Artificial Intelligence (AI) Tutorial

The Artificial Intelligence tutorial provides an introduction to AI which will help

you to understand the concepts behind Artificial Intelligence. In this tutorial,
we have also discussed various popular topics such as History of AI,
applications of AI, deep learning, machine learning, natural language
processing, Reinforcement learning, Q-learning, Intelligent agents, Various
search algorithms, etc.

Our AI tutorial is prepared from an elementary level so you can easily

understand the complete tutorial from basic concepts to the high-level
concepts.
What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
In today's world, technology is growing very fast, and we are getting in touch
with different new technologies day by day.
Here, one of the booming technologies of computer science is Artificial
Intelligence which is ready to create a new revolution in the world by making
intelligent machines.The Artificial Intelligence is now all around us. It is
currently working with a variety of subfields, ranging from general to specific,
such as self-driving cars, playing chess, proving theorems, playing music,
Painting, etc.
AI is one of the fascinating and universal fields of Computer science which has
a great scope in future. AI holds a tendency to cause a machine to work as a
human.

Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence,

where Artificial defines "man-made," and intelligence defines "thinking
power", hence AI means "a man-made thinking power."
So, we can define AI as:
"It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent
machines which can behave like a human, think like humans, and able to make
decisions."
Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human based skills such
as learning, reasoning, and solving problems
With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram a machine to do
some work, despite that you can create a machine with programmed
algorithms which can work with own intelligence, and that is the
awesomeness of AI.
It is believed that AI is not a new technology, and some people says that as per
Greek myth, there were Mechanical men in early days which can work and
behave like humans.
Why Artificial Intelligence?
Before Learning about Artificial Intelligence, we should know that what is the
importance of AI and why should we learn it. Following are some main
reasons to learn about AI:
o With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can
solve real-world problems very easily and with accuracy such as health
issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such
as Cortana, Google Assistant, Siri, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an
environment where survival of humans can be at risk.
o AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new
Opportunities.
Goals of Artificial Intelligence
Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:
1. Replicate human intelligence
2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human
intelligence such as:
o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operation
o Driving a car in traffic
5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new
things by itself, demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.
History of AI
o Throughout history, people have been intrigued by the idea of making
non-living things smart. In ancient times, Greek stories mentioned gods
creating clever machines, and in Egypt, engineers made statues move.
 Thinkers like Aristotle and Ramon Llull laid the groundwork for AI by
describing how human thinking works using symbols.
o In the late 1800s and early 1900s, modern computing started to take
shape. Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace designed machines that could
be programmed in the 1830s. In the 1940s, John Von Neumann came up
with the idea of storing computer programs. At the same time, Warren
McCulloch and Walter Pitts started building the basics of neural
networks.
o The 1950s brought us modern computers, letting scientists dig into
machine intelligence. Alan Turing's Turing test became a big deal in
computer smarts. The term "artificial intelligence" was first used in a
1956 Dartmouth College meeting, where they introduced the first AI
program, the Logic Theorist.
o The following years had good times and bad times for AI, called "AI
Winters." In the 1970s and 1980s, we hit limits with computer power
and complexity. But in the late 1990s, things got exciting again.
Computers were faster, and there was more data. IBM's Deep
Blue beating chess champion Garry Kasparov in 1997 was a big
moment.
o The 2000s started a new era with machine learning, language
processing, and computer vision. This led to cool new products and
services. The 2010s saw AI take off with things like voice assistants and
self-driving cars. Generative AI, which makes creative stuff, also started
getting big.
o In the 2020s, generative AI like ChatGPT-3 and Google's Bard grabbed
everyone's attention. These models can create all sorts of new things
when you give them a prompt, like essays or art. But remember, this
tech is still new, and there are things to fix, like making sure it doesn't
make things up.
What Comprises to Artificial Intelligence?
Artificial Intelligence is not just a part of computer science even it's so vast and
requires lots of other factors which can contribute to it. To create the AI first
we should know that how intelligence is composed, so the Intelligence is an
intangible part of our brain which is a combination of Reasoning, learning,
problem-solving perception, language understanding, etc.
To achieve the above factors for a machine or software Artificial Intelligence
requires the following discipline:
o Mathematics
o Biology
o Psychology
o Sociology
o Computer Science
o Neurons Study
o Statistics
Advantages of Artificial Intelligence
Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:
o High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to
less errors and high accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience
or information.
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision
making, because of that AI systems can beat a chess champion in the
Chess game.
o High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the
same action multiple times with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as
defusing a bomb, exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human
can be risky.
o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the
users such as AI technology is currently used by various E-commerce
websites to show the products as per customer requirement.
o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as
a self-driving car which can make our journey safer and hassle-free,
facial recognition for security purpose, Natural language processing to
communicate with the human in human-language, etc.
o Enhanced Security: AI can be very helpful in enhancing security, as It
can detect and respond to cyber threats in real time, helping companies
protect their data and systems.
o Aid in Research: AI is very helpful in the research field as it assists
researchers by processing and analyzing large datasets, accelerating
discoveries in fields such as astronomy, genomics, and materials
science.
Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence
Every technology has some disadvantages, and thesame goes for Artificial
intelligence. Being so advantageous technology still, it has some disadvantages
which we need to keep in our mind while creating an AI system. Following are
the disadvantages of AI:
Challenges of AI
Artificial Intelligence offers incredible advantages, but it also presents some
challenges that need to be addressed:
AI Tools and Services
AI tools and services are advancing quickly, and this progress can be linked
back to a significant moment in 2012 when the AlexNet neural network came
onto the scene. This marked the start of a new era for high-performance AI,
thanks to the use of GPUs and massive data sets. The big shift was the ability
to train neural networks using huge amounts of data on multiple GPU cores
simultaneously, making it a more scalable process.
Applications of AI
Artificial Intelligence has various applications in today's society. It is becoming
essential for today's time because it can solve complex problems with an
efficient way in multiple industries, such as Healthcare, entertainment,
finance, education, etc. AI is making our daily life more comfortable and fast.
Following are some sectors which have the application of Artificial
Intelligence:

1. AI in Astronomy
o Automated Celestial Object Identification: AI systems can automatically
identify and classify celestial objects in astronomical images, aiding in
discovering new stars, galaxies, and other cosmic phenomena. In simple
words, AI can spot and sort out things in space by looking at pictures.
It's like having a cosmic detective that finds new stars, galaxies, and
other mysterious objects without human help.
o Exoplanet Hunting: AI helps astronomers find planets outside our solar
system by looking at lots of data. It can notice tiny changes in the light
 from stars, which tell us there might be planets around them, such as
those caused by exoplanet transits.
o Analyzing Space Information: AI plays a crucial role in the study of
space. It assists scientists by carefully examining vast amounts of
complex data gathered from space observations. This helps astronomers
uncover sophisticated patterns, unusual phenomena, and connections
that might be otherwise very difficult to notice. Essentially, AI acts as a
dedicated assistant, sifting through the cosmic data haystack to find the
valuable needles of knowledge.
o Watching Space Events in Real-time: AI-powered tools can keep a
constant eye on the night sky, looking out for sudden happenings like
exploding stars (supernovae) or bursts of powerful gamma rays. This
allows scientists to quickly study these events in more detail when they
occur.
o Making Telescopes Smarter: AI is like a brain for telescopes. It helps
them work better by changing their settings on the fly. For example, if
the weather gets cloudy or if scientists want to study something specific
in space, AI can adjust the telescope to get the best results. It's like
having a telescope that can think and adapt to the situation.
2. AI in Healthcare

o Helping Doctors See Inside the Body Better: AI is like a super helper for
doctors when they look at pictures of the inside of a patient's body, like
X-rays or MRIs. It uses smart algorithms to find things like problems,
tumors, or broken bones very accurately. This means doctors can figure
out what's going on faster and more accurately, which is great for
patients and for better diagnosis.
o Detecting Health Problems Early: AI acts as a health detective. It looks
at your health information to find out if you might get certain diseases
in the future. When it sees a high risk, doctors can step in early to help
you stay healthy. This is really important for conditions like diabetes and
heart problems because catching them at this time means better
treatment and less trouble for the patient.
o Developing Medications Quickly and Cost-Effectively: AI acts like a
super scientist in the lab. It uses certain algorithms to predict how
different chemicals can fight diseases. This helps us make new
medicines much quicker and at a low cost. So people can get the
treatments they need sooner, and it doesn't cost as much money to
manufacture them.
 o Personalized Treatment Plans: AI looks at your health information, like
your genes, what happened to you before, and how you've responded
to treatments. Then, it makes a special plan just for you. This means
your treatment works better and doesn't give you as many problems.
It's like having a personalized health coach, which helps in avoiding
complications caused by improperly prescribed medicine.
o Managing Hospital Functions and Resources: AI acts like a manager for
hospitals. It helps with things like when patients come in, where to put
resources like doctors and supplies, and how to make sure everything
runs well. It can even guess how many patients might come in ahead of
time, so hospitals use their staff and resources in the best way possible.
3. AI in Gaming

o Smart Game Characters: AI is like the brains behind game characters

that aren't controlled by players. They make these characters, called
NPCs, act more like real people or clever enemies. They can learn from
what players do and change their behavior, which makes games more
exciting and lifelike. Imagine playing a game where the bad guys learn
and adapt to your moves - that's what AI does.
o Creating Game Worlds with AI: AI can make parts of video games all on
its own. It can create levels, maps, and places to explore without people
having to make them by hand. This means games can have bigger and
 more interesting worlds because AI does a lot of the work, kind of like a
game world builder. It helps game developers, too.
o Making Games Look and Feel Real: AI helps to make games look and
act more like the real world. They create graphics that look just like the
things we see, and they make how things move in games feel realistic,
like in real life. They even guess what players might do next so the game
looks smooth and natural.
4. AI in Finance

o Identifying and Prevention of Fraud: AI keeps an eye on bank

transactions all the time. They act like super detectives who can spot
strange things happening with money, like someone using a credit card
in a weird way. When they see something fishy, they raise the alarm and
help the bank stop bad people from stealing money. This happens really
fast, without needing people to check every transaction.
o Automated Trading: AI helps a skilled trader who works automatically. It
uses various algorithms to swiftly buy and sell stocks while analyzing all
the market information. This boosts trading strategies, making
investments more efficient and profitable.
o Risk Control: AI helps in examining lots of data to check how risky
something is, like giving out loans or making investments. It looks at
things like whether someone can pay back a loan or how safe an
 investment is. This helps banks and investment firms make smarter
choices so they don't lose money and can help others save and grow
their money.
5. AI in Data Security

o Anamoly Detection: AI works as a digital detective. It looks at big piles

of data and watches for anything strange or out of the ordinary, like
someone sneaking into a digital vault or trying to steal secrets. When it
sees something fishy, it raises the alarm, helping to keep important data
safe from cyber-attacks.
o Predicting Threats: AI looks at past troubles and keeps an eye on new
dangers that are popping up. By doing this, it can predict what bad
things might happen in the future, like a security breach or a
cyberattack. This way, companies can get ready in advance to protect
their important data, sort of like putting up a strong fortress before any
attack happens.
o Automated Safety Response: AI acts like a digital guardian that can
respond when there's trouble. If it sees something bad happening, like a
cyberattack, it can automatically take action. It might isolate the part
that's under attack. This way, it keeps your important stuff safe in the
digital world.
6. AI in Social Media

o Smart Suggestions: AI helps as a guide on social media. It watches what

you like and what you do, and then it suggests things you might enjoy,
like posts, videos, or ads. It acts as someone who knows your tastes and
shows you stuff you're really into, making your social media experience
more enjoyable and personalized.
o Virtual Assistants and Chatbots: AI chatbots and virtual assistants act as
digital helpers on social media. They're quick to respond and can talk to
you just like a real person. They answer your questions, share
information, and even help with problems. It's like having an assistant
available 24/7, making your social media experience smoother and
more helpful.
o Sentiment Analysis: AI can figure out how people feel on social media.
It looks at what they say in comments and posts and decides if it's a
happy, sad, or neutral kind of message. This helps companies
understand what people think so they can react in the right way. It's like
having a mood gauge for the internet so businesses can make their
customers happier.
o Trend Analysis: AI keeps track of all the chats and what's popular right
now. This helps companies and regular folks understand what
everyone's thinking and talking about. It acts as a social media news
 reporter that keeps customers in the loop about what's hot and what
people are buzzing about.
7. AI in Travel & Transport
o Optimization of Route: AI plays a crucial role in optimizing travel routes,
be it for parcel deliveries, public transportation, or personal trips. It
efficiently calculates the swiftest and most economical paths from one
point to another point, resulting in reduced travel time, minimized fuel
consumption, and cost savings. Essentially, it serves as a pocket-sized
travel advisor, enhancing the speed and budget-friendliness of your
journeys.
o Smart Security Screening: AI helps in keeping traveling safely. It uses
special skills to scan bags and people quickly. It can spot things that
might be dangerous and make security checks faster and smoother. This
means you can fly knowing that the airport is working hard to keep you
safe without making your travel a hassle.
o Chatbots for Travel Support: AI chatbots are like digital travel helpers.
These chatbots are capable of aiding you in various tasks such as
reserving tickets, suggesting interesting destinations to explore, and
providing responses to your inquiries, much like an affable travel
consultant. This elevates the convenience and pleasure of your travel
adventures, as you can access assistance whenever it's required, even
during late-night hours.
o AI Prevents Breakdowns: AI works like a fortune teller for machines like
cars, planes, and roads. It predicts when they might get sick and need
fixing. This way, we can fix them before they break down and cause
problems. It keeps everything running smoothly, making travel safer and
saving a lot of time and money.
8. AI in Automotive Industry

o Self-Driving Cars: AI is like the brain of self-driving cars. It looks at

what's happening around the car using various sensors and decides
what the car should do, like turning or stopping. It's like having a super-
smart driver that doesn't need a person. This makes cars drive on their
own, making travel more convenient and safer because there's no need
for a human to steer.
o Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS): AI adds extra smarts to
your car to keep you safe. It possesses the capability to autonomously
adjust your vehicle's speed while on the highway, assist in maintaining
your lane, and swiftly engage the brakes when detecting potential
hazards. These intelligent functionalities function akin to a co-pilot,
ensuring your safety by preventing accidents and ensuring your safe
arrival at your intended destination.
o Streamlining Production Processes: AI watches over machines, checks if
they're healthy, and makes sure they don't break. It also helps with
ordering materials and makes sure everything is made just right. This
makes things faster, cheaper, and better quality, like having a super
factory manager.
o Voice Recognition: AI-driven voice recognition systems allow drivers to
control various functions in their vehicles, such as navigation, music,
and communication, using natural language.
9. AI in Robotics:
 o Self-Moving Robots: AI makes robots really smart at moving around on
their own. It's like giving them a built-in GPS and a clever brain. They
can figure out where to go and how to get there without bumping into
things or needing a person to show them the way. This helps them do
tasks like delivering packages or exploring places on their own, making
them super independent.
o Object Recognition and Manipulation: AI gives robots sharp eyes and
clever hands. It helps them see objects clearly and then pick them up
and move them just right. This is super useful, especially in places like
warehouses, where they can do things like sorting and packing items
accurately.
o Collaboration of Humans and Robots: AI makes it possible for robots to
be great team players with people. They can work alongside humans,
helping out and learning from them. If a person does something, the
robot can understand and follow their lead. This makes workplaces safer
and more efficient, like having a trusty robot colleague who understands
and supports you.
10. AI in Entertainment
 o Recommendation of Content: AI looks at what customers have liked
before, such as movies or music, and suggests new things that they
might enjoy. It's like having a personal entertainment guide, making
their experience more enjoyable by offering just what they like.
o AI as a Creative Assistant: AI acts as a creative sidekick for artists and
creators. It can make music, art, and videos or help improve what they
create. It's like having a helper that speeds up the creative process,
making it easier to bring new ideas to life. This way, artists can focus
more on their vision, and AI handles the technical bits.
o Live Event and Performance Enhancements: AI makes live events and
performances even cooler. It can translate what people are saying in
real time, add cool effects that blend with what's happening, and even
predict what the audience will like. This makes shows and events more
exciting and enjoyable for everyone there. It's like having a magic touch
that brings performances to life in new and amazing ways.
11. AI in Agriculture

o Crop Observation and Control: AI, with the help of various sensors, acts
as a guardian for crops on the farm. It keeps an eye on them, making
sure they're healthy and growing well. It tells farmers when it's the best
time to plant, water, and harvest the most crops. It's like having a farm
expert who ensures the fields are super productive so farmers can get
the most out of their hard work.
 o Smart Farming for Efficiency: AI makes farming super efficient. It helps
farmers use just the right amount of things like fertilizer and pesticides,
not too much and not too little. This means there's less waste, and the
crops grow better. It's like having a precise chef in the field, making sure
everything is just perfect for the plants to thrive and produce lots of
food.
o Automated Farming: AI controls a number of machines like tractors and
drones. These machines can plant seeds, remove weeds, and spray stuff
on crops all by themselves. They do it super well and exactly as needed,
like having expert farmers who never get tired and work perfectly,
making farming easier and more efficient.
o Monitoring Livestock: AI uses special sensors and smart data analysis to
make sure they're healthy and happy. If anything is wrong, it alerts the
farmer. This way, the animals are well taken care of, and the farm can
run smoothly. It's like having a watchful friend for the animals, making
sure they're okay and the farm works better.
12. AI in E-commerce
o Personalized Product Suggestions: AI looks at what you've looked at
and bought before and suggests things you might really like. It's like
having a personal shopper who knows your style, making your online
shopping more fun and helping you discover new things you might want
to buy. Plus, it's great for the store because it helps them sell more, and
as a customer, it saves your time.
o Managing Inventory: AI takes care of a store's shelves. It predicts how
much of each product people will buy and automatically orders more
when needed. In this manner, there exists an optimal balance of
products, preventing excessive stock that ties up funds while also
ensuring an adequate supply to prevent customers from leaving without
making a purchase.
o Dynamic Pricing: Artificial intelligence dynamically adjusts pricing
according to demand, market competition, and inventory levels,
ensuring customers receive optimal value while enhancing the store's
profitability.
13. AI in education:

o Education Content Creation: AI acts as a teaching assistant for

educators. It helps them make things like quizzes, lesson plans, and
study materials. This makes teaching easier and better because
educators have more time for students, and the materials are top-
notch. It's like having a super-efficient helper who does the paperwork,
leaving teachers more time to inspire students.
o Virtual Learning Assistants: AI is there to answer questions, explain
things, and offer help whenever students need it, day or night. This
makes learning easier and more fun because students have someone to
turn to whenever they're stuck. It also takes some pressure off teachers
because AI can handle common questions, leaving more time for
personalized teaching.
o Automated Assessment and Instant Feedback: AI acts like a super-
speedy homework checker. It looks at your assignments and tests and
gives you grades and feedback right away. This aids in gauging your
progress and pinpointing areas for potential enhancement.
Furthermore, it alleviates some of your teacher's grading
responsibilities, allowing them to dedicate more time to teaching rather
than paper evaluation.
o Customized Learning Routes: AI figures out what you're good at and
where you might need extra help. Then, it gives you the right stuff to
learn and the best way to learn it. This makes learning easier and more
fun.
Conclusion
The applications of AI are vast and diverse, touching nearly every aspect of our
lives. From healthcare to finance, astronomy to gaming, and transportation to
entertainment, AI is reshaping industries and propelling us into a future where
the possibilities seem limitless. As AI continues to advance, its impact on
society is poised to grow, promising increased efficiency, better decision-
making, and innovative solutions to some of our most pressing challenges.
Embracing and responsibly harnessing the power History of Artificial
Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not a new technology for
researchers. This technology is much older than you would imagine. Even
there are the myths of Mechanical men in Ancient Greek and Egyptian Myths.
Following are some milestones in the history of AI which defines the journey
from the AI generation to till date development.

Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

Between 1943 and 1952, there was notable progress in the expansion of
artificial intelligence (AI). Throughout this period, AI transitioned from a mere
concept to tangible experiments and practical applications. Here are some key
events that happened during this period:
 o Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by
Warren McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model
of artificial neurons.
o Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying
the connection strength between neurons. His rule is now called
Hebbian learning.
o Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and
pioneered Machine learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing
Machinery and Intelligence" in which he proposed a test. The test can
check the machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to
human intelligence, called a Turing test.
o Year 1951: Marvin Minsky and Dean Edmonds created the initial
artificial neural network (ANN) named SNARC. They utilized 3,000
vacuum tubes to mimic a network of 40 neurons.
The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)
From 1952 to 1956, AI surfaced as a unique domain of investigation. During
this period, pioneers and forward-thinkers commenced the groundwork for
what would ultimately transform into a revolutionary technological domain.
Here are notable occurrences from this era:
o Year 1952: Arthur Samuel pioneered the creation of the Samuel
Checkers-Playing Program, which marked the world's first self-learning
program for playing games.
o Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first
artificial intelligence program"Which was named as "Logic Theorist".
This program had proved 38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new
and more elegant proofs for some theorems.
o Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American
Computer scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For
the first time, AI coined as an academic field.
At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP, or COBOL
were invented. And the enthusiasm for AI was very high at that time.
The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)
The period from 1956 to 1974 is commonly known as the "Golden Age" of
artificial intelligence (AI). In this timeframe, AI researchers and innovators
were filled with enthusiasm and achieved remarkable advancements in the
field. Here are some notable events from this era:
o Year 1958: During this period, Frank Rosenblatt introduced the
perceptron, one of the early artificial neural networks with the ability to
learn from data. This invention laid the foundation for modern neural
networks. Simultaneously, John McCarthy developed the Lisp
programming language, which swiftly found favor within the AI
community, becoming highly popular among developers.
o Year 1959: Arthur Samuel is credited with introducing the phrase
"machine learning" in a pivotal paper in which he proposed that
computers could be programmed to surpass their creators in
performance. Additionally, Oliver Selfridge made a notable contribution
to machine learning with his publication "Pandemonium: A Paradigm for
Learning." This work outlined a model capable of self-improvement,
enabling it to discover patterns in events more effectively.
o Year 1964: During his time as a doctoral candidate at MIT, Daniel
Bobrow created STUDENT, one of the early programs for natural
language processing (NLP), with the specific purpose of solving algebra
word problems.
o Year 1965: The initial expert system, Dendral, was devised by Edward
Feigenbaum, Bruce G. Buchanan, Joshua Lederberg, and Carl Djerassi. It
aided organic chemists in identifying unfamiliar organic compounds.
o Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms that can
solve mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first
chatbot in 1966, which was named ELIZA. Furthermore, Stanford
Research Institute created Shakey, the earliest mobile intelligent robot
incorporating AI, computer vision, navigation, and NLP. It can be
considered a precursor to today's self-driving cars and drones.
o Year 1968: Terry Winograd developed SHRDLU, which was the
pioneering multimodal AI capable of following user instructions to
manipulate and reason within a world of blocks.
 o Year 1969: Arthur Bryson and Yu-Chi Ho outlined a learning algorithm
known as backpropagation, which enabled the development of
multilayer artificial neural networks. This represented a significant
advancement beyond the perceptron and laid the groundwork for deep
learning. Additionally, Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert authored the
book "Perceptrons," which elucidated the constraints of basic neural
networks. This publication led to a decline in neural network research
and a resurgence in symbolic AI research.
o Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan, which
was named WABOT-1.
o Year 1973: James Lighthill published the report titled "Artificial
Intelligence: A General Survey," resulting in a substantial reduction in
the British government's backing for AI research.
The first AI winter (1974-1980)
The initial AI winter, occurring from 1974 to 1980, is known as a tough period
for artificial intelligence (AI). During this time, there was a substantial decrease
in research funding, and AI faced a sense of letdown.
o The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter
duration. AI winter refers to the time period where computer scientist
dealt with a severe shortage of funding from government for AI
researches.
o During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence was
decreased.
A boom of AI (1980-1987)
Between 1980 and 1987, AI underwent a renaissance and newfound vitality
after the challenging era of the First AI Winter. Here are notable occurrences
from this timeframe:
o In 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of
Artificial Intelligence was held at Stanford University.
o Year 1980: After AI's winter duration, AI came back with an "Expert
System". Expert systems were programmed to emulate the decision-
making ability of a human expert. Additionally, Symbolics Lisp machines
were brought into commercial use, marking the onset of an AI
 resurgence. However, in subsequent years, the Lisp machine market
experienced a significant downturn.
o Year 1981: Danny Hillis created parallel computers tailored for AI and
various computational functions, featuring an architecture akin to
contemporary GPUs.
o Year 1984: Marvin Minsky and Roger Schank introduced the phrase "AI
winter" during a gathering of the Association for the Advancement of
Artificial Intelligence. They cautioned the business world that
exaggerated expectations about AI would result in disillusionment and
the eventual downfall of the industry, which indeed occurred three
years later.
o Year 1985: Judea Pearl introduced Bayesian network causal analysis,
presenting statistical methods for encoding uncertainty in computer
systems.
The second AI winter (1987-1993)
o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter
duration.
o Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as
due to high cost but not efficient result. The expert system such as
XCON was very cost effective.
The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)
Between 1993 and 2011, there were significant leaps forward in artificial
intelligence (AI), particularly in the development of intelligent computer
programs. During this era, AI professionals shifted their emphasis from
attempting to match human intelligence to crafting pragmatic, ingenious
software tailored to specific tasks. Here are some noteworthy occurrences
from this timeframe:
o Year 1997: In 1997, IBM's Deep Blue achieved a historic milestone by
defeating world chess champion Gary Kasparov, marking the first time a
computer triumphed over a reigning world chess champion. Moreover,
Sepp Hochreiter and Jürgen Schmidhuber introduced the Long Short-
Term Memory recurrent neural network, revolutionizing the capability
to process entire sequences of data such as speech or video.
 o Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of
Roomba, a vacuum cleaner.
o Year 2006: AI came into the Business world till the year 2006.
Companies like Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI.
o Year 2009: Rajat Raina, Anand Madhavan, and Andrew Ng released the
paper titled "Utilizing Graphics Processors for Extensive Deep
Unsupervised Learning," introducing the concept of employing GPUs for
the training of expansive neural networks.
o Year 2011: Jürgen Schmidhuber, Dan Claudiu Cire?an, Ueli Meier, and
Jonathan Masci created the initial CNN that attained "superhuman"
performance by emerging as the victor in the German Traffic Sign
Recognition competition. Furthermore, Apple launched Siri, a voice-
activated personal assistant capable of generating responses and
executing actions in response to voice commands.
Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence (2011-present)
From 2011 to the present moment, significant advancements have unfolded
within the artificial intelligence (AI) domain. These achievements can be
attributed to the amalgamation of deep learning, extensive data application,
and the ongoing quest for artificial general intelligence (AGI). Here are notable
occurrences from this timeframe:
o Year 2011: In 2011, IBM's Watson won Jeopardy, a quiz show where it
had to solve complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved
that it could understand natural language and can solve tricky questions
quickly.
o Year 2012: Google launched an Android app feature, "Google Now",
which was able to provide information to the user as a prediction.
Further, Geoffrey Hinton, Ilya Sutskever, and Alex Krizhevsky presented a
deep CNN structure that emerged victorious in the ImageNet challenge,
sparking the proliferation of research and application in the field of
deep learning.
o Year 2013: China's Tianhe-2 system achieved a remarkable feat by
doubling the speed of the world's leading supercomputers to reach
33.86 petaflops. It retained its status as the world's fastest system for
the third consecutive time. Furthermore, DeepMind unveiled deep
 reinforcement learning, a CNN that acquired skills through repetitive
learning and rewards, ultimately surpassing human experts in playing
games. Also, Google researcher Tomas Mikolov and his team introduced
Word2vec, a tool designed to automatically discern the semantic
connections among words.
o Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a
competition in the infamous "Turing test." Whereas Ian Goodfellow and
his team pioneered generative adversarial networks (GANs), a type of
machine learning framework employed for producing images, altering
pictures, and crafting deepfakes, and Diederik Kingma and Max Welling
introduced variational autoencoders (VAEs) for generating images,
videos, and text. Also, Facebook engineered the DeepFace deep
learning facial recognition system, capable of identifying human faces in
digital images with accuracy nearly comparable to human capabilities.
o Year 2016: DeepMind's AlphaGo secured victory over the esteemed Go
player Lee Sedol in Seoul, South Korea, prompting reminiscence of the
Kasparov chess match against Deep Blue nearly two decades
earlier.Whereas Uber initiated a pilot program for self-driving cars in
Pittsburgh, catering to a limited group of users.
o Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics
with two master debaters and also performed extremely well.
o Google has demonstrated an AI program, "Duplex," which was a virtual
assistant that had taken hairdresser appointments on call, and the lady
on the other side didn't notice that she was talking with the machine.
o Year 2021: OpenAI unveiled the Dall-E multimodal AI system, capable of
producing images based on textual prompts.
o Year 2022: In November, OpenAI launched ChatGPT, offering a chat-
oriented interface to its GPT-3.5 LLM.
Now AI has developed to a remarkable level. The concept of Deep learning,
big data, and data science are now trending like a boom. Nowadays companies
like Google, Facebook, IBM, and Amazon are working with AI and creating
amazing devices. The future of Artificial Intelligence is inspiring and will come
with high intelligence.
Types of Artificial Intelligence:
Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly two
types of main categorization which are based on capabilities and based on
functionally of AI. Following is flow diagram which explain the types of AI.

AI type-1: Based on Capabilities

1. Weak AI or Narrow AI:
o Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with
intelligence.The most common and currently available AI is Narrow AI in
the world of Artificial Intelligence.
o Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only
trained for one specific task. Hence it is also termed as weak AI. Narrow
AI can fail in unpredictable ways if it goes beyond its limits.
o Apple Siriis a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited
pre-defined range of functions.
o IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an
Expert system approach combined with Machine learning and natural
language processing.
o Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing suggestions
on e-commerce site, self-driving cars, speech recognition, and image
recognition.
2. General AI:
 o General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual
task with efficiency like a human.
o The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be
smarter and think like a human by its own.
o Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under general
AI and can perform any task as perfect as a human.
o The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines
with General AI.
o As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots
of efforts and time to develop such systems.
3. Super AI:
o Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could
surpass human intelligence, and can perform any task better than
human with cognitive properties. It is an outcome of general AI.
o Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the
ability to think, to reason,solve the puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn,
and communicate by its own.
o Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence.
Development of such systems in real is still world changing task.

Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on functionality

1. Reactive Machines
 o Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial
Intelligence.
o Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future
actions.
o These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per
possible best action.
o IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.
o Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.
2. Limited Memory
o Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for
a short period of time.
o These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.
o Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory
systems. These cars can store recent speed of nearby cars, the distance
of other cars, speed limit, and other information to navigate the road.
3. Theory of Mind
o Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people,
beliefs, and be able to interact socially like humans.
o This type of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are
making lots of efforts and improvement for developing such AI
machines.
4. Self-Awareness
o Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines
will be super intelligent, and will have their own consciousness,
sentiments, and self-awareness.
o These machines will be smarter than human mind.
o Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical
concept.
Agents in Artificial Intelligence
An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its
environment. The agents sense the environment through sensors and act on
their environment through actuators. An AI agent can have mental properties
such as knowledge, belief, intention, etc.
What is an Agent?
An agent can be anything that perceiveits environment through sensors and
act upon that environment through actuators. An Agent runs in the cycle
of perceiving, thinking, and acting. An agent can be:
o Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which
work for sensors and hand, legs, vocal tract work for actuators.
o Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range finder,
NLP for sensors and various motors for actuators.
o Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as
sensory input and act on those inputs and display output on the screen.
Hence the world around us is full of agents such as thermostat, cellphone,
camera, and even we are also agents.
Before moving forward, we should first know about sensors, effectors, and
actuators.
Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and
sends the information to other electronic devices. An agent observes its
environment through sensors.
Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy
into motion. The actuators are only responsible for moving and controlling a
system. An actuator can be an electric motor, gears, rails, etc.
Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can
be legs, wheels, arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.
 Intelligent Agents:
An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an environment
using sensors and actuators for achieving goals. An intelligent agent may learn
from the environment to achieve their goals. A thermostat is an example of an
intelligent agent.
Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:
o Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.
o Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.
o Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.
o Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.
Rational Agent:
A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty,
and acts in a way to maximize its performance measure with all possible
actions.
A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating rational
agents to use for game theory and decision theory for various real-world
scenarios.
For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI
reinforcement learning algorithm, for each best possible action, agent gets the
positive reward and for each wrong action, an agent gets a negative reward.
Note: Rational agents in AI are very similar to intelligent agents.
Rationality:
 The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure.
Rationality can be judged on the basis of following points:
o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.
o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
o The sequence of percepts.
Note: Rationality differs from Omniscience because an Omniscient agent
knows the actual outcome of its action and act accordingly, which is not
possible in reality.
Structure of an AI Agent
The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent
function. The structure of an intelligent agent is a combination of architecture
and agent program. It can be viewed as:
1. Agent = Architecture + Agent program
Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:
Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.
Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.
1. f:P* → A
Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function. An
agent program executes on the physical architecture to produce function f.
PEAS Representation
PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an
AI agent or rational agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS
representation model. It is made up of four words:
o P: Performance measure
o E: Environment
o A: Actuators
o S: Sensors
Here performance measure is the objective for the success of an agent's
behavior.
PEAS for self-driving cars:

Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:

Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort
Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian
Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn
Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.
Agent Environment in AI

Types of AI Agents
Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived
intelligence and capability. All these agents can improve their performance
and generate better action over the time. These are given below:
o Simple Reflex Agent
o Model-based reflex agent
o Goal-based agents
 o Utility-based agent
o Learning agent
1. Simple Reflex agent:
o The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents take
decisions on the basis of the current percepts and ignore the rest of the
percept history.
o These agents only succeed in the fully observable environment.
o The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of percepts history
during their decision and action process.
o The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule, which means it
maps the current state to action. Such as a Room Cleaner agent, it
works only if there is dirt in the room.
o Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:
o They have very limited intelligence
o They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the
current state
o Mostly too big to generate and to store.
o Not adaptive to changes in the environment.
2. Model-based reflex agent
o The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable environment,
and track the situation.
o A model-based agent has two important factors:
o Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the world,"
so it is called a Model-based agent.
o Internal State: It is a representation of the current state based on
percept history.
o These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world" and
based on the model they perform actions.
o Updating the agent state requires information about:
o How the world evolves
o How the agent's action affects the world.

3. Goal-based agents
o The knowledge of the current state environment is not always sufficient
to decide for an agent to what to do.
o The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable situations.
 o Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-based agent by
having the "goal" information.
o They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.
o These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible actions
before deciding whether the goal is achieved or not. Such
considerations of different scenario are called searching and planning,
which makes an agent proactive.

4. Utility-based agents
o These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide an extra
component of utility measurement which makes them different by
providing a measure of success at a given state.
o Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best way to
achieve the goal.
o The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible
alternatives, and an agent has to choose in order to perform the best
action.
o The utility function maps each state to a real number to check how
efficiently each action achieves the goals.
5. Learning Agents
o A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past
experiences, or it has learning capabilities.
o It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt
automatically through learning.
o A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:
o Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by
learning from environment
o Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which
describes that how well the agent is doing with respect to a fixed
performance standard.
o Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external
action
o Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting
actions that will lead to new and informative experiences.
o Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look
for new ways to improve the performance.
An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is
not a part of an agent itself. An environment can be described as a situation in
which an agent is present.
The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with
something to sense and act upon it. An environment is mostly said to be non-
feministic.
Features of Environment
As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from the
point of view of an agent:
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable
2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:
o If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an
environment at each point in time then it is a fully observable
environment, it is partially observable. For reference, Imagine a chess-
playing agent. In this case, the agent can fully observe the state of the
chessboard at all times. Its sensors (in this case, vision or the ability to
access the board's state) provide complete information about the
current position of all pieces. This is a fully observable environment
because the agent has perfect information about the state of the world.
o A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain
the internal state to keep track of the history of the world. For
reference, Consider a self-driving car navigating a busy city. While the
car has sensors like cameras, lidar, and radar, it can't see everything at
all times. Buildings, other vehicles, and pedestrians can obstruct its
sensors. In this scenario, the car's environment is partially observable
because it doesn't have complete and constant access to all relevant
information. It needs to maintain an internal state and history to make
informed decisions even when some information is temporarily
unavailable.
o An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment
is called unobservable. For reference, think about an agent designed to
 predict earthquakes but placed in a sealed, windowless room with no
sensors or access to external data. In this situation, the environment is
unobservable because the agent has no way to gather information
about the outside world. It can't sense any aspect of its environment,
making it completely unobservable.
2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:
o If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine
the next state of the environment, then such an environment is called a
deterministic environment. For reference, Chess is a classic example of a
deterministic environment. In chess, the rules are well-defined, and
each move made by a player has a clear and predictable outcome based
on those rules. If you move a pawn from one square to another, the
resulting state of the chessboard is entirely determined by that action,
as is your opponent's response. There's no randomness or uncertainty
in the outcomes of chess moves because they follow strict rules. In a
deterministic environment like chess, knowing the current state and the
actions taken allows you to completely determine the next state.
o A stochastic environment is random and cannot be determined
completely by an agent. For reference, The stock market is an example
of a stochastic environment. It's highly influenced by a multitude of
unpredictable factors, including economic events, investor sentiment,
and news. While there are patterns and trends, the exact behavior of
stock prices is inherently random and cannot be completely determined
by any individual or agent. Even with access to extensive data and
analysis tools, stock market movements can exhibit a high degree of
unpredictability. Random events and market sentiment play significant
roles, introducing uncertainty.
o In a deterministic, fully observable environment, an agent does not
need to worry about uncertainty.
3. Episodic vs Sequential:
o In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and
only the current percept is required for the action. For example, Tic-Tac-
Toe is a classic example of an episodic environment. In this game, two
players take turns placing their symbols (X or O) on a 3x3 grid. Each
move by a player is independent of previous moves, and the goal is to
 form a line of three symbols horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. The
game consists of a series of one-shot actions where the current state of
the board is the only thing that matters for the next move. There's no
need for the players to remember past moves because they don't affect
the current move. The game is self-contained and episodic.
o However, in a Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of
past actions to determine the next best actions. For example, Chess is
an example of a sequential environment. Unlike Tic-Tac-Toe, chess is a
complex game where the outcome of each move depends on a
sequence of previous moves. In chess, players must consider the history
of the game, as the current position of pieces, previous moves, and
potential future moves all influence the best course of action. To play
chess effectively, players need to maintain a memory of past actions,
anticipate future moves, and plan their strategies accordingly. It's a
sequential environment because the sequence of actions and the
history of the game significantly impact decision-making.
4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
o If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself
then such an environment is called a single-agent environment. For
example, Solitaire is a classic example of a single-agent environment.
When you play Solitaire, you're the only agent involved. You make all
the decisions and actions to achieve a goal, which is to arrange a deck of
cards in a specific way. There are no other agents or players interacting
with you. It's a solitary game where the outcome depends solely on
your decisions and moves. In this single-agent environment, the agent
doesn't need to consider the actions or decisions of other entities.
o However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such
an environment is called a multi-agent environment. For reference, A
soccer match is an example of a multi-agent environment. In a soccer
game, there are two teams, each consisting of multiple players (agents).
These players work together to achieve common goals (scoring goals
and preventing the opposing team from scoring). Each player has their
own set of actions and decisions, and they interact with both their
teammates and the opposing team. The outcome of the game depends
on the coordinated actions and strategies of all the agents on the field.
 It's a multi-agent environment because there are multiple autonomous
entities (players) interacting in a shared environment.
o The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are different
from single-agent environments.
5. Static vs Dynamic:
o If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then
such an environment is called a dynamic environment it is called a static
environment.
o Static environments are easy to deal with because an agent does not
need to continue looking at the world while deciding on an action. For
reference, A crossword puzzle is an example of a static environment.
When you work on a crossword puzzle, the puzzle itself doesn't change
while you're thinking about your next move. The arrangement of clues
and empty squares remains constant throughout your problem-solving
process. You can take your time to deliberate and find the best word to
fill in each blank, and the puzzle's state remains unaltered during this
process. It's a static environment because there are no changes in the
puzzle based on your deliberations.
o However, for a dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at
the world at each action. For reference, Taxi driving is an example of a
dynamic environment. When you're driving a taxi, the environment is
constantly changing. The road conditions, traffic, pedestrians, and other
vehicles all contribute to the dynamic nature of this environment. As a
taxi driver, you need to keep a constant watch on the road and adapt
your actions in real time based on the changing circumstances. The
environment can change rapidly, requiring your continuous attention
and decision-making. It's a dynamic environment because it evolves
while you're deliberating and taking action.
6. Discrete vs Continuous:
o If in an environment, there are a finite number of percepts and actions
that can be performed within it, then such an environment is called a
discrete environment it is called a continuous environment.
o Chess is an example of a discrete environment. In chess, there are a
finite number of distinct chess pieces (e.g., pawns, rooks, knights) and a
 finite number of squares on the chessboard. The rules of chess define
clear, discrete moves that a player can make. Each piece can be in a
specific location on the board, and players take turns making individual,
well-defined moves. The state of the chessboard is discrete and can be
described by the positions of the pieces on the board.
o Controlling a robotic arm to perform precise movements in a factory
setting is an example of a continuous environment. In this context, the
robot arm's position and orientation can exist along a continuous
spectrum. There are virtually infinite possible positions and orientations
for the robotic arm within its workspace. The control inputs to move the
arm, such as adjusting joint angles or applying forces, can also vary
continuously. Agents in this environment must operate within a
continuous state and action space, and they need to make precise,
continuous adjustments to achieve their goals.
7. Known vs Unknown
o Known and unknown are not actually a feature of an environment, but
it is an agent's state of knowledge to perform an action.
o In a known environment, the results of all actions are known to the
agent. While in an unknown environment, an agent needs to learn how
it works in order to perform an action.
o It is quite possible for a known environment to be partially observable
and an Unknown environment to be fully observable.
o The opening theory in chess can be considered as a known environment
for experienced chess players. Chess has a vast body of knowledge
regarding opening moves, strategies, and responses. Experienced
players are familiar with established openings, and they have studied
various sequences of moves and their outcomes. When they make their
initial moves in a game, they have a good understanding of the potential
consequences based on their knowledge of known openings.
o Imagine a scenario where a rover or drone is sent to explore an alien
planet with no prior knowledge or maps of the terrain. In this unknown
environment, the agent (rover or drone) has to explore and learn about
the terrain as it goes along. It doesn't have prior knowledge of the
landscape, potential hazards, or valuable resources. The agent needs to
 use sensors and data it collects during exploration to build a map and
understand how the terrain works. It operates in an unknown
environment because the results and consequences of its actions are
not initially known, and it must learn from its experiences.
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible
o If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the
state's environment, then such an environment is called an Accessible
environment else it is called inaccessible.
o For example, Imagine an empty room equipped with highly accurate
temperature sensors. These sensors can provide real-time temperature
measurements at any point within the room. An agent placed in this
room can obtain complete and accurate information about the
temperature at different locations. It can access this information at any
time, allowing it to make decisions based on the precise temperature
data. This environment is accessible because the agent can acquire
complete and accurate information about the state of the room,
specifically its temperature.
o For example, Consider a scenario where a satellite in space is tasked
with monitoring a specific event taking place on Earth, such as a natural
disaster or a remote area's condition. While the satellite can capture
images and data from space, it cannot access fine-grained information
about the event's details. For example, it may see a forest fire occurring
but cannot determine the exact temperature at specific locations within
the fire or identify individual objects on the ground. The satellite's
observations provide valuable data, but the environment it is
monitoring (Earth) is vast and complex, making it impossible to access
complete and detailed information about all aspects of the event. In this
case, the Earth's surface is an inaccessible environment for obtaining
fine-grained information about specific events

Turing Test in AI
In 1950, Alan Turing introduced a test to check whether a machine can think
like a human or not, this test is known as the Turing Test. In this test, Turing
proposed that the computer can be said to be an intelligent if it can mimic
human response under specific conditions.
Turing Test was introduced by Turing in his 1950 paper, "Computing Machinery
and Intelligence," which considered the question, "Can Machine think?"

The Turing test is based on a party game "Imitation game," with some
modifications. This game involves three players in which one player is
Computer, another player is human responder, and the third player is a human
Interrogator, who is isolated from other two players and his job is to find that
which player is machine among two of them.
Consider, Player A is a computer, Player B is human, and Player C is an
interrogator. Interrogator is aware that one of them is machine, but he needs
to identify this on the basis of questions and their responses.
Backward Skip 10sPlay VideoForward Skip 10s
The conversation between all players is via keyboard and screen so the result
would not depend on the machine's ability to convert words as speech.
The test result does not depend on each correct answer, but only how closely
its responses like a human answer. The computer is permitted to do
everything possible to force a wrong identification by the interrogator.
The questions and answers can be like:
Interrogator: Are you a computer?
PlayerA (Computer): No
Interrogator: Multiply two large numbers such as (256896489*456725896)
Player A: Long pause and give the wrong answer.
In this game, if an interrogator would not be able to identify which is a
machine and which is human, then the computer passes the test successfully,
and the machine is said to be intelligent and can think like a human.
"In 1991, the New York businessman Hugh Loebner announces the prize
competition, offering a $100,000 prize for the first computer to pass the Turing
test. However, no AI program to till date, come close to passing an undiluted
Turing test".
History of Turing Test
The Turing Test, introduced by Alan Turing in 1950, is a crucial milestone in the
history of artificial intelligence (AI). It came to light in his paper titled
'Computing Machinery and Intelligence.' Turing aimed to address a profound
question: Can machines mimic human-like intelligence?
This curiosity arose from Turing's fascination with the concept of creating
thinking machines that exhibit intelligent behavior. He proposed the Turing
Test as a practical method to determine if a machine can engage in natural
language conversations convincingly, making a human evaluator believe it's
human.
Turing's work on this test laid the foundation for AI research and spurred
discussions about machine intelligence. It provided a framework for evaluating
AI systems. Over time, the Turing Test has evolved and remains a topic of
debate and improvement. Its historical importance in shaping AI is undeniable,
continuously motivating AI researchers and serving as a benchmark for
gauging AI advancements.
Variations of the Turing Test
Over the years, different versions of the Turing Test have appeared to
overcome its constraints and deliver a more thorough assessment of AI
capabilities:
1. Total Turing Test: This extended version of the Turing Test goes beyond
text-based conversations. It assesses the machine's capacity to
comprehend and respond to not just words but also visual and physical
cues presented by the interrogator. This includes recognizing objects
shown to it and taking requested actions in response. Essentially, it
examines if the AI can interact with the world in a way that reflects a
deeper level of understanding.
2. Reverse Turing Test: In a twist on the traditional Turing Test, the roles
are reversed here. In this variation, it's the machine that plays the role
of the interrogator. Its task is to differentiate between humans and
other machines based on the responses it receives. This reversal
challenges the AI to evaluate the intelligence of others, highlighting its
ability to detect artificial intelligence.
3. Multimodal Turing Test: In a world where communication takes many
forms, the Multimodal Turing Test assesses AI's capability to understand
and respond to various modes of communication concurrently. It
examines whether AI can seamlessly process and respond to text,
speech, images, and potentially other modes simultaneously. This
variation acknowledges the diverse ways we communicate and tests if
AI can keep up with our multifaceted interactions.
Chatbots to attempt the Turing test:
ELIZA: ELIZA was a Natural language processing computer program created by
Joseph Weizenbaum. It was created to demonstrate the ability of
communication between machine and humans. It was one of the first
chatterbots, which has attempted the Turing Test.
Parry: Parry was a chatterbot created by Kenneth Colby in 1972. Parry was
designed to simulate a person with Paranoid schizophrenia(most common
chronic mental disorder). Parry was described as "ELIZA with attitude." Parry
was tested using a variation of the Turing Test in the early 1970s.
Eugene Goostman: Eugene Goostman was a chatbot developed in Saint
Petersburg in 2001. This bot has competed in the various number of Turing
Test. In June 2012, at an event, Goostman won the competition promoted as
largest-ever Turing test content, in which it has convinced 29% of judges that it
was a human.Goostman resembled as a 13-year old virtual boy.
The Chinese Room Argument:
There were many philosophers who really disagreed with the complete
concept of Artificial Intelligence. The most famous argument in this list was
"Chinese Room."
In the year 1980, John Searle presented "Chinese Room" thought experiment,
in his paper "Mind, Brains, and Program," which was against the validity of
Turing's Test. According to his argument, "Programming a computer may
make it to understand a language, but it will not produce a real
understanding of language or consciousness in a computer."
He argued that Machine such as ELIZA and Parry could easily pass the Turing
test by manipulating keywords and symbol, but they had no real
understanding of language. So it cannot be described as "thinking" capability
of a machine such as a human.
Features required for a machine to pass the Turing test:
o Natural language processing: NLP is required to communicate with
Interrogator in general human language like English.
o Knowledge representation: To store and retrieve information during the
test.
o Automated reasoning: To use the previously stored information for
answering the questions.
o Machine learning: To adapt new changes and can detect generalized
patterns.
o Vision (For total Turing test): To recognize the interrogator actions and
other objects during a test.
o Motor Control (For total Turing test): To act upon objects if requested.
Limitation of Turing Test
o Not a True Measure of Intelligence: Passing the Turing Test doesn't
guarantee genuine machine intelligence or consciousness. Critics, like
John Searle's "Chinese Room" argument, contend that a computer can
simulate human-like responses without understanding or
consciousness.
o Simplicity of Test Scenarios: The Turing Test primarily focuses on text-
based interactions, which might not fully assess a machine's capacity to
comprehend and respond to the complexities of the real world.
Conclusion
The Turing Test still serves as a pivotal benchmark for assessing AI's
conversational skills in today's context. It continues to be instrumental in the
development and evaluation of chatbots and virtual assistants. Many
companies and developers employ different versions of the test to gauge how
well their AI systems can engage in conversation.
However, it's worth noting that while the Turing Test maintains its relevance,
the AI field has progressed significantly beyond its scope. Modern AI systems
leverage advanced natural language processing, machine learning, and deep
learning techniques, empowering them to execute tasks much more intricate
than imitating human dialogue. AI's applications now span a wide array of
fields, from healthcare and finance to autonomous vehicles and image
recognition, showcasing its diverse capabilities that extend well beyond mere
conversation.