Nuclear

Fusion
 NUCLEAR FUSION
Whereas nuclear FISSION involves very large nuclei splitting into
smaller nuclei, FUSION involves the SMALL nuclei JOINING
TOGETHER to form larger ones.

FUSION powers STARS and is the method by which all of the

ELEMENTS in the Universe were formed from the original simple
particles present after the BIG BANG
 In stars, the 3 isotopes
1 1 1 2 3 of HYDROGEN are
0n 1p 1H 1H 1H often involved in fusion
neutron proton deuterium tritium
Conditions needed for a fusion reaction

If the TEMPERATURE
is not high enough, the
particles will simply
collide and ‘rebound’
due to electrostatic
repulsion
If the temperature is high enough, the particles have enough
kinetic energy to overcome their repulsion and FUSE

positron

2 protons As with fission, the

deuterium products have slightly
less mass than the
reactants with the
(neutrino) ‘missing’ mass being
converted to energy
(the neutrino is a tiny neutral particle
1 2 0 0
2 1H 1H + 1e + 0ν
always created with a positron –
antineutrinos are created with electrons)

Temperatures of MILLIONS OF DEGREES are needed to start

the reaction.
In the core of a star, many fusion reactions are taking place at
the same time

Gigantic amounts of energy

are released.
Nucleosynthesis is the creation of new heavier nuclei from lighter
ones
As a star’s life cycle
goes on, fusion in the
core produces heavier
and heavier elements.
The process continues
until IRON (26 protons)
is produced.
 Older stars build up layers of
heavier and heavier
elements.
Eventually, fusion in the core
stops and gravity suddenly
Elements collapses the star.
up to iron
The collapse produces a
devastating SUPERNOVA
explosion.
In a supernova the
conditions are so extreme
that nuclei fuse to produce
all of the elements heavier
iron to than iron which are then
uranium blasted into space, later to
form new stars and planets
 NEWLY CREATED ELEMENTS ARE RECYCLED

Heavier elements from a New stars and planets form

dead star are thrown out by from the gas and dust
the supernova into space as
gas and dust
CAN NUCLEAR FUSION FILL THE ENERGY
SUPPLY GAP BACK HERE ON EARTH?
Fossil fuels
SUPPLIES RUNNING
OUT, POLLUTION

Nuclear fission
Renewables SAFETY CONCERNS,
WASTE PROBLEM
NOT ENOUGH
ENERGY PRODUCED
We already rely on a
nuclear fusion reactor
150 million km away Is it possible to
for virtually all of our create a little
energy, whether
directly through solar piece of the Sun
heating or indirectly here on Earth?
through wind, hydro,
food and fossil fuels.

Many scientists say that if we could successfully control

nuclear fusion, we could produce, cleanly, more energy than
we could ever need
 FUSION POWER STATIONS?
Compared to nuclear FISSION, nuclear
FUSION reactions:
• release EVEN MORE energy per kg of fuel
• make less radioactive emissions as
many of the products are stable (eg He-4)
• use ‘cleaner’ fuel: isotopes of hydrogen,
which can be made from water and lithium

The most promising reaction for man made fusion power is

the fusion of deuterium and tritium (2H and 3H).
However, there are MAJOR practical problems for
scientists and engineers to overcome
 FUSION IN A REACTOR?
To start a fusion reaction the fuel must be heated to a temperature
about 150 million degrees.
This makes it into a PLASMA – a gas in which the electrons
have been stripped from the nuclei.
 PLASMAS:
Flame, Plasma Ball, Ball Lightning

The main problems are:

• How can the plasma be heated to such extreme temperatures?
• What can it be kept in? Any physical container would simply
vaporise.
Consider:
The plasma is a gas. Its particles need to be supplied with more kinetic
energy to raise the temperature.
The plasma is a gas made of IONS, which will make an electric current
when they move. Electric currents can be deflected by magnetism.
 HEATING THE PLASMA
The plasma can be heated:

By the electric
current that
flows when a
magnetic field
is applied to the
ions By beaming in
microwaves

By injecting extra
hydrogen atoms
with high kinetic
energy
 MAGNETIC PLASMA CONFINEMENT

In a star, the plasma is

confined by GRAVITY.
In a fusion reactor, the
plasma is confined
using MAGNETIC
FIELDS The + ions and electrons in the plasma move
in spirals around the magnetic field lines
Very powerful magnetic fields are used to confine the plasma
into a TOROID (doughnut) shape. This allows it to be heated to
the 150 million °C needed without touching the chamber walls
Inside the JET (Joint European Torus) experimental fusion
reactor at Culham in Berkshire
 Powering up the JET

The hot plasma is visible through an observation window. The

reactor never contains more than a few grams of plasma at once.
European
researchers are
experimenting
with a spherical,
rather than
toroidal plasma
 Laser Ignition Fusion “Inertial Confinement”
Researchers in the US are trialing a different system using small
pellets of hydrogen fuel in lithium cases. Intensely powerful
LASERS are focused on the pellets, starting a fusion reaction.
These are in effect tiny nuclear fusion bombs.

A continuous series of pellets would be detonated, with the heat

produced being used to produce electricity
 Energy and Fuel Supply Issues
Fusion power stations could provide the very large amounts of
continuous energy without producing any greenhouse gases
The fuel supply is almost inexhaustible: 3
2
1H
1H
• deuterium is extracted from seawater
• tritium is made in the reactor from lithium which is very common
in the Earth’s crust

The lithium from one laptop battery,

combined with the deuterium in 100 liters of
water, can cover the electricity use of an
average European citizen for 30 years.
 Radiation and Safety
Deuterium (2H) and 4He are stable
Whilst tritium is radioactive, it only emits low
energy beta particles with a short half life (12 yr).
The reaction emits neutrons which are absorbed
by the reactor vessel walls, making them weakly
radioactive.

By choosing suitable metals for the

reactor walls, the half lives of the
radioactive isotopes produced by
the neutrons are around 10 years,
so there is no long term waste issue
as there is for fission.
 Radiation and Safety
The mass of fuel in the reactor is no more than a few grams at
a time.
If the fusion process is disrupted by for example:
• cutting the fuel supply
• interrupting the heating mechanisms
• damage to the reactor walls
…the reaction stops immediately
 JET / ITER / TOKAMAK
Magnetic confinement

After about 40 years research and

billions of dollars of funding…..
 NIF
Laser Ignition

…continuous controlled fusion in a

reactor has still not been achieved.