Engineering Surveying II

Chapter one

2/14/2024

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 Engineering Surveying II

Chapter 1: Coordinate System

Outline
Introduction
1.1.Geoids and Ellipsoids
1.2.coordinate systems
1.3.Reference frames (Datum)
1.4. Coordinate projection

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 Engineering Surveying II

• How to Describe your Locations?

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1.1.Geoids and Ellipsoids

• To understand how the size and shape of

earth is determined, let as see three surfaces .
• These are:
1.Earth Physical Surface
2.Geoid Surface
3.Reference Ellipsoid

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 Geoids and ellipsoids…

1.Earth Physical Surface: this is the actual

topographical surface on which earth
measurements are made.
It is not suitable for exact mathematical
calculations because of its highly irregular
nature.

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 Geoids and ellipsoids…

2.Geoid Surface: is an Equi-potential surface that

best approximate the mean sea level (MSL).
• For each point on this surface the gravitational
force is same.
• It cannot be determined geometrically but
must be determined by observations point by
point.
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 Geoids and ellipsoids…
2.Geoid Surface…
 At this surface, the direction of gravity and
axis of a level Theodolite are perpendicular to
it.
 So Geoid is used as reference datum for
measurements of heights.

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 Geoids and ellipsoids…
3.Reference Ellipsoid: is a mathematical surface
with arbitrarily defined geometrical figure.
 It is approximates close to actual
topographical surface.
It is smooth mathematical figures (user
defined, mainly ellipse),
The computations are quite easy to be
performed on this surface.
It is an ideal surface of referring the horizontal
position of points on the earth surface.
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The following diagram would illustrate the relationship
between the actual irregular shape of earth, the Geoid
and the Ellipsoid.

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 1.2.Coordinate systems

Coordinate References System

• Basically, there are two types of coordinate
systems:
I. Projected coordinate system
II. Geographic coordinate system

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 1.2 Coordinate systems
Coordinate References System
I. Projected Coordinate System
 It is a reference system used to measure
horizontal and vertical distances on a planimetric
map.
 A coordinate system is usually defined by a map
projection, a spheroid of reference, a
datum, one or more standard parallels, a central
meridian, and
 possible shifts in the x- and y directions to locate
x, y positions of point, line, and area features.
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 1.2 Coordinate systems
Coordinate References System
II. Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)
 It is a three dimensional spherical surface to define
locations on the earth.
A GCS includes an angular unit of measure, a prime
meridian, and a datum (based on a spheroid).
 A point is referenced by its longitude and latitude
values.
 Longitude and latitude are angles measured from the
earth’s center to a point on the earth’s surface.
 The angles often are measured in degrees (or in grads).

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 1.3.Coordinate reference frames

• The topographical surface of the earth is highly

irregular makes it difficult for the geodetic
calculation.
• Datum is a reference surface through which the
position of any point is done both horizontally
and vertically.
• A local datum aligns its spheroid to closely fit
the earth’s surface in a particular area.

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 1.3.Coordinate reference frames…

 A point on the surface of the spheroid is matched

to a particular position on the surface of the earth.
 This point is known as the origin point of the
datum.
 The coordinates of the origin point are fixed, and
all other points are calculated from it.
 Whenever the datum is changed, the coordinate
values of the data will change .

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1.3.Coordinate reference frames…
 The most recently developed and widely used datum is WGS
1984.
 It serves as the framework for location measurement
worldwide.
 Adindan is the most frequently used datum in Eastern and
western Africa, but Adindan mean/Adindan Ethiopia is
particular used in Ethiopia as a local datum system.
 A local datum aligns its spheroid so closely to a particular area
on the earth’s surface;

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 Types of coordinates
• 3D Cartesian Coordinates system

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Plane coordinate

Origin X

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 2D - Polar

Origin X

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 1.3.Map/Coordinate Projections

• Projections: – transformation of curved earth to a flat

map

• Or A projection is a systematic representation of the

parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude of the
spherical surface of earth to a plane surface.

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 1.3.Map/Coordinate Projections …

• But it is the cause of distortion in the shape,

area, distance, or direction of the data.

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 Types of projection
 Map projections classified in terms of their developable
surfaces
 Cylindrical,
 Conical and
 Azimuthal
 In terms of their distortion properties
 Equal-area
 Equidistant and Conformal
 In terms of their orientation of projection plane relative to
the globe, called aspects
 Normal,
 Transverse and
Oblique

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 .Types of projection based on developable
surface
• Cylindrical, conical and azimuthal map

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 I.Cylindrical projection

Cylindrical projection is analogues to wrapping

a sheet of paper around the Earth in a cylinder
and
 Then projecting of features onto it and
unrolled into a flat map.

The equator is tangent or secant to the

cylinder’s inside.
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 I. Cylindrical projection…

• In terms of their orientation of projection plane

relative to the globe,
• Normal, Transverse, and
Oblique

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 I. Cylindrical projection…

 In a transverse cylindrical projection, the main orientation of

the projection surface is perpendicular to the Earth’s axis.

 Such map projections have no distortion on the central meridian

and low distortion nearby,

 suitable for countries at any latitude.

 An oblique cylindrical projection is non-parallel and non-

perpendicular.
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 I. Cylindrical projection…

Cylindrical projections may introduce

distortions in area, angle, distance or direction.
Cylindrical projections have continuous picture
of the Earth, Polar Regions distorted, and area
of most parts preserved.

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 2 .Conic projections

• A conic projection is analogues to wrapping a

sheet of paper around the Earth in a cone, and
then transferring of points from a globe grid.

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 2 .Conic projections…
Scale is preserved for the most parts. Area and distance
distortions increase away from the standard parallels.

it is unsuitable for Polar Regions, but they best map areas of great
east-west extent than north south (mid-latitude) zones.

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 3.Azimuthal or planar projections

• Azimuthal (planar) projections project map data

(parallels, meridians, and points) onto a flat
surface touching the globe.
• This type of projection is usually tangent to the globe
at one point
The point of contact may be the two Poles, a point on
the equator, or any point in between .

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3.Azimuthal or planar projections…

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 Commonly used map projections

A. The Transverse Mercator and

B. The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
projections are the best known.

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 A.Transverse Mercator projection

Transverse Mercator (TM) projection, also called

Gauss conformal projection constructed from a
Transverse cylinder.
It maintains scale, shape, area and bearing angles
of small areas.

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 B.Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
projection

• The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

projection uses a transverse cylinder.
• It divides the world into 60 narrow longitudinal
zones of 6°the latitudinal interval is 8° with the
extent from 84°N to 80°S Regions above 84°N
and below 80°S are excluded from the system due
to distortion.

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• The UTM grid system is a metric system and
widely adopted for topographic maps

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General rules for selecting a projection
Tropical country፡—cylindrical projection
Temperate country፡—conical projection
Polar regions፡—azimuthal projection

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Thankyou!!!

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