BASIC ELECTRONICS

B.Tech. 1st Year

 Unit III:
INTRODUCTION TO
OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIERS (OPAMP)
 UNIT-III: CONTENTS:
Block Diagram and Characteristics of Ideal Op-Amp
Parameters of an Op-Amp
Concept of Feedback
Inverting and Non- Inverting Amplifier
Differential Amplifier
Virtual Ground
Adder, Subtractor, Comparator, Integrator and Differentiator,
Zero Crossing Detector, Voltage Follower.
Ref. Book:
(1) R. A. Gaikwad, “Operational Amplfier and Linear Integrated Circuits”,
Pearson, 4th Edition.
 Topics: 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.13, 2.2 to 2.6
(2) Boylestad and Nashlesky, “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”, PHI, 11th
Edition.
 Topics: 14.1, 10.4, 10.5, 10.1, 10.9, 11.1 to 11.3, 13.2, relevant Numerical
Examples 3
 Introduction to Operational
Amplifiers: OPAMP
• Available in IC form
• The actual count varies, but an Op-Amp contains several Transistors,
Resistors, and a few Capacitors.
• OPAMP is Very high gain differential amplifier with high input resistance
and low output resistance
• Differential amplifier: Amplifies difference between two input signals
• Number of mathematical operations can be performed OPAMP
• Linear Applications: DC and AC voltage (small signal) amplifiers,
Oscillators, filters, many types of instrumentation circuits signal
conditioners, Analog Computers  Combination of integrators,
differentiators, summing amplifiers, and multipliers
• Non-linear Applications: Comparators, Converters, Timers, Multi-vibrators
etc.
• Major field of Applications: Control, Communication and Instrumentation
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 OPAMP: Circuit Symbol

• Vo=A (V1-V2)=AVd
where, Vd = V1-V2 Differential Input
Signal
• A= Open loop (large signal) voltage gain of
OPAMP
• V1 and V2 can be dc or ac input signals.
• V1 ,V2 and Vo are measured w.r.t. ground
5
(reference) point
 Ideal OPAMP Characteristics
1. Infinite open loop voltage gain
2. Infinite Input resistance: Zero input current: Zero power
consumption: No loading on signal source
3. Zero Output resistance: Full output Voltage drops across load: Drive
infinite no of other devices
4. Infinite Bandwidth (Range of frequency of signal): frequency signal
from 0 to ∞ Hz can be amplified without distortion
5. Infinite Slew Rate (Rate of change of output signal w.r.t. time):
Output voltage changes occur simultaneously with input voltage
changes
6. Zero output offset voltage: Zero output when two input signals are
same in magnitude and phase (differential input is zero)
7. Infinite Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): Zero output when
two inputs are made common (same signal connected to both inputs)
8. No temperature dependence

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 Generic View of Op-amp Internal Structure
 An op-amp is usually comprised of at least three different amplifier stages (see figure)
 Differential amplifier input stage with gain a1(v+ - v-) having inverting & non-inverting inputs
 Stage 2 is a “Gain” stage with gain a2 and differential or singled ended input and output
 Output stage is an emitter follower (or source follower) stage with a gain = ~1 and single-
ended output with a large current driving capability
 Simple Op-Amp Model (lower right figure):
 Two supplies VPOS and VNEG are utilized and always assumed (even if not explicitly shown)
 An input resistance rin (very high)
 An output resistance rout (very low) in series with output voltage source vo
 Linear Transfer function is vo = a1 a2(v+ - v-) = Ao(v+ - v-) where Ao is open-loop gain
 vo is clamped at VPOS or VNEG if Ao (v+ - v-) > VPOS or < VNEG, respectively
Block Diagram of OPAMP

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IC 741: Most Popular OPAMP
IC

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 Practical OPAMP: Equivalent
Circuit
• A is finite, Input resistance (Ri) is finite,
Output resistance (Ro) is non-zero and finite
• Typical values: A: 105 to 106; Ri: 100KΩ to
1M Ω; Ro:100 Ω to 1K Ω

• Open circuit output

voltage:
vo=Avd Voltage
Controlled
=A(v1-v2) Voltage
Source: 10
VCVS
 Open Loop OPAMP
Configurations:
• The Differential Amplifier:

v1 = vin1 and v2 = vin2.

vo = A (vin1 – vin2 )
where, A is the open loop gain.

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 • The Inverting • The Non-inverting
Amplifier: Amplifier:

v1= 0, v2 = vin. v1 = vin, v2 = 0

vo = -A vin vo = A vin
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13
 Voltage Transfer Curve (VTC)
• Linear over very limited range
+Ve
Saturation
Range
where we
operate
the op
amp as an vd
amplifier.

-Ve
Saturation
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Real Op Amp: +Vsat ≈ +VCC and –Vsat ≈ -VEE
 Open Loop Output Voltage
Input Voltage Output
Range Voltage
Positive Saturation vd > +Vsat/A vo =+Vsat≈ VCC
Linear Region -Vsat/A < vd < +Vsat/A vo = Avd
Negative Saturation vd < -Vsat/A vo =-Vsat ≈ -VEE

In Typical OPAMP: A=105, +Vsat=+15 V, -Vsat=-15V

Linear Region: -150µV<vd<150µV : Very very small input
voltage range
 Virtual Short in OPAMP:

• Ri  ∞ W
– Therefore, i1 = i2 = 0A
• vd=vo/A; as A  ∞; vd0; i.e. v1-v20; i.e.
v1≈v2
• So current into OPAMP is zero and voltage across
OPAMP input terminals is also zero and hence voltage
at inverting and non-inverting terminals are almost
equal.
• So two input terminals of OPAMP are behaving like
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they are virtually short with no current into it.
 Why Open Loop Configuration is Not Useful
in Linear Applications?
• In all three open loop configurations any input
signal slightly greater than zero drive the output
to saturation level.
• This is because of very high gain.
• Thus when operated in open-loop, the output of
the OPAMP is either negative or positive
saturation or switches between positive and
negative saturation levels.
• Therefore open loop op-amp is not used in
linear applications. 17
 Concept of Feedback:
• Feedback: Makes the system Closed Loop
• +Ve Feedback (Regenerative) or –Ve Feedback (Degenerative)
• -Ve Feedback : Feedback signal is of opposite polarity to input:
Stabilize the system and improves performance: Used in Amplifiers
• +Ve Feedback : Leads to Oscillations and Saturation: Used by
Oscillators, Multi-vibrators and Waveform Generators

Mixer Network Forward

Xo
Xi Summ Xd=Xi-Xf
Gain
Input
ing
point
A
A=Xo/Xd Output
Feedback signal Xo=A.Xd
Xf =A(Xi-Xf)
β =Xf/Xo Xo/Xi=A(Xi-βXo)
Xo/Xi=Af=A/(1+βA)
Feedback Network
 Advantages of –Ve Feedback:
1. Better stabilized voltage gain.
2. Improved frequency response (bandwidth).
3. Higher input impedance.
4. Lower output impedance.
5. Reduced noise.
6. More linear operation.
• Disadvantage: Reduced overall voltage gain
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Close Loop OPAMP Configurations:
Inverting Amplifier

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Virtual ground in Inverting Close
Loop OPAMP Amplifier:

• If v1 is grounded then v2 can not be more than few μV

which is very very small and close to ground.
• Therefore v2 can also be considered at ground if v1 is at
ground.
• Physically v2 is not connected to the ground yet we
considered v2 at ground that is called virtual ground. 21
Close Loop OPAMP Configurations:
Non-Inverting Amplifier

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Unity Follower and Voltage
Buffer: voltage follower
• Provides a gain of unity
(1) with no polarity or
phase reversal.
• The circuit operates like
an common collector
(emitter follower) circuit
except that the gain is
exactly unity.
• vo=vi

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• A voltage buffer circuit provides a means of isolating an
input signal from a load by using a stage having unity
voltage gain, with no phase or polarity inversion, and
acting as an ideal circuit with very high input impedance
and low output impedance.
• The load connected across one output has no (or little)
effect on the other output. In effect, the outputs are
buffered or isolated from each other.

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 Common-Mode Operation:

• Ideally, an op-amp provides output that is due to the amplification of the

difference (dissimilarity) of the signals applied to the inverting and non-
inverting inputs.
• The gain to the differential signal is called difference mode gain Ad or
simply A (open loop gain).
• If both the inputs are connected to a common signal, the two inputs are
equally amplified, and since they result in opposite-polarity signals at the
output, these signals cancel, resulting in 0-V output.
• Practically, a small output signal will result due to slight unbalance
(mismatching of two transistors) in the input stage of the OPAMP.
• The gain produced by OPAMP to the common mode input is called 25
common mode gain Ac.
 Common-Mode Rejection
• A significant feature of a differential connection is that the
signals that are opposite at the inputs are highly amplified,
whereas those that are common to the two inputs are only
slightly amplified—the overall operation being to amplify
the difference signal while rejecting the common signal at
the two inputs.
• Since noise (any unwanted input signal) is generally
common to both inputs, the differential connection tends to
provide attenuation of this unwanted input while providing
an amplified output of the difference signal applied to the
inputs.
• This operating feature is referred to as common-mode
rejection as described by a numerical value called the
common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR). 26
 Common-Mode Rejection
Ratio: CMRR
• Ability of an op-amp to reject common mode
signals (noise) while amplifying desired signal
(differential signal). CMRR  A d
Ac
A 
(CMRR) dB  20 log d 
 Ac 

• Ad : Difference mode gain

• Ac : Common mode gain
• The higher value of CMRR is the better.
• Means that high Ad and low Ac.
• Ideally, the value of the CMRR is infinite. 27
Illustration of CMRR:

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29
 Slew Rate of OPAMP:
• Maximum rate of change of the output voltage per
unit time (specified in volts per microsecond).
• Basically says how fast the output can “follow”
the input signal.
• Reflecting the op-amp’s ability to handle
switching signals.
• Provides information about maximum frequency
that can be handled by OPAMP at particular input
amplitude without distortion.

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 Summing Amplifier...
The amplifier provides weighted
sum of various input
The value of R1 may be fixed to
obtain desirable weight
Current form each source flow
through Rf which add to the
output voltage.
Total output voltage may be
obtained as--

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 Example..
• Design a circuit to implement
• b=3a1+2.5a2+7a3+4a4
• Answer:
• In above circuit add one more input parallel to V1,
V2 & V3; let Rf=420k ohms (to get integer)
• R1=Rf/3=140k
• R2=Rf/2.5=168k
• R3=Rf/7=60k
• R4=Rf/4=105k 32
 Integrator...
• It is like inverting Amplifier
• Hence gain Av=-Zc/R
• =-1/sCR
• Or, V0(s)/V1(s)=-1/sCR
• Or, Vo(s)=-V1(s)/sCR
• Or,

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 Integrator as low pass filter
• Av=-Zc/R
• =-1/sCR=-1/jwCR ;
• (w=angular
frequency)
• If w increases
• Av decreases 
• Low Pass filter
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 Differentiator
• It is like inverting
Amplifier
• Hence gain Av=-R/Zc
• =-sCR
• Or, V0(s)/V1(s)=-sCR
• Or, Vo(s)=-V1(s)*sCR
• Or,
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 Differentiator & High pass filter
\Av\
• Av=-R/Zc
• =-sCR=-jwCR ;
• (w=angular frequency)
• If w increases
• Av increases  w
• High Pass filter

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Subtracting Circuit

If
R1.R3=R2f=R22
Or, R1=R2=R3
V0=V1-V2
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Subtracting Circuit...

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 Comparator

Input Voltage Output Voltage

Less than reference voltage Negative
Equal to reference voltage Zero
Greater than reference Positive
voltage
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LED glows when Vin >Vref LED glows when Vin <Vref

LED glows only when

input is within the
range given by
Vref (HIGH) and
Vref(LOW)

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Zero Crossing Detector

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