EXPERIMENT NO: 01

Roll No. - Batch -

NAME: -Study of Active and Passive components

AIM: -To study different Active and Passive components

a) Resistors (Fixed & Variable), Calculation of resistor value using colorcode.

b) Capacitors (Fixed &Variable)
c) Inductors, Calculation of inductor value using colorcode.
d) Devices such Diode, BJT, MOSFETs, various ICpackages
e) Switches &Relays

To study different components such as…

1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
3. Inductors
4. Transformers
5. Connectors
6. Switches
7. Diode, BJT, MOSFETs, Various IC pagkages

APPARATUS :-a) Multimeter

b) CRO
c) Function Generator

THEORY:-

Active component supplies energy to an electric circuit and hence has ability to electrically
control the flow of charge, amplify a signal or produce a power gain. A typical active
component would be an oscillator, transistor or integrated circuit, MOSFET, diode etc.

Passive Components are electronic components that do not require a Source of Energy to
perform their intended functions. A passive component can only receive energy, which it can
either dissipate or absorb.The examples of Passive Components are Resistors, Capacitors,
Inductors.
PASSIVE COMPONENTS:

1. RESISTOR:-

Physical material resist the flow of electric current to some extent is called as resistor. The
materials which offers very low resistance to current flow are called as conductors and which
offers high resistance to current flow are called as insulators.

The resistance of a material with length ‘l’ and area ‘A’ is given by,

R= ( * l) / A

Where  is the resistivity .

There are basically two types of resistors:

a) General purpose
b) High stability
General purpose are of carbon composition. They are cheap. They are not so stable and their
tolerance is 5 to 20% in value. High stability resistors include metal film cermets, metal foil,
and wire wound resistors. Their tolerance are low and range from 0.1 to 5%. While selecting
the resistors following points to be consider

1. Stability
2. Tolerance
3. Temp. coefficient of resistance
4. Power rating
5. Max. operating voltage
6. Reliability
7. Change in resistance value with frequency
8. Load life, environmental conditions and age
9. Value, size and shape
TYPES OF RESISTORS:-

Carbon Ceramic Resistors:

Resistive element is carbon composition, but the filler used is ceramic powder. The sheet
resistance is controlled by changing the quantity of carbon and ceramic.

Specifications:

Range of values: 10 s to 4K7

Temp. coefficient of resistance: -1500ppm/ deg.C

Stability: 20%

Tolerance: + or – 20%

Working Temp.: very high

Applications: Used in High power applications.

Carbon film resistors:

Pure carbon is deposited on ceramic substrate by thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons at

1000 deg.C. The sheet resistance is controlled by controlling the thickness of the carbon film.
Specifications:

Range of values: 1  to 10^7 s

Temp. coefficient of resistance: -1000ppm/ deg.C

Stability: < 3%

Tolerance: >2%

Working vtg.: 500V

Working Temp.: -40 to 120 deg.C

Applications: Used in measuring instruments where close tolerances are required.

Metal film resistors:

Nickel film is deposited on ceramic subsrate. This is done by electrolytic decomposition of

nickel in a chemical bath containing hypophosphate. The sheet resistance is controlled by the
amount of nickel and Ni-P alloys depositing on substrate.

Specifications:

Temp. coefficient of resistance: < + or – 200 ppm/ deg.C

Stability: 2%

Tolerance: >2%

Working Vtg.: 300V

Working Temp.: -40 to +150 deg.C

Applications: Best reliability and Stability Hence used in electronic instruments.

Wire wound resistors:

The resistance element is used as a wire, made from special alloys, thathave low temp.
coefficients and good stability against environmental conditions. The wire is chosen according
to it’s resistivity. The actual resistance is adjusted during winding. The resistance required is
derived from the length of the wire used, gauge and their resistivity.
Specifications:

Range of values: 0.1  to 10^6 s

Temp. coefficient of resistance: + or – 5ppm/ deg.C

Stability: >0.05%

Tolerance: >0.5%

Working voltage: <300V

Working Temp.: 55 to 375 deg.C

Applications: Suitable for low resistance and low noise applications. Also used whigh power
handling capacity is required in small size.

Variable Resistors:

These are the resistors whose resistance can be changed between zero and a certain maximum
value. They are used in electronic circuit to adjust values of voltage & current.

Potentiometer: It is a variable resistor either of carbon or wire wound type. It is smaller in size
as compared to rheostat.

1) Carbon potentiometer.
2) Wire wound potentiometer. It is of two types:

a) Single turn wire wound potentiometer.

b) Multimeter potentiometer

Rheostat:A wire wound plot that can dissipate more than 5W is referred to as rheostat as
shown in fig. The rheostat is capable of withstanding temperature upto 300degC. It is used to
control motor speed, X-ray tube voltage, current, ovens & in many other high power
applications.

Trimmer: A trimmer of trimming potentiometer is used with resistance must be adjustable but
not continuously variable. Typically there resistance is from few ohms to 5M& the power
rating is 1W.
 2. CAPACITOR:

These are the devices, which can store electric charges. These are used in tuned circuits, timing
circuits, filters, amplifier circuits, oscillator circuits, relay circuits.

A capacitor essentially consists of two conducting plates separated by dielectric material as

shown in fig. The capacitance of parallel plate condenser is given by:

C=o A

Where A = area of each plate in sq m.

d = distance between parallel plates.

o = dielectric constant of free space

=10^(-9) F/m=8.854 X 10^(-12)

= Relative electric constant (permitivity).

The amount of charges ‘q’ stored in the capacitor is inversely proportional to applied voltage.

Q= e V coulomb.

Where Q = charge stored

V = voltage across the capacitor.

C = capacitance of the capacitor.

A charge capacitor has energy stored in the electric field existing between its plates.
The expression for stored energy is

W=1/2 CV^2
Table shows the dielectric properties of material.

Material Dielectric Constant Dielectric Strength

Air or Vaccum 1 20

Plastic film 2-3.5 1000-5000

Oil 2-5 500-1000

Paper 2.5-6 500-1000

Mica 3-8 600-1500

Glass 4-7 <500

Electrolyte 7-11 2000

Ceramics 80-1200 100-300

TYPES OF CAPACITORS:

Ceramic Dielectric Capacitors:

These capacitors are classified in many ways, such as,

a) Low loss low permittivity type.

b) Medium permittivity type.
c) High permittivity type.
The capacitance to volume ratio is large. Cost per CV rating is also small. They are used in
blocking, bypassing and filtering. Chip capacitors are used in hybrid circuits. Losses are low.

Mica Capacitor:These capacitors are available in capacitance values ranging from 1pF to
10000pF. These capacitors are expensive but have a stabl capacitance value even at a
frequency of 200 MHz. these are used in radio and telecommunication application.

Electrolytic Capacitors:

An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor typically with a larger capacitance per unit
volume than other types, making them valuable in relatively high-current and low-frequency
electrical circuits. This is especially the case in power-supply filters, where they store charge
needed to moderate output voltage and current fluctuations, in rectifier output, and especially
in the absence of rechargeable batteries that can provide similar low-frequency current
capacity. They are also widely used as coupling capacitors in circuits where AC should be
conducted but DC should not; the large value of the capacitance allows them to pass very low
frequencies.

Variable Capacitors:

Variable capacitors are devices that can be made to change capacitance values with the twist of a
knob. These devices come in either air variable or trimmer forms. Air variable capacitors consist
of 2 sets of aluminum plates (stator and rotor) that mesh together but do not touch. Rotating the
rotor plates with respect to the stator varies the capacitor's effective plate surface area, thus
changing the capacitance. Air variable capacitors typically are mounted on panels and are used
in frequently adjusted tuning applications (eg.: fine tuning fixed frequency communications
receivers, crystal frequency adjustments, adjusting filter characteristics). Trimmers may use a
mica, air, ceramic, or glass dielectric and may use either a pair of rotating plates or a
compression like mechanism that forces the plates closer together.

3.INDUCTOR:

An inductor is a circuit element that stores magnetic field. If the magnetic field is changing, i.e.
the current is changing; it will have an induced EMF across it with a magnitude proportional to
the rate of change of current:

ε= L (di/dt)

The proportionality constant L is called the inductance of the device. It is a property of the
device and does not depend on the current. Inductance is measured in units of “henrys”, where 1
henry = 1 volt-second/ampere.

This is the schematic symbol for an inductor.

This one example of what an inductor might look like.

 4.TRANSFORMER:-

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupledelectrical conductors. It is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric
current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic
field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic
induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnitude of the applied
magnetic field. The changing magnetic flux extends to the secondary coil

where a voltage is induced across its ends.As shown in above figure a current passing through
the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a
core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron; this ensures that most of the magnetic
field lines produced by the primary current are within the iron and pass through the secondary
coil as well as the primary coil. The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated
from Faraday's law of induction, which states that:

where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil and Φ
equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented
perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic field strength B
and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area
of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation
of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary
coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equationfor stepping up or
stepping down the voltage

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS:-

Transformers are constructed so that their characteristics match the application for which theyare
intended. The differences in construction may involve the size of the windings or
therelationship between the primary and secondary windings. Transformer types are also
designatedby the function the transformer serves in a circuit, such as an isolation transformer.

Distribution Transformer :

Distribution transformers are generally used in electrical power distribution and

transmissionsystems. This class of transformer has the highest power, or volt-ampere ratings,
and the highestcontinuous voltage rating. The power rating is normally determined by the
type of coolingmethods the transformer may use. Some commonly-used methods of cooling
are by using oilor some other heat-conducting material. Ampere rating is increased in a
distribution transformerby increasing the size of the primary and secondary windings; voltage
ratings are increased byincreasing the voltage rating of the insulation used in making the
transformer.

Power Transformer :

Power transformers are used in electronic circuits and come in many different types
andapplications. Electronics or power transformers are sometimes considered to be those
withratings of 300 volt-amperes and below. These transformers normally provide power to the
powersupply of an electronic device, such as in power amplifiers in audio receivers.

Control Transformer :

Control transformers are generally used in electronic circuits that require constant voltage
orconstant current with a low power or volt-amp rating. Various filtering devices, such
ascapacitors, are used to minimize the variations in the output. This results in a more
constantvoltage or current.

Auto Transformer :

The auto transformer is generally used in low power applications where a variable
voltage isrequired. The auto transformer is a special type of power transformer. It consists of
only onewinding. By tapping or connecting at certain points along the winding, different
voltages canbe obtained.

Auto Transformer Schematic

Isolation Transformer :

Isolation transformers are normally low power transformers used to isolate noise from or
toground electronic circuits. Since a transformer cannot pass DC voltage from primary
tosecondary, any DC voltage (such as noise) cannot be passed, and the transformer acts to
isolatethis noise.

Instrument Potential Transformer

The instrument potential transformer (PT) steps down voltage of a circuit to a low value that
canbe effectively and safely used for operation of instruments such as ammeters, voltmeters,
wattmeters, and relays used for various protective purposes

Instrument Current Transformer :

The instrument current transformer (CT) steps down the current of a circuit to a lower value
andis used in the same types of equipment as a potential transformer. This is done by
constructingthe secondary coil consisting of many turns of wire, around the primary coil, which
contains onlya few turns of wire. In this manner, measurements of high values of current can
be obtained.A current transformer should always be short-circuited when not connected to an
external load.Because the magnetic circuit of a current transformer is designed for low
magnetizing currentwhen under load, this large increase in magnetizing current will build
up a large flux in themagnetic circuit and cause the transformer to act as a step-up
transformer, inducing anexcessively high voltage in the secondary when under no load

5. CONNECTORS:-

Electrical connector, a device for joining electrical circuits together.

TYPES OF CONNECTORS :-

Audio and video connector :- Audio connectors and video connectors are electrical connectors
for carrying an audio signal or video signal, either in an analog or digital format. Analog A/V
connectors often use Shielded cable to inhibit RF interference and noise. The type of audio
single-conductor connectors is Banana connectors and Multi-conductor connectors DB25.RCA
connectors are commonly used for home stereo and video equipment.
Power connector: - Apower connector is an electrical connector designed to carry a significant
amount of electrical power, usually as DC or low-frequency AC. Mains power plugs, principally
used for connecting equipment to wall outlets. Industrial power plugs, used for larger
equipment than normal mains plugs.

RF connector: - An RF connector is an electrical connector designed to work at radio

frequencies in the multi-megahertz range. RF connectors are typically used with coaxial cables
and are designed to maintain the shielding that the coaxial design offers. Better models also
minimize the change in transmission line impedance at the connection. Standard types are BNC
connector, LC connector, N connector.
6. SWITCHES:

A switch is a device for changing the course (or flow) of a circuit. The prototypical model is a
mechanical device (for example a railroad switch) which can be disconnected from one course
and connected to another. The term "switch" typically refers to electricalpower or electronic
telecommunication circuits. In applications where multiple switching options are required (e.g.,
a telephone service), mechanical switches have long been replaced by electronic variants which
can be intelligently controlled and automated.

Electrical Switch:

In the simplest case, a switch has two pieces of metal called contacts that touch to make a circuit,
and separate to break the circuit. The contact material is chosen for its resistance to corrosion,
because most metals form insulatingoxides that would prevent the switch from working.
Sometimes the contacts are plated with noble metals. They may be designed to wipe against each
other to clean off any contamination. Nonmetallic conductors, such as conductive plastic, are
sometimes used. The moving part that applies the operating force to the contacts is called the
actuator, and may be a toggle or dolly, a rocker, a push-button or any type of mechanical
linkage.A simple semiconductor switch is a transistor.

Contact arrangements

A pair of contacts is said to be 'closed' when there is no space between them, allowing electricity
to flow from one to the other. When the contacts are separated by a space, they are said to be
'open', and no electricity can flow.
 Switches can be classified according to the arrangement of their contacts. Some contacts are
normally open until closed by operation of the switch, while others are normally closed and
opened by the switch action. A switch with both types of contact is called a changeover switch.
The terms pole and throw are used to describe switch contacts. A pole is a set of contacts that
belong to a single circuit. A throw is one of two or more positions that the switch can adopt.
These terms give rise to abbreviations for the types of switch which are used in the electronics
industry. In mains wiring names generally involving the word way are used; however, these
terms differ between British and AmericanEnglish and the terms two way and three way are
used in both with different meanings.

Switches with larger numbers of poles or throws can be described by replacing the "S" or "D"
with a number or in some cases the letter T (for triple). In the rest of this article the terms
SPSTSPDT and intermediate will be used to avoid the ambiguity in the use of the word "way".

7. DIODES,BJT ,MOSFET & Various IC packages

ACTIVE COMPONENTS:

DIODES

A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only conducts current in one
direction (so long as it is operated within a specified voltage level). An ideal diode will have
zero resistance in one direction, and infinite resistance in the reverse direction.
THERE TWO TYPES OF DIODES:-

1. PN JUNCTION DIODE
2. ZENER DIODE

PN JUNCTION DIODE.

we dope one side of a semiconductor piece with an acceptor impurity and another side with a
donor impurity. A PN junction diode is a two-terminal electronics element, which can be
classified as either ‘step graded’ or ‘linear graded’.

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF PN-JUNCTION DIODE.

When, V is positive the junction is forward biased, and when V is negative, the junction is
reverse biased. When V is negative and less than VTH, the current is minimal. But when V
exceeds VTH, the current suddenly becomes very high. The voltage VTH is known as the
threshold or cut in voltage. For Silicon diode VTH = 0.6 V. At a reverse voltage corresponding to
the point P, there is abrupt increment in reverse current. This portion of the characteristics is

known as breakdown region.

ZENER DIODE.

Zener diode is basically like an ordinary PN junction diode but normally operated in reverse
biased condition. But ordinary PN junction diode connected in reverse biased condition is not
used as Zener diode practically. A Zener diode is a specially designed, highly doped PN junction

diode.

VI CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE.

The above diagram shows the V-I characteristics of a zener diode. When the diode is connected
in forward bias, this diode acts as a normal diode but when the reverse bias voltage is greater
than zener voltage, a sharp breakdown takes place. In the V-I characteristics above Vz is the
zener voltage. It is also the knee voltage because at this point the current increases very
rapidly.

APPLICATIONS:

1.AS A SWITCH
2.AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR.
BJT-BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR.
A bipolar junction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device consisting of two p-n
junctions which is able to amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current controlled device. The three
terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector and the emitter.

THERE TWO TYPES OF BJT:

1.NPN BJT:
As started before in n-p-n bipolar transistor one p-type semiconductor resides between two n-
type semiconductors the diagram below a n-p-n transistor is shown.
Now IE, IC is emitter current and collect current respectively and VEB and VCB are emitter base
voltage and collector base voltage respectively. According to convention if for the emitter, base
and collector current IE, IB and IC current goes into the transistor the sign of the current is taken
as positive and if current goes out from the transistor then the sign is taken as negative. We
can tabulate the different currents and voltages inside the n-p-n transistor.

Transistor type IE IB IC VEB VCB VCE

n-p-n – + + – + +

2.PNP BJT:

Similarly for p-n-p bipolar junction transistor a n-type semiconductors is sandwiched between
two p-type semiconductors. The diagram of a p-n-p transistor is shown below

For p-n-p transistors, current enters into the transistor through the emitter terminal. Like any
bipolar junction transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base
junction is reverse biased. We can tabulate the emitter, base and collector current, as well as
the emitter base, collector base and collector emitter voltage for p-n-p transistors also.

Transistor type IE IB IC VEB VCB VCE

p–n–p + – – + – –
APPLICATIONS:

1.AS A SWITCH
2.AS A AMPLIFER
MOSFET
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET), also
known as the metal–oxide–silicon transistor (MOS transistor, or MOS),[1] is a type of field-
effect transistor that is fabricated by the controlled oxidation of a semiconductor,
typically silicon. It has a covered gate, whose voltage determines the conductivity of the device.
This ability to change conductivity with the amount of applied voltage can be used for
amplifying or switching electronic signals.

MOSFET 8408

N-CHANNEL MOSFET

The N-Channel MOSFET has a N- channel region between source and drain It is a four terminal
device such as gate, drain , source , body. This type of MOSFET the drain and source are heavily
doped n+ region and the substrate or body is P- type. The current flows due to the negatively
charged electrons. When we apply the positive gate voltage the holes present under the oxide
layer pushed downward into the substrate with a repulsive force. The depletion region is
populated by the bound negative charges which are associated with the acceptor atoms. The
electrons reach channel is formed. The positive voltage also attracts electrons from the n+
source and drain regions into the channel. Now, if a voltage is applied between the drain and
source the current flows freely between the source and drain and the gate voltage controls the
electrons in the channel. Instead of positive voltage if we apply negative voltage a hole channel
will be formed under the oxide layer.

P-CHANNEL MOSFET

The P- Channel MOSFET has a P- Channel region between source and drain. It is a four terminal
device such as gate, drain, source, body. The drain and source are heavily doped p+ region and
the body or substrate is n-type. The flow of current is positively charged holes. When we apply
the negative gate voltage, the electrons present under the oxide layer with are pushed
downward into the substrate with a repulsive force. The depletion region populated by the
bound positive charges which are associated with the donor atoms. The negative gate voltage
also attracts holes from p+ source and drain region into the channel region.
 APPLICATIONS:

• MOSFET is used for switching and amplifying electronics signals in the electronic devices.
• It is used as an inverter.
• It can be used in digital circuit.
• MOSFET can be used as a high frequency amplifier.

IC PACKAGES

Integrated circuits are put into protective packages to allow easy handling and assembly
onto printed circuit boards and to protect the devices from damage.

SIP IC PACKAGING

A system in package (SiP) or system-in-a-package is a number of integrated circuits enclosed in

a single chip carrier package. The SiP performs all or most of the functions of an electronic
system, and is typically used inside a mobile phone, digital music player, etc.[1] Dies containing
integrated circuits may be stacked vertically on a substrate. They are internally connected by
fine wires that are bonded to the package. Alternatively, with a flip chip technology, solder
bumps are used to join stacked chips together. Systems-in-package are like systems-on-
chip (SoC) but less tightly integrated and not on a single semiconductor die.

DIP IC PACKAGING
In microelectronics, a dual in-line package (DIP or DIL[1]), or dual in-line pin package (DIPP)[2] is
an electronic component package with a rectangular housing and two parallel rows of electrical
connecting pins. The package may be through-hole mounted to a printed circuit board (PCB) or
inserted in a socket.

VARIANTS IN DIP

● Ceramic Dual In-line Package (CERDIP or CDIP)

● Plastic Dual In-line Package (PDIP)
● Shrink Plastic Dual In-line Package (SPDIP)
● Skinny Dual In-line Package (SDIP or SPDIP[7])

QIP IC PACKAGING

Rockwell used a quad in-line package with 42 leads formed into staggered rows for their PPS-4
microprocessor family introduced in 1973, [11] and other microprocessors and microcontrollers,
some with higher lead counts, through the early 1990s.
The QIP, sometimes called a QIL package, has the same dimensions as a DIL package, but the
leads on each side are bent into an alternating zigzag configuration so as to fit four lines of
solder pads (instead of two with a DIL). The QIL design increased the spacing between solder
pads without increasing package

Conclusion: