(20A04506) PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

UNIT I Amplitude Modulation

Introduction to Noise and Fourier Transform. An overview of Electronic Communication

Systems. Need for Frequency Translation, Amplitude Modulation: DSB-FC, DSB-SC, SSB-SC
and VSB. Frequency Division Multiplexing. Radio Transmitter and Receiver.

UNIT II Angle Modulation

Angle Modulation, Tone modulated FM Signal, Arbitrary Modulated FM Signal, FM

Modulation and Demodulation. Stereophonic FM Broadcasting.

UNIT III Pulse Modulation

Sampling Theorem: Low pass and Band pass Signals. Pulse Amplitude Modulation and Concept
of Time Division Multiplexing. Pulse Width Modulation. Digital Representation of Analog
Signals.

UNIT IV Digital Modulation

Binary Amplitude Shift Keying, Binary Phase Shift Keying and Quadrature Phase Shift Keying,
Binary Frequency Shift Keying. Regenerative Repeater.

UNIT V

Communication Systems Satellite, RADAR, Optical, Mobile and Computer Communication

(Block diagram approach only).
 Unit 1 - Amplitude modulation
Noise :
In electrical terms, noise is defined as the unwanted form of energy which tends to interface with
the proper reception and the reproduction of transmitted signals.
Classification of Noise:
There are several ways to classify Noise, but conveniently Noise is classified as
1) External Noise
2) Internal Noise
External Noise:
External noise is defined as the type of Noise which is general externally due
to communication system. External Noise are analysed qualitatively. Now, External Noise may
be classified as
a) Atmospheric Noise : Atmospheric Noise is also known as static noise which is the natural
source of disturbance caused by lightning, discharge in thunderstorm and the natural
disturbances occurring in the nature.
b) Industrial Noise : Sources of Industrial noise are auto-mobiles, aircraft, ignition of electric
motors and switching gear. The main cause of Industrial noise is High voltage wires. These
noises is generally produced by the discharge present in the operations.
c) Extraterrestrial Noise : Extraterrestrial Noise exist on the basis of their originating source.
They are subdivided into
i) Solar Noise
ii) Cosmic Noise
Internal Noise:
Internal Noise are the type of Noise which are generated internally or within the Communication
System or in the receiver. They may be treated qualitatively and can also be reduced or
minimized by the proper designing of the system. Internal Noises are classified as
1) Shot Noise : These Noise are generally arises in the active devices due to the random
behaviour of Charge particles or carries. In case of electron tube, shot Noise is produces due to
the random emission of electron form cathodes.
2) Partition Noise : When a circuit is to divide in between two or more paths then the noise
generated is known as Partition noise. The reason for the generation is random fluctuation in the
division.
3) Low- Frequency Noise : They are also known as FLICKER NOISE. These types of noise are
generally observed at a frequency range below few kHz. Power spectral density of these noise
increases with the decrease in frequency. That why the name is given Low- Frequency Noise.
4) High- Frequency Noise : These noises are also known TRANSIT- TIME Noise. They are
observed in the semi-conductor devices when the transit time of a charge carrier while crossing a
junction is compared with the time period of that signal.
5) Thermal Noise : Thermal Noise are random and often referred as White Noise or Johnson
Noise. Thermal noise are generally observed in the resistor or the sensitive resistive components
of a complex impedance due to the random and rapid movement of molecules or atoms or
electrons.

Electronic Communication System:

Fig 1: Block diagram of Electronic Communication System

The main components of any Electronic Communication System are as follows:
Message Source: Message source may be any audio, video or data. Audio and Video signals are
usually analog in nature. Data is a digital signal which originates from computer systems.
Transmission of these message signals is prime objective of any communication system.
Input Transducer: The input signals such as voice, data or video; whatever we wish to transmit
has to be in the form of an electrical signal. Only electrical signals can be transmitted. The input
transducer is an electronic device used to convert the one form of energy into another form.
For example, a microphone is used to convert an incoming voice signal into an electrical signal.
Transmitter: Transmitter section comprises of modulating elements and amplifiers as per the
requirement of the system. The transmitter is the section that applies the main concepts and
algorithms of electronic communication to the incoming signals. The output of the transmitter is
fed to an antenna in case of a wireless communication system. It is fed to the wired channel in
case of a wired channel like optical fiber or coaxial cable.
Channel: Channel is the medium through which the signals sent by transmitter travels towards
the destination. Depending of medium channel may be wired or wireless.
In wired channels signal transmission takes place inside a bounded medium. A few examples of
wired channels are telephone lines, optical fibers, copper cables, coaxial cables etc.
In the case of wireless channel signal transmission takes place through the air. Few examples of
wireless channels are microwave links, mobile phones, satellite communication etc.
Signal degradation takes place inside the channel due to distortion and noise. When the signal
travels through long-distance, its power level decreases due to attenuation over the channel.
Spurious signals get added in the form of noise signals. Because of these reasons signal faces
distortion.
Receiver: The receiver block does exactly the opposite processing to that of the transmitter. The
signal received from the channel is filtered out for noise and unwanted signals. Then the
demodulation of signals takes place. The demodulated signals are in the form of an electrical
signal. These signals are fed to the output transducer.
Output Transducer: It translates the received signal into its original form i.e. from an electrical
signal to its original form as it was before transmission.
Message Destination: It is an end-user that consumes the message or information.

Frequency Translation:
It is also known by other names, like Frequency conversion, Frequency Mixing and also as
heterodyning. In communication systems we sometimes need to shift (Translate/convert) the
frequency of a modulated signal to another band of frequency before its demodulation
(Detection). So modulated signal is first shifted to a fixed frequency which is known as
Intermediate Frequency (IF Frequency). Translating the signal to this frequency makes the
processing of the signal easy. these signals processing like Amplification, Filtering and
Demodulation etc. are easily performed at that shifted frequency. The Device used for Frequency
mixing or Heterodyning is called as Frequency Mixer.
Advantages of Frequency Translation:
1.Frequency Multiplexing: The single channel may be single pair of wires or the space that
separates one radio antenna from another. If these new frequency ranges do not overlap, then the
signal may be separated at the receiving end by using band pass filters.
2. Antenna and its practicability: Antennas are responsible for radiation and reception of the
signal through the communicating channel in the free space. The antennas are effectively
operative when the dimensions of the antennas are of the order of magnitude of the wavelength
of the signal being transmitted.
3. Narrow banding: Even though the unlimited or inordinate length of the antenna were no
problem, we would face another problem. The audio range is 10 to 10 kHz. The ratio of the
highest audio frequency to the lowest is 200. The length of the antenna suitable for use at one
end of the range would be entirely too short or too long for the order end.
4.Common Processing: Sometime we have to process a number of signals similar in general
character but occupying different spectral ranges. Then it will be necessary to adjust the
frequency range of our processing apparatus to corresponding to the frequency range of the
signal to be processed.
Or
Need for Modulation or Need for Frequency Translation: The primary purpose of modulation
in a communication system is to generate a modulated signal which is well suited to the
characteristics of transmission medium. The need for modulation is listed as follows:

 Baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium so, modulation is
used to convey (baseband) signals from one place to another.

 Allows frequency translation:

 Frequency Multiplexing
 Reduce the antenna height
 Avoids mixing of signals

 Efficient transmission

 To overcome hardware system limitations

 To reduce the interference, noise & distortions made when we transmit the signals with nearly
same frequency in the audio frequency range (20-20k) Hz.

 To multiplex the more number of signals

 To narrow banding the signal

 To reduce the complexity of the transmission system

 To increase the bandwidth of the signal

Amplitude Modulation:
In general, Amplitude Modulation is termed as modulating a continuous transmitting wave that
has no intervals and holds the information. While as per the basic definition, it is defined as “A
carrier signal which has no information varies its amplitude in correspondence with the change in
amplitude of the modulating signal”.

Fig. 1 Basic amplitude modulated wave

The initial one is the message signal which holds certain information, while the second signal has
no information and is called the carrier signal. The modulation of these waves results in the AM
modulated wave. The dotted line in the AM modulated wave is termed as Envelope and it is in
the exact shape of the modulating signal. Through the amplitude modulation, the low-frequency
baseband wave is modulated to a high-frequency signal. So, high-frequency signals can transmit
over a long distance than that of low-frequency signals.
Amplitude Modulation Block Diagram:

Here the modulating signals might be an audio or video signal. These are also called as baseband
signals as these are modulated with the carrier signals. Carriers are extremely high-frequency
radio signals, In general, carrier signals are received from the RF oscillators. These two signals
are combined in a modulator. The modulator considers the instant amplitude of the modulating
signal and modifies it as per the amplitude of the carrier signal. So, the resultant signal amplitude
is the amplitude of the modulated signal. The modulated signal is passed through the amplifier
for the amplitude modulation and then transmitted through an antenna or a co-axial cable.
Fig.2 amplitude modulation block diagram

Types of Amplitude Modulations:

Amplitude modulation is classified as three types and they are

1. DSB-FC
2. DSB-SC
3. SSB-SC

Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSB – FC)

In the process of Amplitude Modulation, the modulated wave consists of the carrier wave and
two sidebands. The modulated signal has the information in the whole band except at the carrier
frequency.

Sideband

A Sideband is a band of frequencies, containing power, which are the lower and higher
frequencies of the carrier frequency. Both the sidebands contain the same information. The
representation of amplitude modulated wave in the frequency domain is as shown in the
following figure.
Both the sidebands in the image contain the same information. The transmission of such a signal
which contains a carrier along with two sidebands, can be termed as Double Sideband Full
Carrier system, or simply DSB-FC. It is plotted as shown in the following above figure.

However, such a transmission is inefficient. Two-thirds of the power is being wasted in the
carrier, which carries no information.

Single tone AM:

Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB – SC):
If this carrier is suppressed and the power saved is distributed to the two sidebands, such a
process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier system, or simply DSBSC. It is
plotted as shown in the following figure.
Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier ( SSB-SC):
The process of suppressing one of the sidebands, along with the carrier and transmitting a single
sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier system, or simply SSB-SC or SSB.
It is plotted as shown in the following figure.

This SSB-SC or SSB system, which transmits a single sideband has high power, as the power
allotted for both the carrier and the other sideband is utilized in transmitting this Single
Sideband (SSB).

Hence, the modulation done using this SSB technique is called as SSB Modulation.
Bandwidth of SSBSC Wave

We know that the DSBSC modulated wave contains two sidebands and its bandwidth is 2fm/2.
Since the SSBSC modulated wave contains only one sideband, its bandwidth is half of the
bandwidth of DSBSC modulated wave.
i.e., Bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave =2fm/2=fm

Advantages:

The advantages of SSB modulation are −

 Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSB signals.

 Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.
 Power is saved.
 High power signal can be transmitted.
 Less amount of noise is present.
 Signal fading is less likely to occur.

Disadvantages:

The disadvantages of SSB modulation are −

 The generation and detection of SSB signal is a complex process.

 Quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver have an
excellent frequency stability.

Applications:

The applications of SSB modulation are −

 For power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.

 In land, air, and maritime mobile communications.
 In point-to-point communications.
 In radio communications.
 In television, telemetry, and radar communications.
 In military communications, such as amateur radio, etc.

Vestigial Sideband:

In case of SSB modulation, when a sideband is passed through the filters, the band pass filter
may not work perfectly in practice. As a result of which, some of the information may get lost.
Hence to avoid this loss, a technique is chosen, which is a compromise between DSB-
SC and SSB, called as Vestigial Sideband (VSB) technique. The word vestige which means “a
part” from which the name is derived.

Both of the sidebands are not required for the transmission, as it is a waste. But a single band if
transmitted, leads to loss of information. Hence, this technique has evolved.

Vestigial Sideband Modulation or VSB Modulation is the process where a part of the signal
called as vestige is modulated, along with one sideband. A VSB signal can be plotted as shown
in the following figure.

Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being transmitted in this
technique. A guard band of very small width is laid on either side of VSB in order to avoid the
interferences. VSB modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.

At first, both amplitude and frequency modulations are used to transmit information through the
technique of varying the carrier signal.

As per the definition, in amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the modulating signal varies as
per the carrier signal’s amplitude. The AM signals make use of lower frequencies to transmit
information to long distances. While in frequency modulation, the frequency of the modulating
signal varies as per the carrier signal’s amplitude. The bandwidth of the frequency-modulated
signals is higher than that of AM modulated signals that help to transmit better quality voice
signals.

Bandwidth BW = fm + fv

Where,
fm = Message bandwidth

fv = Width of the vestigial sideband

VSB Modulation − Advantages

Following are the advantages of VSB −

 Highly efficient.
 Reduction in bandwidth.
 Filter design is easy as high accuracy is not needed.
 The transmission of low frequency components is possible, without difficulty.
 Possesses good phase characteristics.

VSB Modulation − Disadvantages

Following are the disadvantages of VSB −

 Bandwidth when compared to SSB is greater.

 Demodulation is complex.

VSB Modulation – Application:

The most prominent and standard application of VSB is for the transmission of television
signals. Also, this is the most convenient and efficient technique when bandwidth usage is
considered.

Differences between AM and FM:

Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation

The first modulated wave was transmitted in The first modulated wave was transmitted in
the year the 1870s the year 1930

The radio wave is defined as a carrier signal The radio wave is defined as a carrier signal
and both phase and frequency are and both phase and amplitude are
maintained at the same maintained at the same

The AM signals can be transmitted to long The FM signals can be transmitted to long
distances but have lesser sound quality distances and have good sound quality

These waves lie in the frequency range of These waves lie in the frequency range of 88
535 to 1705 kHz to 108 MHz
Highly suspected of noise signals Less suspected to noise signals

Applications of Amplitude Modulation

The applications are

Amplitude modulated waves are utilized in a wide variety of applications and few of those to be
described as below.

To broadcast transmissions – AM waves can be used to transmit long, short and medium
wavebands. The demodulation process is also simple, and this implies that radio receivers which
hold the capability to demodulate are manufactured simply.

AM waves are also used to transmit very high-frequency waves such as airborne applications.
These are also implemented for the ground to air radio transmissions and also two-way radio
communications.

Single sideband amplitude modulated waves are used for high-frequency radio links. Using a
minimal bandwidth and offering more effective utilization of the broadcasted power this kind of
modulation is still utilized for various point to point high-frequency links.

AM is extensively utilized for data transmission ranging from short wireless links like wireless
networks to cellular telecommunications and many others. Successfully it is developed using two
carriers which are 90° out of phase.

or

Further, the applications of amplitude modulation are

 Air traffic control radios

 Keyless remotes
 Broadcasting of TV signals
 Electronic communications

Advantages & Disadvantages of Amplitude Modulation

Any of the technology or system has its advantages and disadvantages. So, here the advantages
and disadvantages of amplitude modulation are

Advantages

The advantages are

  Both modulation and demodulation processes are simply implemented
 Cost is also economical as fewer circuits and diodes are used
 Can transmit signals to longer distances
 The waves have lesser bandwidth
 Less complicated

Disadvantages

The disadvantages are

 Minimal efficient for power utilization as a DSB-SC modulation process consumes more
power
 Even not efficient in bandwidth utilization too.
 Less sensitivity to noise signals, so more prone to noise disturbances
 Reproduction is not greatly reliable.

Frequency Division Multiplexing:

Frequency division multiplexing definition is: a multiplexing technique that is used to combine
more than one signal over a shared medium. In this type of multiplexing, signals with different
frequencies are merged for concurrent transmission. In FDM, multiple signals are merged for
transmission over a channel or single communications line where every signal is allocated to a
different frequency in the main channel.

Frequency Division Multiplexing Block Diagram

The frequency division block diagram is shown below which includes a transmitter and a
receiver. In FDM, the different message signals like m1(t), m2(t) & m3(t) are modulated at the
different carrier frequencies like fc1, fc2 & fc3. In this manner, the different modulated signals
are separated from each other within the frequency domain. These modulated signals are merged
together to shape the composite signal which is transmitted over the channel/transmission
medium.
To avoid interference between the two message signals, a guard band is also kept in between
these two signals. A guard band is used to separate two wide ranges of frequencies. This ensures
that communication channels that are used simultaneously do not experience interference which
would affect in reduced quality of transmissions.

Frequency Division Multiplexing Block Diagram

As shown in the above figure, there are three different message signals are modulated at various
frequencies. After that, they are merged into a single composite signal. Each signal’s carrier
frequencies must be chosen so that there is no overlapping of modulated signals. Like this, each
modulated signal within the multiplexed signal is simply separated from each other within the
domain of frequency.

Working:

At the receiver end, bandpass filters are used to separate each modulated signal from the
composite signal & demultiplexed. By transmitting the demultiplexed signal through the LPF, it
is achievable to recover every message signal. This is how a typical FDM (Frequency Division
Multiplexing) method is.

In the FDM system, the transmitter end has several transmitters & the receiver end has several
receivers. In between the transmitter & receiver, the communication channel is there. In FDM, at
the transmitter end, every transmitter transmits a signal with a different frequency. For instance,
the first transmitter transmits a signal with 30 kHz frequency, the second transmitter transmits a
signal with 40 kHz frequency & third transmitter transmits a signal with 50 kHz frequency.

After that, these signals with different frequencies are combined with a device known as a
multiplexer which transmits the multiplexed signals through a communication channel. FDM is
an analog method which is a very popular multiplexing method. At the receiver end de-
multiplexer is used to separate the multiplexed signals then it transmits these separated signals to
the particular receivers.

A typical FDM has a total of n channels, where n is an integer greater than 1. Each channel
carries one bit of information and has its own carrier frequency. The output of each channel is
sent at a different frequency from all other channels. The input to each channel is delayed by an
amount dt, which may be measured in units of time or cycles per second.

Each channel consists of an array of photonic crystals that act as filters for light waves passing
through them. Each crystal can pass only certain wavelengths of light; others are blocked out
entirely by their structure or by reflection from an adjacent crystal.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

The advantages of frequency division multiplexing include the following.

 The transmitter & receiver of FDM does not need any synchronization.
 It is simpler & its demodulation is easy.
 Only one channel will get effect because of the slow narrow band.
 FDM is applicable for analog signals.
 A large number of channels can be simultaneously transmitted.
 It is not expensive.
 This multiplexing has high reliability.
 Using this multiplexing, it is possible to transmit multimedia data with low noise &
distortion and also with high efficiency.
The disadvantages of frequency division multiplexing include the following.
 FDM has a cross-talk problem.
 FDM is applicable only when a few less-speed channels are preferred
 Intermediation distortion occurs.
 FDM circuitry is complex.
 It needs more bandwidth.
 It gives fewer throughputs.
 As compared to TDM, the latency provided by FDM is more.
 This multiplexing doesn’t have dynamic coordination.
 FDM needs a large number of filters & modulators.
 The channel of this multiplexing can get affected by wideband fading
 The channel’s complete bandwidth cannot be utilized on the FDM.
 The system of FDM requires a carrier signal.
Applications:

The applications of frequency division multiplexing include the following.

  Earlier, FDM is used in the cellular telephone system and harmonic
telegraphy communication system.
 Frequency division multiplexing is mainly used in radio broadcasting.
 FDM is also used in TV broadcasting.
 This type of multiplexing is applicable in the telephone system to help in transmitting
several phone calls over a single link or single transmission line.
 FDM is used in a satellite communication system for transmitting various data
channels.
 It is used in FM transmission systems or stereo frequency modulation.
 It is used in AM radio transmission systems/Amplitude Modulation.
 It is used for public telephones and cable TV systems.
 It is used in broadcasting.
 It is used in AM and FM broadcasting.
 It is used in wireless networks, cellular networks, etc.
 FDM is used in broadband connection systems and also in DSL (Digital Subscriber
Line) modems.
 FDM system is mainly used for multimedia data like audio, video & image
transmission.

Frequency Division Multiplexing Vs Time Division Multiplexing

The difference between frequency division multiplexing and time division multiplexing is
discussed below.

Frequency Division Multiplexing Time Division Multiplexing

The term FDM stands for “frequency division The term TDM stands for “time division
multiplexing. multiplexing.

This multiplexing simply works with only analog This multiplexing simply works with both
signals. analog & digital signals.

This multiplexing has high conflict. This multiplexing has low conflict.

FDM chip/Wiring is complex. TDM chip/Wiring is not complex.

This multiplexing is not efficient. This multiplexing is very efficient.

In FDM, frequency is shared. In TDM, time is shared.

The synchronization pulse in TDM is

The guard band is compulsory in FDM.
compulsory.
 In FDM, all the signals with different frequencies In TDM, all the signals with equal frequency
operate simultaneously. operate at different times.

The TDM has a negligible or very low range

The FDM has a very high range of interference. of interference.

The circuitry of FDM is complex. The circuitry of TDM is simple.

Radio Transmitter and Receiver:

Radio Transmitters :
 Transmitter must generate a signal with the right type of modulation, with sufficient
power, at the right carrier frequency, and with reasonable efficiency.
 Earlier, we have studied the basic concepts of amplitude modulation. There are two
basic topologies to generate and transmit amplitude modulated waves.
 In low level modulation, the generation of AM wave takes place in the initial stage of
amplification, i.e at a low power level. The generated AM signal then amplified using
number of amplifier stages.
 In high level modulation, modulation takes place in the final stage of amplification and
therefore modulation circuitry has to handle high power.
 It can be seen that stable RF source, buffer amplifier and subsequent RF power amplifiers
are common for both low level modulation transmitter and high level modulation
transmitter.
 The stable RF source is provided by crystal oscillator with a carrier frequency or
submultiple of it.
 The buffer amplifiers are usually class-A amplifier where as power amplifiers are class-
C amplifiers in both, audio and power audio frequency (AF) amplifiers are present.
 In fact, the only differnce is the point at which the modulation takes place. In case of low
level modulation, modulation takes place at low power level, i.e before the final output
amplifier.

AM Transmitters
Transmitters that transmit AM signals are known as AM transmitters. These transmitters are used
in medium wave (MW) and short wave (SW) frequency bands for AM broadcast. The MW band
has frequencies between 550 KHz and 1650 KHz, and the SW band has frequencies ranging
from 3 MHz to 30 MHz. The two types of AM transmitters that are used based on their
transmitting powers are:
High Level
Low Level
High level transmitters use high level modulation, and low level transmitters use low level
modulation.
The choice between the two modulation schemes depends on the transmitting power of the AM
transmitter. In broadcast transmitters, where the transmitting power may be of the order of
kilowatts, high level modulation is employed. In low power transmitters, where only a few watts
of transmitting power are required , low level modulation is used.
High-Level and Low-Level Transmitters
Below figure's show the block diagram of high-level and low-level transmitters. The basic
difference between the two transmitters is the power amplification of the carrier and modulating
signals.
Figure (a) shows the block diagram of high-level AM transmitter.

Figure (a) is drawn for audio transmission. In high-level transmission, the powers of the carrier
and modulating signals are amplified before applying them to the modulator stage, as shown in
figure (a). In low-level modulation, the powers of the two input signals of the modulator stage
are not amplified. The required transmitting power is obtained from the last stage of the
transmitter, the class C power amplifier.
The various sections of the figure (a) are:
Carrier oscillator
The carrier oscillator generates the carrier signal, which lies in the RF range. The frequency of
the carrier is always very high. Because it is very difficult to generate high frequencies with good
frequency stability, the carrier oscillator generates a sub multiple with the required carrier
frequency.
This sub multiple frequency is multiplied by the frequency multiplier stage to get the required
carrier frequency. Further, a crystal oscillator can be used in this stage to generate a low
frequency carrier with the best frequency stability. The frequency multiplier stage then increases
the frequency of the carrier to its required value.
Buffer Amplifier
The purpose of the buffer amplifier is two fold. It first matches the output impedance of the
carrier oscillator with the input impedance of the frequency multiplier, the next stage of the
carrier oscillator. It then isolates the carrier oscillator and frequency multiplier.
This is required so that the multiplier does not draw a large current from the carrier oscillator. If
this occurs, the frequency of the carrier oscillator will not remain stable.
Frequency Multiplier
The sub-multiple frequency of the carrier signal, generated by the carrier oscillator , is now
applied to the frequency multiplier through the buffer amplifier. This stage is also known as
harmonic generator. The frequency multiplier generates higher harmonics of carrier oscillator
frequency. The frequency multiplier is a tuned circuit that can be tuned to the requisite carrier
frequency that is to be transmitted
Power Amplifier
The power of the carrier signal is then amplified in the power amplifier stage. This is the basic
requirement of a high-level transmitter. A class C power amplifier gives high power current
pulses of the carrier signal at its output.
Audio Chain
The audio signal to be transmitted is obtained from the microphone, as shown in figure (a). The
audio driver amplifier amplifies the voltage of this signal. This amplification is necessary to
drive the audio power amplifier. Next, a class A or a class B power amplifier amplifies the power
of the audio signal.
Modulated Class C Amplifier
This is the output stage of the transmitter. The modulating audio signal and the carrier signal,
after power amplification, are applied to this modulating stage. The modulation takes place at
this stage. The class C amplifier also amplifies the power of the AM signal to the reacquired
transmitting power.
This signal is finally passed to the antenna., which radiates the signal into space of transmission.
Figure (b) shows the block diagram of a low-level AM transmitter.

The low-level AM transmitter shown in the figure (b) is similar to a high-level transmitter,
except that the powers of the carrier and audio signals are not amplified. These two signals are
directly applied tothe modulated class C power amplifier. Modulation takes place at the stage,
and the power of the modulated signal is amplified to the required transmitting power level. The
transmitting antenna then transmits the signal.

Radio Receivers :
• AM radio receiver is a device which receives the desired AM signal, amplifies it
followed by demodulation to get back the original modulating signal.
• Radio receivers are broadly of TWO types 1. Depending on the application: AM, FM,
COMM.,TV, RADAR 2. Depending on the fundamental aspect/ principle
• Based on principle of operation, the TWO popular radio receivers are there, they are i.
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver ii. Superheterodyne Receiver.
• The TRF receiver is a simple “logical” receiver.
• Two or three RF amplifiers, all tuning together, were employed to select and amplify the
incoming frequency and simultaneously to reject all others.
• After the signal was amplified to a suitable level, it was demodulated (detected) and fed
to the loud speaker after being passed through the appropriate audio amplifying stages.
• These are simple to design, align at broadcast frequencies, but they presented difficulties
at higher frequencies.
Superheterodyne receiver circuit blocks

There are some key circuit blocks that form the basic superheterodyne receiver. Although more
complicated receivers can be made, the basic circuit is widely used – further blocks can add
improved performance or additional functionality and their operation within the whole receiver is
normally easy to determine once the basic block diagram is understood.

 RF tuning & amplification: This RF stage within the overall block diagram for the receiver
provides initial tuning to remove the image signal. It also provides some amplification. If
 noise performance for the receiver is important, then this stage will be designed for optimum
noise performance. This RF amplifier circuit block will also increase the signal level so that
the noise introduced by later stages is at a lower level in comparison to the wanted signal.
 Local oscillator: The local oscillator circuit block can take a variety of forms. Early
receivers used free running local oscillators. Today most receivers use frequency synthesizers,
normally based around phase locked loops. These provide much greater levels of stability and
enable frequencies to be programmed in a variety of ways.
 Mixer: Both the local oscillator and incoming signal enter this block within the
superheterodyne receiver. The wanted signal is converted to the intermediate frequency.
 IF amplifier & filter: This superheterodyne receiver block provides the majority of gain and
selectivity. High performance filters like crystal filters may be used, although LC or ceramic
filters may be used within domestic radios.
 Demodulator: The superheterodyne receiver block diagram only shows one demodulator,
but in reality radios may have one or more demodulators dependent upon the type of signals
being receiver.
 Audio amplifier: Once demodulated, the recovered audio is applied to an audio amplifier
block to be amplified to the required level for loudspeakers or headphones. Alternatively the
recovered modulation may be used for other applications whereupon it is processed in the
required way by a specific circuit block.