable • Transparent
– Flexible – Network protocols
• Fast and Easy – Signaling
– Installation • No “last mile” problem
– Commissioning • Bandwidth optimization => cost-
– Operation effective solutions
– Expanding • Asymmetric configurations
• Allows Direct Interconnection • Mountable on Customer’s
between VSATs Premises
VSAT - Decision Drivers
Customer
requirement Implementation
Technology
Cost
Satellite Maintenance
Competitive Solution
capacity Cost
Timing
Performance
Implementation plan
Customer Requirements
• Application (Voice, Data, Video)
• Number and location of sites
• No of users will there be per site
• Network Topology (Star, Mesh)
• Protocol Requirements (ATM, Frame Relay, IP, X25, ISDN)
• Signaling Requirements for voice traffic (R2, SS7)
• Quality Requirements for voice
• Maximum Carrier Requirement (Bandwidth, Peak Traffic)
• Link Availability Requirement (Blocking Probability, Equipment and Link
Availability)
• Existing Equipment and its characteristics
• Frequency Requirements (C-Band, Ku-Band)
• Terminal Requirements (Maximum Antenna size)
• Service Duration and Service Maintenance Requirements (Service Plan,
Technical Training)
Possible VSAT Equipment
• Customer requirements will determine:
– Network topology
– Traffic type & size
– Required interfaces
– Existing equipment to take into consideration
• We can then narrow down the number of
possible VSAT Equipment
Application Example: cellular
backhauling
Application example: DVB
Lab Activities
Installation Tools
• Spectrum analyzer with D.C blocker.
• Tools kit
• Optional satellite finder
• Campus
• Inclinometer
• Antenna foundation materials if contracted to the installer
• LST program ( like simulink )
• Satellite beacon frequency
• GPS if available
• Earth meter , EVOmeter and earthen facilities .
Installation Procedures
• Calculate and ensure by GPS the earth station latitude/longitude .
• The satellite longitude should be known from the provider.
• Measure the distance from the last point to the suggested antenna place .
• The antenna should be south of the equipment room or roof amount
• Watch the clear sky in front of the antenna to be installed .
• Remove any obstruction .
• Make your foundation concrete with the suitable dimensions.
• Begin the assembly of the antenna following the requirements , (tiding )
should be at the end .
• Make the trench if available .
• ( Connect your ODU ) BUC, LNA or others .don't forget the tape for
different environments (dust , wetness and cold effects tape )
• Proper earthen by reading using earthen meter zero ohm proxy.
Continue
• * put the antenna at the true angles using the suitable measures .
• * connect the spectrum analyzer ( in R.F don't forget the D.C blocker .
• * Adjust the frequency ,span, amplitude and resolution .
• * After finding the beam configure and connect the modem.
• Another alternative procedure is to connect the modem and track for lock
.
• * for optimum service adjust the TX and RX gain at the BUC .
• * then retrace for dib indication ( Max. receive and transmit ) to avoid
antenna misalignment boundaries.
• * Tid the azimuth and elevation rods with monitoring the spectrum and no
deviation is accepted .
Maintenance procedures
Visual check
• Make a visual check for your indicators , Meters and other monitoring
tools .
• if no status displayed ( System completely dead) , Check the power supply
and source .
• if the in the modem , The RX indicator is not lighting , Three probable
faults:-
– No receive to the modem ( LNA , D/C or cables and connecters )
– Modem faulty .
– Lamp faulty .
• Quick solution is to change the modem after revising configuration .but
the easiest is to check the cables and the most professional is to check the
IF signal by using spectrum analyzer tracking the signal availability till the
end side.
• If No Transmit lamp is glowing , The TX power may be off or other
configuration . You should revise the configuration .
Continue
ODU checking
• first check the indicators alarm .
• If alarm occur for specific service you can clarify . ( Ex . TX
alarm ,power failure ….etc
• for Hub station the ODU should not include the u/c and D/c .
• If no alarm and no receive at Hub from remotes . Check cables
and tracking.
• Spectrum analyzer is the most prof. solution of fault
declaration.