SCIENCE 𝜗𝜚.
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Key Concepts of Atomic Theory
The concept of atoms dates back to 500 B.C. with Democritus, who proposed that matter is composed of
indivisible particles called atoms.
Aristotle countered with a continuous view of matter, rejecting the idea of indivisible particles.
John Dalton in the 1800s introduced the modern atomic theory, describing atoms as tiny indivisible
spheres.
Historical Timeline of Atomic Models
Democritus (500 B.C.): Proposed the idea of atoms as indivisible particles.
John Dalton (1800s): Developed the modern atomic theory, emphasizing the indivisibility of atoms.
J.J. Thomson (1897): Introduced the Raisin Bread Model, depicting atoms as a positive cloud with
embedded electrons.
Key Experiments and Discoveries
Rutherford's Alpha-Scattering Experiment (1909): Tested Thomson's model, leading to significant
discoveries about atomic structure.
Observations included most alpha particles passing through undeflected, some deflected at angles, and a
few bouncing back, indicating a dense nucleus.
Detailed Analysis of Atomic Models
J.J. Thomson's Atomic Model
Thomson's model depicted the atom as a 'cloud' of positive charge with electrons scattered throughout,
known as the Raisin Bread Model.
This model was significant in understanding the distribution of charge within the atom.
Rutherford's Nuclear Model
Rutherford concluded that most of the atom's volume is empty space, with a dense nucleus at the center
containing most of the atom's mass and positive charge.
His model illustrated electrons orbiting around the nucleus, akin to planets around the sun.
Discovery of the Neutron
James Chadwick discovered the neutron, adding to the understanding of atomic structure by explaining
the presence of neutral particles in the nucleus.
Summary and Key Questions
Key Questions for Review
Describe the atomic model proposed by J.J. Thomson and its significance.
What experiment did Ernest Rutherford perform, and what were his observations and conclusions?
Why was Thomson's model ultimately rejected?
How did Rutherford illustrate the atom, and what name was given to his model?
Who discovered the neutron, and what was its impact on atomic theory?
Definition of Atom
The atom is the smallest, basic unit of matter.
Atoms are composed of smaller parts called subatomic particles.
Subatomic Particles
The three main subatomic particles are protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus, while electrons orbit around it.
Properties of Subatomic Particles
Charges of Subatomic Particles
Protons have a positive charge, while electrons have a negative charge.
The charges of protons and electrons are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
Mass of Subatomic Particles
Protons and neutrons have almost the same mass, which is significantly greater than that of electrons.
The mass of electrons is considered negligible compared to protons and neutrons.
Structure of the Atom
Nucleus Composition
The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, collectively referred to as nucleons.
The mass of an atom is primarily determined by the mass of the nucleus.
Neutrality of Atoms
An atom has an equal number of protons and electrons, resulting in a neutral charge.
This balance of charges is essential for the stability of the atom.
Atomic Number (Z)
Defined as the number of protons in an atom.
Unique to each element, as shown in the periodic table.
Example: Beryllium (Be) has an atomic number of 4, indicating 4 protons.
Differences Among Atoms
Unique Properties of Elements
Approximately 100 elements make up all matter.
Each element has unique atomic structures as discovered by Henry Moseley.
X-ray studies revealed that the number of protons differentiates elements.
Neutral Atoms and Charge
Atoms are neutral due to equal numbers of protons and electrons.
Example: Aluminum (Al) has 13 protons and 13 electrons, resulting in a net charge of zero.
The atomic number indicates both protons and electrons in a neutral atom.
Understanding Mass Number
Mass Number (A)
Defined as the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Electrons have negligible mass compared to protons and neutrons.
Example: Carbon has an atomic number of 6 and a mass number of 14, indicating 8 neutrons.
Nucleons and Their Role
Protons and neutrons are collectively known as nucleons.
Nucleons determine the mass number and overall mass of the atom.
Ions and Their Formation
Formation of Ions
An atom becomes an ion when the number of protons and electrons is unequal.
Example: 6 protons and 5 electrons result in a 1+ charge; 6 protons and 8 electrons result in a 2− charge.
Implications of Ion Formation
Ions can be positively or negatively charged based on the imbalance of protons and electrons.
Understanding ion formation is crucial for grasping chemical reactions.
Definition of Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.
They have identical atomic numbers but different atomic masses due to varying neutron counts.
Characteristics of Isotopes
The identity of an element is determined by the number of protons (atomic number).
Changing the number of neutrons alters the mass number but not the element's identity.
Representing Isotopes
Isotopic Notation
Isotopes can be represented in two ways: X-A notation and A/Z notation.
Example: Oxygen-16 can be represented as 16/8 O or O-16.
Mass Number and Atomic Number
Mass number (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus.
Applications of Isotopes
Uses of Radioisotopes
Carbon-14: Used in carbon dating and studying metabolism changes.
Cobalt-60: Employed in radiation therapy for cancer treatment.
Medical Applications
Iodine-131: Utilized for detecting brain tumors and thyroid disorders.
Technetium-99: Used as a radiotracer in medical diagnostics.
Research Applications
Hydrogen-3: Applied in life science and drug metabolism studies.
Selenium-85: Used in metabolism and bone formation studies.
Historical Contributions
The periodic table is a classification system for elements based on their properties.
Dmitri Mendeleev is credited with creating the first periodic table resembling the modern version.
Henry Moseley arranged elements by increasing atomic number, refining Mendeleev's work.
Mendeleev's Table Irregularities
Mendeleev's table had gaps for undiscovered elements, predicting their properties.
Some elements were placed out of order based on atomic mass to maintain group similarities.
The discovery of noble gases led to further adjustments in the table.
Evolution of the Modern Periodic Table
The modern periodic table is organized by atomic number rather than atomic mass.
Elements are grouped into families (vertical) and periods (horizontal).
The periodic law states that elements exhibit periodic properties when arranged by atomic number.
Structure of the Modern Periodic Table
Group and Period Definitions
Groups (or families) are vertical columns; there are 18 groups in total.
Periods are horizontal rows; there are 7 periods in the periodic table.
Classification of Elements
Elements are categorized into different types based on their properties:
Representative Elements: Groups IA to VIIA, including alkali metals and halogens.
Noble Gases: Group VIIIA, known for their lack of reactivity.
Transition Metals: Groups 3-12, characterized by their ability to form various oxidation states.
Element Families and Their Properties
1 - Alkali Metals: Soft, highly reactive metals
2 - Alkaline Earth Metals: Reactive metals, less so than alkali
13 - Boron Family: Contains metalloids and metals
14 - Carbon Family: Basis of organic chemistry
15 - Nitrogen Family: Contains nonmetals and metalloids
16 - Oxygen Family: Reactive nonmetals
17 - Halogen Family: Very reactive nonmetals
18 - Noble Gases: Inert gases, rarely react
Understanding Periodicity
Concept of Periodicity
Periodicity refers to the repeating patterns of properties in the periodic table.
Elements in the same group share similar physical and chemical properties.
The arrangement of elements allows predictions about unknown elements based on their group.
Example of Alkali Metals
Alkali metals are soft, silvery-white, and highly reactive with water.
Francium is the least stable and most reactive alkali metal, predicted based on group properties.
The reactivity of alkali metals increases down the group.
Predicting Element Behavior
The periodic table allows chemists to predict how elements will react.
If a new element X forms a compound XCl, it likely belongs to Group 1 or 2 based on chlorine's behavior.
Development of the Periodic Table
Johann Dobereiner: A German chemist who created triads of elements with similar properties in 1817.
John Newlands: An English chemist who proposed the Law of Octaves in 1863, suggesting that every
eighth element has similar properties when arranged by atomic mass.
Dmitri Mendeleev: A Russian chemist who developed the first widely recognized periodic table in 1869,
arranging elements by atomic mass and leaving spaces for undiscovered elements.
Henry Moseley: An English physicist who, in 1914, established that elements should be arranged by atomic
number rather than atomic mass.
Key Features of the Modern Periodic Table
Periods: Horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table.
Families/Groups: Vertical columns of elements that share similar physical and chemical properties.
Representative Elements: Elements in groups IA to VIIA, excluding noble gases (group VIIIA).
Transition Metals: Elements in groups IIIB to IIB, including inner transition metals (lanthanides and
actinides).
