LESSON 2 DATA TRANSMISSION

Chifundo Polska Mlangeni

[email protected]
Terminology
• Transmitter
• Receiver
• Medium
• Guided medium
• e.g. twisted pair, optical fiber
• Unguided medium
• e.g. air, water, vacuum
Terminology
• Direct link
• No intermediate devices
• Point-to-point
• Direct link
• Only 2 devices share link
• Multi-point
• More than two devices share the link
Terminology
• Simplex
• One direction
• e.g. Television
• Half duplex
• Either direction, but only one way at a time
• e.g. police radio
• Full duplex
• Both directions at the same time
• e.g. telephone
Frequency, Spectrum and Bandwidth
• Time domain concepts
• Analog signal
• Various in a smooth way over time
• Digital signal
• Maintains a constant level then changes to another constant level
• Periodic signal
• Pattern repeated over time
• Aperiodic signal
• Pattern not repeated over time
Analogue & Digital Signals
Periodic
Signals
 Sine Wave
• Peak Amplitude (A)
• maximum strength of signal
• volts
• Frequency (f)
• Rate of change of signal
• Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
• Period = time for one repetition (T)
• T = 1/f
• Phase ()
• Relative position in time
Wavelength
• Distance occupied by one cycle
• Distance between two points of corresponding phase in two
consecutive cycles
•
• Assuming signal velocity v
•  = vT
• f = v
• c = 3*108 ms-1 (speed of light in free space)
Frequency Domain Concepts
• Signal usually made up of many frequencies
• Components are sine waves
• Can be shown (Fourier analysis) that any signal is made up of
component sine waves
• Can plot frequency domain functions
Spectrum & Bandwidth
• Spectrum
• range of frequencies contained in signal
• Absolute bandwidth
• width of spectrum
• Effective bandwidth
• Often just bandwidth
• Narrow band of frequencies containing most of the energy
• DC Component
• Component of zero frequency
Analog and Digital Data Transmission
• Data
• Entities that convey meaning
• Signals
• Electric or electromagnetic representations of data
• Transmission
• Communication of data by propagation and processing of signals
Data Rate and Bandwidth
• Any transmission system has a limited band of frequencies
• This limits the data rate that can be carried
• The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in 1s.
The unit is bits per second (bps).
• The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in 1s. The unit is
the baud. There are several common terminologies used in the
literature.
• The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate; the signal rate is
sometimes called the pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud
rate.
Analog and Digital Data
• Analog
• Continuous values within some interval
• e.g. sound, video
• Digital
• Discrete values
• e.g. text, integers
Analog and Digital Signals
• Means by which data are propagated
• Analog
• Continuously variable
• Various media
• wire, fiber optic, space
• Speech bandwidth 100Hz to 7kHz
• Telephone bandwidth 300Hz to 3400Hz
• Video bandwidth 4MHz
• Digital
• Use two DC components
Advantages & Disadvantages
of Digital
• Cheaper
• Less susceptible to noise
• Greater attenuation
• Pulses become rounded and smaller
• Leads to loss of information
Attenuation of Digital Signals
Components of Speech
• Frequency range (of hearing) 20Hz-20kHz
• Speech 100Hz-7kHz
• Easily converted into electromagnetic signal for transmission
• Sound frequencies with varying volume converted into
electromagnetic frequencies with varying voltage
• Limit frequency range for voice channel
• 300-3400Hz
Video Components
• USA - 483 lines scanned per frame at 30 frames per second
• 525 lines but 42 lost during vertical retrace
• So 525 lines x 30 scans = 15750 lines per second
• 63.5s per line
• 11s for retrace, so 52.5 s per video line
• Max frequency if line alternates black and white
• Horizontal resolution is about 450 lines giving 225 cycles of wave in 52.5 s
• Max frequency of 4.2MHz
Data and Signals
• Usually use digital signals for digital data and analog signals for analog
data
• Can use analog signal to carry digital data
• Modem
• Can use digital signal to carry analog data
• Compact Disc audio
Analog Signals Carrying Analog and Digital
Data
Digital Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data
Analog Transmission
• Analog signal transmitted without regard to content
• May be analog or digital data
• Attenuated over distance
• Use amplifiers to boost signal
• Also amplifies noise
Digital Transmission
• Concerned with content
• Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation etc.
• Repeaters used
• Repeater receives signal
• Extracts bit pattern
• Retransmits
• Attenuation is overcomed
• Noise is not amplified
Advantages of Digital Transmission
• Digital technology
• Low cost LSI/VLSI technology
• Data integrity
• Longer distances over lower quality lines
• Capacity utilization
• High bandwidth links economical
• High degree of multiplexing easier with digital techniques
• Security & Privacy
• Encryption
• Integration
• Can treat analog and digital data similarly
Transmission Impairments
• Signal received may differ from signal transmitted
• Analog - degradation of signal quality
• Digital - bit errors
• Caused by
• Attenuation and attenuation distortion
• Delay distortion
• Noise
Attenuation
• Signal strength falls off with distance
• Depends on medium
• Received signal strength:
• must be enough to be detected
• must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received
without error
• Attenuation is an increasing function of frequency
Delay Distortion
• Only in guided media
• Propagation velocity varies with frequency
Noise (1)
• Additional signals inserted between transmitter and receiver
• Thermal
• Due to thermal agitation of electrons
• Uniformly distributed
• White noise
• Intermodulation
• Signals that are the sum and difference of original frequencies sharing a
medium
Noise (2)
• Crosstalk
• A signal from one line is picked up by another
• Impulse
• Irregular pulses or spikes
• e.g. External electromagnetic interference
• Short duration
• High amplitude
Channel Capacity
• Data rate
• In bits per second
• Rate at which data can be communicated
• Bandwidth
• In cycles per second of Hertz
• Constrained by transmitter and medium
Nyquist Bandwidth
• If rate of signal transmission is 2B then signal with frequencies no
greater than B is sufficient to carry signal rate
• Given bandwidth B, highest signal rate is 2B
• Given binary signal, data rate supported by B Hz is 2B bps
• Can be increased by using M signal levels
• C= 2B log2M
Shannon Capacity Formula

• Consider data rate,noise and error rate

• Faster data rate shortens each bit so burst of noise affects more bits
• At given noise level, high data rate means higher error rate
• Signal to noise ration (in decibels)
• SNRdb=10 log10 (signal/noise)
• Capacity C=B log2(1+SNR)
• This is error free capacity
• Data Transmission occurs between sender and
receiver over some Transmission Medium or
Transmission Media.
• Transmission Media may be classified into Two
Types :
i) Guided Media [Wired Technology]
ii) Unguided Media [Wireless Technology]
 Transmission Media
❖Introduction

35
 Transmission Media
❖Introduction
▪ Transmission medium: the physical path between transmitter and
receiver.
▪ Transmission media operates at Physical Layer of the OSI Model.
▪ The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from
one device to the another.
▪ Computers and other telecommunication devices use signal to
represent data.
▪ Repeaters or amplifiers may be used to extend the length of the
medium.
▪ For the purpose of telecoms, transmission media can be divided into
two categories: Guided (twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable and fiber-
optic cable) and Unguided (usually air- electromagnetic waves ).
36
 Transmission Media
❖Introduction

▪ Transmission Media Categories

37
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
For guided media, the medium itself is more important in determining
the limitations of transmission.
❑ Twisted-Pair Cable
▪ Twisted-pair cable uses metallic (copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electric current.
▪ Twisted pair cables consist of one or more pairs of insulated copper
wires that are twisted together and housed in a protective jacket.

38
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Twisted-Pair Cable
▪ Twisted pair cables have connectors at the end, known as RJ
connectors (RJ-45, RJ-11)

39
 Transmission Media
Twisted-Pair Cable
✓Twisting:
- Twisting wires reduces the effect of electromagnetic interference (the EM
energy the cable emits) or crosstalk .
→ When the wires are twisted, the waves from different twists cancel out, so
the wire radiates (produce heat) less effectively
- More twists = better quality
→It is important to install cable away from sources of interference such as
high-voltage cables and fluorescent lighting. Televisions, computer monitors
and microwaves are other possible sources of interference.
→Crosstalk: Is the leakage of signals between pairs. Crosstalk degrade
network performance and are often caused by untwisting too much cable
when terminating. If high crosstalk values are detected, the best thing to
do is check the cable terminations and re-terminate as necessary
40
 Transmission
4.1 Guided Media
Media
❑Twisted-Pair Cable
✓Application:
→ Twisted pairs can be used for transmitting either analog or digital
signals.
- Telephone network (between house and local exchange)
- LAN (10 Mbps, 100Mbps or 1000 Mbps)
Advantages:
- Easy to work with (Install)
- Less expensive
Disadvantages:
- Low data rate
- Short range 41
 Transmission Media

❑Twisted-Pair Cable
✓Characteristics:
▪ Analog transmission
- Amplifiers every 5km to 6km
▪ Digital transmission
- Repeater every 2km or 3km
▪ TP is Limited
- Distance
- Data rate
▪ Susceptible to interference and noise

42
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Twisted-Pair Cable
✓Types:
- Shielded twisted pair (STP): a metallic shield around the wire pairs minimizes the
impact of the penetration of noise or crosstalk.
- Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

Our discussion focuses primarily

on UTP because STP is seldom
used outside of IBM

43
 Transmission Media
Twisted-Pair Cable
o Shielded Twisted Pair:
Shielded Twisted Pair cables are used almost exclusively (not
including) in European countries-IBM Production.

Note: Foil is a very thin sheet of metal→ Preventing the penetration of

noise or crosstalk.

44
 Transmission Media
Twisted-Pair Cable
o Shielded Twisted Pair:
Cost:
- STP cable costs more than thin coaxial or unshielded twisted-pair cable. STP
is less costly, however, than thick coax or fiber-optic cable.
Capacity:
- The most common data rate for STP cable is 16 Mbps, which is the top data rate
for Token Ring networks.
Attenuation:
- All varieties of twisted-pair cable have attenuation characteristics that limit the length
of cable runs to a few hundred meters, although a 100- meter limit is most common.

45
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Twisted-Pair Cable
o Unshielded Twisted Pair:

46
 Transmission Media
Twisted-Pair Cable
o Unshielded Twisted Pair:
UTP connector :
The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ=Registered Jack)

47
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
UTP connector :
Color code for 4 cable pairs
Pair # Primary color Secondary color (stripe)
1 Blue White
2 Orange White
3 Green White
4 Brown White

48
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
UTP connector :
Color code for 4 cable pairs
▪ EIA organization defines two different patterns, or wiring scheme,
called T568A and T568B.
▪ The two schemes are similar except two of the four pairs are reversed
in the termination order. The graphic shows this color-coding and how
the two pairs are reversed.
▪ On a network installation, one of the two wiring schemes (T568A or
T568B) should be chosen and followed.

49
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media

UTP connector :
Color code for 4 cable pairs
▪ Using the T568A and T568B wiring standards, two types of cables can
be created: a straight-through cable and a crossover cable
A straight-through cable:
is the most common cable type. It maps a wire to the same pins on both
ends of the cable. In other words, if T568A is on one end of the cable,
T568A is also on the other. If T568B is on one end of the cable, T568B
is on the other. This means that the order of connections for each color
is the exact same on both ends.

50
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
UTP connector :
Color code for 4 cable pairs
Crossover Cable:
A crossover cable uses both wiring schemes. T568A on one end of the
cable and T568B on the other end of the same cable. This means that
the order of connection on one end of the cable does not match the
order of connections on the other.

51
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
UTP connector :
Color code for 4 cable pairs
A straight-through cable:
- Connecting between unlike devices
→ Unlike Device:

52
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
UTP connector :
Color code for 4 cable pairs
A straight-through cable:
- Connecting between unlike devices
→Unlike Device:
The pins on the RJ-45 data connector of a PC have pins1 and 2 as transmit
and pins 3 and 6 as receive. The pins on the data connector of a switch have
pins 1 and 2 as receive and pins 3 and 6 as transmit
Examples of unlike devices that require a straight-through cable
include:
- Switch port to Router port
- Switch port to PC
53
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
UTP connector :
Color code for 4 cable pairs
Crossover Cable:
- Connecting between like devices
→Like Device:

54
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
UTP connector :
Color code for 4 cable pairs
Crossover Cable:
- Connecting between like devices
→Like Device:

55
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
Example of using Straight-through and Crossover Cable

56
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
Application of UTP:
- Used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
- The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide
high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of
unshielded twisted-pair cables.
- Local-area networks, such as l0Base-T and l00Base-T, also use
twisted-pair cables.

57
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
UTP VS STP

Unshielded Twisted Pair Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

(UTP) ▪Metal braid or covering that
▪Used for telephone wire reduces interference
▪Cheapest type of cable ▪More expensive
▪Easiest type to be installed ▪Harder to handle (thick,
▪Suffers from external heavy)
Electromagnetic (EM) ▪Provide better performance
interference than UTP
58
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Coaxial Cable
▪ Like twisted pair, coaxial cable (or coax) also carries data in the form of electrical
signals.
▪ It provides improved shielding compared to UTP, so has a lower signal-to-noise
ratio and can therefore carry more data
▪ Although coax has improved data carrying characteristics, most local area
networking uses twisted pair because coax is physically harder to install and is
more expensive.

59
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Coaxial Cable
Categories of coaxial cables
Divided into two basic categories:
→ 50-ohm cable [baseband]
→ 75-ohm cable [broadband or single channel baseband]

Radio Government→

60
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Coaxial Cable
Categories of coaxial cables
➢Baseband Coax:
- 50-ohm cable is used exclusively (only for) for digital transmissions
- 10Base5 Thick Ethernet : thick (10 mm) coax
10 Mbps, 500m max segment length, 100 devices/segment, awkward
(difficult) to handle and install.
- 10Base2 Thin Ethernet : thin (5 mm) coax
10 Mbps, 185m max segment length, 30 devices/segment, easier to
handle.

61
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Coaxial Cable
Categories of coaxial cables
➢Baseband Coax:

62
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Coaxial Cable
Categories of coaxial cables
➢Broadband Coax:

- 75-ohm cable (Cable TV system standard).

- Used for both analog and digital signaling.
- For long-distance transmission of analog signals, amplifiers are
needed every few kilometers.

63
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cable Connectors:

- To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common
type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC), connector.
- Three popular types of these connectors: the BNC connector, the BNC T connector,
and the BNC terminator.

64
Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cable Connectors:
- The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as
TV set.
- The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a connection to a
computer or other device.
- The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the
signal.

65
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑
❑Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cable Connectors:

66
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Performance:
❖ Higher bandwidth than twisted-pair
❖However, attenuation is higher and requires frequent use of repeaters
Coaxial Cable Applications:
-- Television distribution
→ Cable TV
-- Long distance telephone transmission
→ Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
→ Being replaced by fiber optic
-- Short distance computer systems links
67
→ Local area networks
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Coaxial Cable
Characteristics:
▪ Analog
- Amplifier every few Km
▪ Digital
- Repeater every 1 Km
▪ Problem
- Thermal noise
(Thermal noise occurs in almost transmission systems due to the
thermal agitation (movement) of electrons in a conductor. This
noise can affect the quality of a system.)
68
Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
▪ A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in
the form of light.
▪ Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single
uniform substance.
▪ If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters
another substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction.

69
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
▪ A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in
the form of light.
▪ Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single
uniform substance.
▪ If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters
another substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction.

70
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Bending of light ray

- As the figure shows, if the angle of incidence I is less than the critical angle, the ray refracts and
moves closer to the surface.
- If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the light bends along the interface.
- If the angle I is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn) and travels again
in the denser substance.

71
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑Fiber Optic Cable
Optical Fiber ➔ Architecture:
▪ Core
• Glass or plastic with a higher index of refraction than the
cladding
• Carries the signal
▪ Cladding
• Glass or plastic with a lower index of refraction than the core
▪ Buffer (one type of component made from plastic)
• Protects the fiber from damage and moisture
▪ Jacket
• Holds one or more fibers in a cable

72
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Repeaters:
▪ For long links, repeaters are needed to compensate for signal loss

73
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Propagation Modes:
There are two forms of fiber optic cable: multimode and single mode.

74
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Propagation Modes:
❖ Multi Mode
▪ It is referred to as multimode because there are multiple rays of light, each carrying
data, being transmitted through the cable simultaneously.
▪ Each ray of light takes a separate path through the multimode core. Multimode fiber
optical cables are generally suitable for links of up to 2000 meters. However,
improvements in technology are continually improving this distance.

Lecturer: Kim No 75
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Propagation Modes:
❖ Multi Mode
▪ Multimode step-index fiber
✓ The density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges.
✓Light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the
interface of the core and the cladding.
✓Some beams penetrate the cladding and are lost, while others are reflected
down the channel to the destination
✓As a result, beams reach the destination at different times and the signal may
not be the same as that which was transmitted
✓ Step index multimode was developed first, but rare today because it has a low
bandwidth, It has been replaced by graded-index multimode with a higher 76
bandwidth
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media

❑ Fiber Optic Cable

Propagation Modes:
❖ Multi Mode
▪ Multimode step-index fiber

77
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Propagation Modes:
❖ Multi Mode
▪ Multimode graded-index fiber
- Graded-index refers to varying densities of the fiber; highest at center
and decreases at edge
- May be used to decreases this distortion of the signal through the
cable and to allow for more precise (exact) transmissions
- Eliminates problem with some of the signals penetrating the cladding
- Since the core density decreases with distance from the center,
the light beams refract into a curve
78
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Propagation Modes:
❖ Multi Mode
▪ Multimode graded-index fiber

79
 Transmission Media
Fiber Optic Cable
Propagation Modes:
❖ Single Mode
▪ Only one beam from a light source is transmitted through the fiber
▪ The single mode fiber itself is manufactured with a much smaller diameter than that
of multimode fiber, and with lower density (index of refraction).
▪ The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90° to make
the propagation of beams almost horizontal.
- Delays are negligible (to slight or small)
▪ All the beams arrive at the destination "together" and can be
recombined with little distortion to the signal
▪ Single mode fibers can transmit data for approximately 3000 meters and
improvements in technology are continually improving this
distance.

80
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Propagation Modes:
❖ Single Mode

81
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Propagation Modes:

82
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Light Sources:
Light source is light-emitting diode (LED) or a laser
Single Mode:
- Uses laser as the light source, suitable for long distance applications
Multimode:
- Uses Light Emitting Diode-LED as the light source
-- LEDs are cheaper than lasers
-- Suitable for long distance applications, but shorter than single
mode.

83
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber Sizes:
Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to
the diameter of their cladding, both expressed in micrometers

84
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors :
There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables:

85
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors :
There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables:
▪ The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV.
▪ The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to
networking devices.
▪ Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack (MT-RJ) is a connector that
is the same size as RJ45. MTRJ connectors are designed to snap
into the Ethernet port of a computer, modem, or wireless router
and provide that computer or network with extremely fast data
transfer rates.
86
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Performance:
▪ Attenuation is lower than in the case of twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable.
➔ Need Repeater
Applications:
▪ Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone (SONET) networks because its wide
bandwidth is cost-effective. Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM),
we can transfer data at a rate of 1600 Gbps.
▪ Cable TV companies also use optical fiber and
▪ Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X
also use fiber-optic cable

87
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber:
❖Advantages
Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted-pair or coaxial).
▪ Higher bandwidth. Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and hence
data rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable (Data rates of hundreds of Gbps)
▪ Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that of
other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need
repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.
▪ Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-optic
cables.

88
 Transmission Media
4.1 Guided Media
❑ Fiber Optic Cable
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber:
❖Disadvantages
There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.
▪ Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its
installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available every where.
▪ Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need
bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
▪ Cost is relatively more expensive than those of other guided media.

89
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
✓Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor.
✓This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals
are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has
a device capable of receiving them.
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
The electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900 THz, used for wireless
communication.

90
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Propagation methods
Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several
ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight
propagation.

The ionosphere is a part of the upper atmosphere, from about

85 km to 600 km altitude
91
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Propagation methods
In ground propagation:
▪ Radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth.
▪ These low-frequency signals emanate (propagate) in all directions from the
transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet
▪ Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the power, the
greater the distance.

92
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Propagation methods
In sky propagation:
▪ Higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere
(the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) and then reflect back to
Earth
▪ This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.

93
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
Propagation methods
In line-of- sight propagation:
▪ Very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to
antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other, and either tall enough or close
enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth.
▪ The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and microwaves is
divided into eight ranges (as table below), called bands, each regulated by government
authorities.
▪ These bands are rated from very low frequency (VLF) to extremely high frequency
(EHF).

94
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups: radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared waves.

95
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
Radio wave:
▪ Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1
GHz are normally called radio waves; waves ranging in frequencies
between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
▪ Radio waves, for the most part, are omni directional. When an
antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions.
This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be
aligned (straight line).

96
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
Radio wave:
▪ Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel
long distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance
broadcasting such as AM radio.
▪ Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate
walls.
→ Omni directional Antenna

97
 Transmission Media
Radio wave:
→Application:
- Broadcast radio (AM,FM)
- TV
- Cellular phones
Micro waves:
▪ Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
▪ Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they
can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to
be aligned.

98
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
Micro waves:
▪ Microwave propagation is line-of-sight→ the both antennas that are far
apart need to be very tall.

▪ Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This

characteristic can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.

99
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
Micro waves:
Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction.
Two types of antennas are used for microwave communications: the parabolic
dish and the horn antennas.

100
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
Micro waves:

101
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
Micro waves:
Microwave Applications
Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful
when unicast (one-to-one) communication is needed between the
sender and the receiver.
-- Cellular phones
-- Satellite networks
-- Wireless LANs

102
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
Infrared:
▪ Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for short-
range communication in a closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
▪ Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
▪ This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and
another; a short-range communication system in one room
cannot be affected by another system in the next room.
• In

▪ Addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays
contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.

103
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
Infrared:
Applications
▪ The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data transmission.
▪ The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared
waves, has established standards for using these signals for communication between
devices such as keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers.
▪ For example, some manufacturers provide a special port called the IrDA port that allows a
wireless keyboard to communicate with a PC.
▪ The standard originally defined a data rate of 75 kbps for a distance up to 8 m. The recent
standard defines a data rate of 4 Mbps.

104
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
(Bluetooth:)

▪ A technology that makes use of the 2.4 GHz band. It is limited to low-speed,
short-range communications.
▪ It allows one-to-many communications has made Bluetooth technology the
preferred method over IR.
▪ Bluetooth can transmit through solid, non-metal objects
▪ Its typical link range is from 10 cm to 10 m, but can be extended to 100 m by
increasing the power.

105
 Transmission Media
Satellite Communication:
What is Satellite?
▪ The word "satellite" refers to a machine that is launched into space and moves around
Earth or another body in space which play role as a “relay station”
▪ Satellite Microwave, Similar to terrestrial microwave except the signal travels from a
ground station on earth to a satellite (Uplink) and back to another ground station
(Downlink).
▪ Satellite receives on one frequency, amplifies or repeats signal and transmits on
another frequency
▪ A communication satellite can be thought of as a big microwave repeater in the sky.

106
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
Satellite Communication:

107
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
Satellite Communication:
How do Satellites Work?
▪ Two Stations on Earth want to communicate through radio broadcast but are too far
away to use conventional (simple) means.
▪ The two stations can use a satellite as a relay station for their communication
▪ One Earth Station sends a transmission to the satellite. This is called a Uplink.
▪ The satellite Transponder converts the signal and sends it down to the second earth
station. This is called a Downlink.

108
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
Satellite Communication:
How does Satellite orbit the earth without fall back to Earth ?
▪ Most satellites are launched into space on rockets. A satellite orbits Earth when
its speed is balanced by the pull of Earth's gravity.
▪ Without this balance, the satellite would fly in a straight line off into space or
fall back to Earth.
▪ Satellites orbit Earth at different heights, different speeds and along different
paths.

109
 Transmission Media
Satellite Communication:
What Are the Parts of a Satellite?
▪ Satellites come in many shapes and sizes. But most have at least two parts in common --
an antenna and a power source.
▪ The antenna sends and receives information, often to and from Earth.
▪ The power source can be a solar panel, battery. Solar panels make power by turning
sunlight into electricity.
Three Categories of Satellite
• Geostationary Orbit Satellites (GEO)
• Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites (MEO)
• Low-Earth Orbit Satellites (LEO)

110
 Transmission Media
Satellite Communication:
Three Categories of Satellite
Geostationary Orbit Satellites (GEO):
▪ Height of 35,786km above the earth
▪ Propagation is line-of-sight → need sending and receiving antennas must face to
face forever
▪ The satellites is placed in orbit such that they remain stationary relative to a fixed
spot on earth.
▪ If a satellite is placed at 35,786 km above the earth, its angular velocity is equal to
that of the earth, thereby causing it to appear to be over the same point on earth.
This allows for them to provide constant coverage of the area

111
 Transmission Media
Satellite Communication:
Three Categories of Satellite
Geostationary Orbit Satellites (GEO):
▪ Number of satellites needed for global coverage are three, separate 120 degree
from each other.

Lecturer: Kim No
112
 Transmission Media
Satellite Communication:
Three Categories of Satellite
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites (MEO):
▪ Height of 5 000km to 15 000Km above the earth, higher than low earth orbit (LEO)
satellites, but lower than geostationary satellites (GEO).
▪ Number of satellites needed for global coverage are 10

113
 Transmission Media
Satellite Communication:
Three Categories of Satellite
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites (LEO):
▪ Height of 500km to 2 000Km above the earth
▪ This type of an orbit reduces transmission times as compared to GEO
▪ A LEO orbit can also be used to cover a polar region
▪ Number of satellites needed for global coverage are 50

114
 Transmission Media
Satellite Communication:
The advantages of satellite communication over terrestrial
communication are:
▪ The coverage area of a satellite greatly exceeds that of a terrestrial system.
▪ Higher Bandwidths are available for use
The disadvantages of satellite communication:
▪ Launching satellites into orbit is costly.
▪ There is a larger propagation delay (round-trip delay time) in satellite
communication than in terrestrial communication.

115
 Transmission Media
4.2 Unguided Media
❖Wireless transmission waves
Satellite Communication:
Application:
▪ Television
▪ Long distance telephone
▪ Private business networks
Satellites versus fiber cables:
▪ More suitable for mobile communication
▪ Better suited for connecting remote areas.

116
 4-3 TRANSMISSION MODES

1. The transmission of binary data across a link can be

accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.
2. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each
clock tick.
3. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
4. there are three subclasses of serial transmission:
asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.

4.117
 Data transmission and modes

4.118
 Parallel transmission

4.119
 Serial transmission

4.120
 Asynchronous transmission
1. We send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits (1s) at the end
of each byte.
2. There may be a gap between each byte.
3. Extra bits and gaps are used to alert the receiver and allow it to synchronize
with the data stream.
4. Asynchronous here means “asynchronous at the byte level,”
but the bits are still synchronized, their durations are the same.

4.121
 Synchronous transmission
In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after
another without start or stop bits or gaps. It is the
responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.

4.122
THANK YOU