CLS 224
(Basic Anatomy & Physiology)
Lecture 7: The Respiratory System
Contents:
1. Functional Anatomy of the
Respiratory System
2. Respiratory Physiology
1. Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System
Objectives:
•Name the organs forming the respiratory
Passageway from the nasal cavity to the alveoli of
the lungs (or identify them on a diagram or model),
and describe the function of each.
•Describe several protective mechanisms of the
respiratory system.
1. Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System
Function of the Respiratory System:
Oversees gas exchanges (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) between the blood and external
environment.
Exchange of gasses takes place within the lungs in
the alveoli (only site of gas exchange, other
structures passageways).
Passageways to the lungs purify, warm, and
humidify the incoming air.
Shares responsibility with cardiovascular system.
Organs of the Respiratory system:
A. Upper Respiratory Tract
Nose & Nasal cavity
Pharynx
B. lower Respiratory Tract
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs –
alveoli
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The Nose:
The only externally
visible part of the
respiratory system
Air enters the nose
through the external
nares (nostrils)
The interior of the nose
consists of a nasal
cavity divided by a
nasal septum
The Nasal Cavity:
Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa
on the superior surface
The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory
mucosa
Moistens air
Traps incoming
foreign particles
rests on a rich
network of thin-walled veins that warms the air
The Nasal Cavity:
Lateral walls have projections called
conchae
Increases surface area
Increases air turbulence within the nasal
cavity
The nasal cavity is separated from the
oral cavity by the palate
a. Anterior hard palate (bone)
b. Posterior soft palate (muscle)
The Nose & Nasal Cavity :
Paranasal Sinuses:
Cavities within bones 1. Frontal bone
surrounding the nasal 2. Sphenoid bone
cavity
3. Ethmoid bone
4. Maxillary bone
Paranasal Sinuses:
Paranasal Sinuses:
Function of the sinuses:
1. Lighten the skull
2. Act as resonance chambers for speech
3. Produce mucus that drains into the nasal
cavity
Pharynx (Throat):
Muscular passage from nasal
cavity to larynx
Three regions of the pharynx
1. Nasopharynx – superior
region behind nasal cavity
2. Oropharynx – middle region
behind mouth
3. Laryngopharynx – inferior
region attached to larynx
The oropharynx and
laryngopharynx are common
passageways for air and food
Structures of the Pharynx:
Auditory tubes enter the
nasopharynx
Tonsils of the pharynx
1. Pharyngeal tonsil
(adenoids) in the
nasopharynx
2. Palatine tonsils in
the oropharynx
3. Lingual tonsils at
the base of the
tongue
Larynx (Voice Box):
Routes air and food
into proper channels
Plays a role in
speech
Made of eight rigid
hyaline cartilages
and a spoon-shaped
flap of elastic
cartilage (epiglottis)
Structures of the Larynx:
Thyroid cartilage
Largest hyaline cartilage
Protrudes anteriorly
(Adam’s apple)
Epiglottis
Superior opening of the
larynx
Routes food to the
esophagus and air
toward the trachea
Structures of the Larynx:
Vocal cords
(vocal folds)
Vibrate with
expelled air to
create sound
(speech)
Glottis – opening
between vocal
cords
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Trachea (Windpipe):
Connects larynx with bronchi
length (10–12 cm) to the level of the fifth thoracic
vertebra, which is approximately midchest
Trachea (Windpipe):
Walls are reinforced with C-
shaped hyaline cartilage
serve a double purpose:
1. The open parts (The
trachealis muscle) of the rings
abut the esophagus and
allow it to expand anteriorly
when we swallow a large
piece of food.
2. The solid portions support
the trachea walls and keep it
patent, or open, in spite of
the pressure changes that
occur during breathing.
Trachea (Windpipe):
Lined with ciliated mucosa
Beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air
Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from
lungs
Primary ( Main) Bronchi:
Formed by division of the
trachea
Each main bronchus runs
obliquely
Enters the lung at the hilum
(medial depression)
Right bronchus is wider,
shorter,
and straighter than left
After entering the lungs, the
main Bronchi subdivide into
smaller and smaller
branches (Bronchial tree )
Lungs:
Occupy most of the thoracic cavity except
the mediastinum
Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion)
Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
1. Left lung – two lobes
2. Right lung – three lobes
Coverings of the Lungs
Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers
the lung surface
Parietal pleura lines the walls of the
thoracic cavity
Pleural fluid fills the area between
layers of pleura to allow gliding
Lungs
Lungs
Lungs
Respiratory (Bronchial) Tree Divisions:
1. Primary bronchi •All but the smallest branches
have reinforcing cartilage in
2. Secondary bronchi their walls.
3. Tertiary bronchi
Bronchioles: Smallest
4. Bronchioli branches of the bronchi
5. Terminal bronchioli
lead into
respiratory zone
Respiratory (Bronchial) Tree Divisions:
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The respiratory zone:
even smaller conduits that eventually terminate
in alveoli (alveol = small cavity), or air sacs.
Alveoli:
Includes:
Gas exchange
1. the respiratory bronchioles, There are millions of the
clustered alveoli
2. alveolar ducts, resemble bunches of
grapes
3. alveolar sacs, they make up the bulk of
4. and alveoli, the lungs.
is the only site of gas exchange.
All other respiratory passages are conducting zone
structures that serve as conduits to and from the
respiratory zone.
The respiratory zone:
Respiratory Membrane (Air-Blood Barrier):
Thin squamous epithelial layer lining alveolar walls
Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of
alveoli
Gas Exchange:
Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by simple
diffusion
Oxygen enters the blood
Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
Macrophages “dust cells,” add protection
Surfactant coats lipid (fat) molecule, gas-exposed
alveolar surfaces
Respiratory Membrane (Air-Blood Barrier)
2. Respiratory Physiology
Objectives:
•Define cellular respiration, external
respiration,internal respiration, pulmonary
ventilation,expiration,and inspiration.
•Explain how the respiratory muscles cause Volume
changes that lead to air flow into and out of the
lungs (breathing).
2. Respiratory Physiology
Mechanics of Breathing
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
Non-respiratory Air Movements
Respiratory Sounds
External Respiration, Gas Transport, &
Internal Respiration
Control of Respiration
Events of Respiration:
1. Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in and
out of the lungs
2. External respiration – gas exchange
between pulmonary blood and alveoli
3. Respiratory gas transport – transport of
oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
bloodstream
4. Internal respiration – gas exchange between
blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries
Mechanics of Breathing (Pulmonary Ventilation):
Completely mechanical process
Depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity
Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which
lead to the flow of gases to equalize pressure
Two phases:
1. Inspiration (inhalation) – flow of air into lung
2. Expiration (exhalation) – air leaving lung
Inspiration (inhalation):
Diaphragm and intercostal muscles
contract
The size of the thoracic cavity increases
External air is pulled into the lungs due to
an increase in intrapulmonary volume
Inspiration (inhalation):
Expiration (exhalation):
Largely a passive process which depends
on natural lung elasticity
As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the
lungs
Forced expiration can occur mostly by
contracting internal intercostal muscles
to depress the rib cage
Expiration (exhalation):
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities:
Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air with
each breath (Respiratory Volumes= tidal volume
[TV])
Many factors that affect respiratory capacity:
A person’s size
Sex
Age
Physical condition
Residual volume of air – after exhalation, about
1200 ml of air remains in the lungs
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities:
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over
the tidal volume
Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
Approximately 1200 ml
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities:
Vital capacity:
The total amount of exchangeable air
Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
Dead space volume:
Air that remains in conducting zone and never reaches
alveoli
About 150 ml
Functional volume:
Air that actually reaches the respiratory zone
Usually about 350 ml
Respiratory capacities are measured with a
spirometer
Respiratory Capacities
Non-respiratory Air Movements:
Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary
actions
Examples:
Cough and sneeze – clears lungs of debris
Laughing
Crying
Yawn
Hiccup
Respiratory Sounds:
Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
A. Bronchial sounds – produced by air
rushing through trachea and bronchi
B. Vesicular breathing sounds – soft sounds of
air filling alveoli
External Respiration:
Oxygen movement into the blood
The alveoli always has more oxygen than the
blood
Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of
lower concentration
Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
External Respiration:
Carbon dioxide movement out of the
blood
Blood returning from tissues has higher
concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in
the alveoli
Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon
dioxide
Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich
and carbon dioxide-poor
Gas Transport in the Blood:
Oxygen transport in Carbon dioxide
the blood transport in the blood
Inside red blood cells Most is transported in
attached to the plasma as
bicarbonate ion
hemoglobin
(HCO3–)
(oxyhemoglobin
[HbO2]) A small amount is
carried inside red blood
A small amount is cells on hemoglobin, but
carried dissolved in at different binding sites
the plasma than those of oxygen
Internal Respiration:
Exchange of gases between blood and body
cells
An opposite reaction to what occurs in the
lungs
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to blood
Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue
Internal Respiration:
External
Respiration, Gas
Transport, and
Internal
Respiration
Summary
Neural Regulation of Respiration:
Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to
the brain by the phrenic and intercostal nerves
Neural centers that control rate and depth are
located in the medulla
The pons appears to smooth out respiratory rate
Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15
respirations per minute
Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often due to
extra oxygen needs
Neural Regulation of Respiration:
Non-neural Factors Influencing Respiratory
Rate and Depth:
1. Physical factors
Increased body temperature
Exercise
Talking
Coughing
2. Volition (conscious control)
3. Emotional factors
Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and Depth:
4. Chemical factors
a. Carbon dioxide levels
Level of carbon dioxide in the blood is the main regulatory
chemical for respiration
Increased carbon dioxide increases respiration
Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on the medulla
oblongata
b. Oxygen levels
Changes in oxygen concentration in the blood are detected
by chemoreceptors in the aorta and carotid artery
Information is sent to the medulla oblongata
Respiratory Rate Changes Throughout
Life:
Newborns – 40 to 80 respirations per
minute
Infants – 30 respirations per minute
Age 5 – 25 respirations per minute
Adults – 12 to 18 respirations per minute
Rate often increases somewhat with old
age
Aging Effects:
Elasticity of lungs decreases
Vital capacity decreases
Blood oxygen levels decrease
Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decreases
More risks of respiratory tract infection
References:
