SGY1, Year 12, Grade 11

- Honors Biology -

Unit 2: Cell Structure and

Function

Name: _________________________________________

Class: ________________ Start Date:

____________

Teacher: Mr. Sinclair

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 Topic 2.1 – Cell structure and function

What is a Cell?
 A ……… is a group of ………………. and ………………. working together to perform a specific task
and help the organism maintain ………………….
 Living organisms must have at least ……… ………..

Cell Theory states

1. All organisms are composed of ……………..
2. Cells are the ………………. & ………………. unit of all living things.
3. Cells come from …..-………………… cells.

 A cell’s …………… and the …………… and …………… of …………… it has determines the
…………… of the cell.
 Sperm cells have long flagella and mitochondria because they need to swim
toward the egg.
 Plant cells have a cell wall and are square so they can stack and give the
plant structure.
Cells: the basic ………………… and …………………units of every organism

All cells:
1. Are bound by a ……………. …………….
2. Contain …………….
3. Contain …………….
4. Contain …………….

There are two type of cells:

● Domains Bacteria and Archaea ● Protists, fungi, animals, and plants

● DNA is in the nucleoid region (….. nucleus) ● DNA is in the ……………….
● Generally ……………… in size than ● Contain membrane bound ………………
eukaryotes

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Organelles
Organelles: ………………… ……………….. structures in eukaryotes
Two classifications:

Non membrane bound organelles - Organelles that … …….. have their own membrane ………. of the cell

Membrane bound organelles - Organelles that do ………….. their own membrane inside of the cell.

Endomembrane organelles: Energy Organelles

1. …………………… …………………… 6. …………………
2. …………………… ……………………
1. …………………………
3. …………………… ……………………
2. …………………….
4. ……………………
5. ………………..…/………..…………

2.10 – Cell compartmentalization, & 2.11 – Origins of Cell Compartmentalization

Compartmentalization

● Compartmentalization in organelles allows for …………… …………… ……………to occur in different

locations
○ Increases …………… …………… for reactions to occur
○ Prevents interfering reactions from occurring in the same location

Why are membrane bound organelles important?

● Membrane bound organelles compartmentalize different areas of the cell, allowing those areas to have
…………… …………….
○ This allows for ……………….. of different areas in the cell to do different jobs and concentrate
enzymes and substrate in the same physical area.
● Organelle membranes are usually folded to ……………. ……………. ……………..
○ Increased surface area is important because it gives more real estate for important ……………./
……………. to exist without making the organelles too big
● More on this later
○ More ……………. = more complex life

Evolution of Eukaryotic Cells: The Endosymbiotic Theory

○ ……………. cells ……………. after a large ancestral ……………. ……………. mitochondrion

and chloroplast-like proto-prokaryotes and formed a ………. ……………. …………….with them.
● Ancestral Prokaryote became able to survive in the increasingly oxygen-rich atmosphere.
● Proto-prokaryotes got ……………. and ……………. from harsh conditions of early Earth’s
atmosphere (by living inside this host).

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● Eukaryotic cells are either ……………. (plant-like)...
…or ……………. (animal-like).
Endosymbiont Theory
● ………………….. ………………: the theory that explains the similarities mitochondria and chloroplasts
have to a ……………….
○ Theory states that an early eukaryotic cell ………………. a prokaryotic cell
■ Mitochondria and Chloroplasts are membrane bound organelles that were once a free-living
cell that was engulfed by eukaryotic cells billions of years ago.
● Prokaryotic cell became an ………………. (cell that lives in another cell)
● Became ……. functional organism

● Evidence:
● Double ……………….
● ……………….
● Circular ……
● Capable of functioning on their …….

● Eukaryotic Cell Evolution: Nucleus evolved by cell membrane ………………… on itself.

● …………. membrane from eukaryotic cell.
● …………membrane prokaryotic.
●
● 2 billion years ago.
● Membrane wrapped itself around ……… to ………………… it.
● Created an Evolutionary advantage
Unique Cell Components
Plants Animals

Endomembrane System
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● The ……………...... ……………. efficiently coordinates the sending of ……………. from ……………. to
their destinations.

Endomembrane Organelles
Nucleus
● Contains …………………….. (genetic information)
○ Enclosed by the ……………. …………………..
■ Double membrane
○ Has ………………..
■ Pores regulate ……….. and ……….. of materials

 Contains a …………………
● Dense region of the nucleus where ………………… RNA (rRNA) is synthesized
● ……… is combined with proteins to form large and small subunits of ribosomes
● Subunits exit via ………………… ……
● Assemble into …………………
● Ribosomes translate messages found on mRNA into the
………………… ………………… of polypeptides

Think, pair, Share

1. Can DNA leave the nucleus?

……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

Review
In order for DNA to leave the nucleus, it must first be transcribed by RNA polymerase into messenger
RNA (mRNA). The mRNA transcript must then be modified before leaving the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
In the cytoplasm, the ribosomes decode the information in mRNA and form continuous chains of amino
acids, thus forming a protein. This process of DNA → RNA → protein is known as transcription and
translation and will be the main concepts covered in Unit 6.

1. Think back to Unit 1, what are some differences between DNA and RNA?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. What are the monomers of proteins? What functional groups do they consist of?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
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 ……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

3. What are the structural levels of a protein?

……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

Ribosomes
Comprised of ribosomal and
● Function: ……………… …………………
Can be found in two locations:
1. “……..” in the Cytosol (………………)
○ Proteins produced here generally function only within the cytosol (i.e. as
………………)
○ Known as “……. ………………..”
2. ……………… to the ……………… ……………… or nuclear envelope
○ Proteins produced here can be ……………… from the cell
■ Leave via transport ………………

Endoplasmic Reticulum
● A network of membranous sacs and tubes
○ Functions:
■ …………..…… membranes
■ …………………..…… the cell to keep proteins formed in the rough ER …………..……
from those of free ribosomes

Two types: and

Rough ER
• Contains ribosomes ………………. to the …….. membrane

2. Smooth ER
 Contains ….. ribosomes
 Synthesizes ………………, metabolizes carbohydrates, and
……………………… the cell

The Rough ER compartmentalizes the cell for ………… ………………., since it has
bound ………………. on its surface.
 Proteins made by rough ER travel to Smooth ER to be ………………. into ………………. and
sent away to the ………. ……………….. Other proteins stay in the smooth ER to become
………………. that break down macromolecules or poisons (detoxification).
 The ………………. ER also makes ………………. for cell membranes.

Golgi Complex

Contains flattened membranous sacs called …………………

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 ● Separate the sacs from the cytosol
● Each cisternae is not connected
● Has …………………
○ ……….. face:
■ ………………… vesicles from the ER
○ …………. face:
■ ………………… vesicles back out into cytosol to other locations or to the
plasma membrane for secretion
Functions:
● Receives ………………… …………………with materials from the ……….
● ………………… the materials
● Ensures newly formed proteins are ………………… …………………or modified correctly
● ……….. the materials
● Adds molecular ……….
● ………………… materials into new transport vesicles that exit the membrane via exocytosis

Lysosomes
Membranous sac with ………………… …………………
● Function:
○ ………………… macromolecules in animal cells
○ …………………: lysosomes can …………………their own cell’s organic materials
■ Allows the cell to ………… itself

Peroxisomes:

● Similar to lysosomes
● Membrane bound metabolic compartment
○ ………………… …………………that produce …………………
■ Enzymes in peroxisomes then break down H2O2 to water

Vacuoles

………………… …………………that stem from the ……… and …………………

● Selective in transport

Types:

………………… …………………
● Form via ………………… (cell eating) and then are digested by lysosomes

………………… …………………
● Maintain ………………… levels in cells

…………… ………………………
● Found in …………………
○ Contains inorganic ions and water
○ Important for ………………… …………………
Practice FRQ
1. Hepatitis C is a virus that attacks the liver and can cause liver disease. Liver disease has been linked
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 to a reduction in albumin levels in patients analyzed. Albumin is an important protein in humans. It
functions primarily to regulate oncotic pressure of blood, which is important for the regulation of
fluids in vessels of the body and tissue repair. On average, patients with liver disease show a 10-30%
decrease in blood-albumin levels. (a) Identify the organelle in liver cells that is most likely being
affected by hepatitis C and (b) justify your reasoning. Use the space below to write your response.

Practice FRQ
2. In humans, pancreatic cells synthesize the protein insulin in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Patients
diagnosed with type 1 diabetes have immune systems that mistakenly attack their pancreatic cells.
Therefore, these patients cannot produce the hormone insulin and have to take medications to introduce
insulin into their bodies. (a) Describe how insulin would be produced in a normal functioning (non-
type 1 diabetes) pancreatic cell.

Energy Organelles

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 Mitochondria
Site of ………………… …………………
● Structure of the ……………… ……………………:
○ Outer membrane is ……………..
○ Inner membrane has folds called …………………
■ Divides the mitochondria into two internal compartments and
increases the ……………………………

1. …………………: space between inner and outer membrane

2. Mitochondrial matrix: enclosed by inner membrane
1. Location for the ………… ……..……
2. Contains:
1. ………………… that catalyze ………………… …………………and produce
……….
2. ………………… ………….
3. Ribosomes

The number of mitochondria in a cell correlates with ………………… …………………

● Cells with ……… metabolic activity have ……….. mitochondria
○ Example: cells that move/contract
● Mitochondrial DNA
○ …………………….. DNA resembles prokaryotic cells.

Chloroplast

● Specialized organelles in ………………… organisms

○ Site of …………………
○ Contains the green pigment …………………
● Inside of its double membrane:
○ …………………
■ Membranous sacs that can organize into stacks called ………………..
● Light dependent ………………… occur in grana

● …………: ……….. around thylakoids

○ Location for the …………… …..……
○ Contains
■ Chloroplast DNA
■ Ribosomes
■ Enzymes

The Cytoskeleton
● A network of ………………… throughout the cytoplasm
○ Give ………………… ………………… (especially for animal cells) and …………………
support:
■ …………… organelles
■ Allow for ………………… of vesicles and organelles and/or the whole cell
● Movement occurs when the cytoskeleton interacts with ………… ……………

There are 3 types of fibers in the cytoskeleton:

1. Microtubules
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 2. Microfilaments
3. Intermediate filaments

Microtubules
○ ………………… rod-like structures made of the protein tubulin
○ Grow from the …………………
○ Assist in microtubule assembly

Functions:
● Serve as ………………… ………………… (think: tracks) for the movement of organelles
that are interacting with motor proteins
● Assist in the ………………… of …………………during cell division
● Cell ………………… (i.e. cilia and flagella)

Microfilaments
Thin solid rods made of the protein …………………

Functions:
● Maintain ……… …………
○ Bear tension
● Assist in muscle ………………… and cell …………………
○ Actin works with another protein called ………………… to cause a …………………
● ………………… of animal cells
○ Contractile ring of the cleavage furrow

Intermediate Filaments

● Fibrous ……………….. made up of varying subunits

● Permanent structural elements of cells

Functions:
● Maintain ……… …………
● ………………… nucleus and organelles
○ Form the ………………… …………………
○ Lines the nuclear envelope

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 Practice FRQ
1. You are working in a research lab and your goal is to determine the effect that alcohol has on the
liver. You design an experiment where you expose samples of liver tissues to varying concentrations
of alcohol as follows:

Sample Concentration of alcohol Duration of exposure

Sample 1 0.25 mg/mL 20 minutes

Sample 2 0.35 mg/mL 20 minutes

Sample 3 0.45 mg/mL 20 minutes

After exposure to the alcohol, you analyze the liver samples. In all samples you find that the alcohol
has been broken down (detoxified). However, in sample 3 you find damage to organelles has occured
due to the high concentration of alcohol. (a) Identify one organelle in the liver that could be
responsible for the detoxification of the alcohol in all three samples. (b) In sample 3 identify the
organelle that would most likely be responsible for removing the damaged parts of organelles and (c)
describe the steps it would take to do so.
© Getting Down With Science

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 Topic 2.3: Cell Size

Cell Size
Cellular ……………….depends on …………………..

Surface Area to Volume

At a certain size, it begins to be too difficult for a cell to …………. what comes in and what goes out of
the …………. ……………………..
The size of a cell will dictate the ……………………..of the cell membrane.
● Cells need a ………… surface area-to-volume …………. to optimize the exchange of material
through the ………….. …………………….

Formulas
Formulas for cuboidal cells: Formulas for spherical cells:

Practice

Example: cuboidal cell

#1 #2

Which would have the best exchange of material through the plasma membrane?

Example: spherical cell

How does the radius affect the SA:V ratio

in spherical cells?

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 Example: spherical cell – calculate the SA to volume ratio
#1 #2

r=5 r=8

Which would have the best exchange of material through the plasma membrane?

What Does This Mean for a Cell?

Cells tend to be ……………….

● …………. cells have a ……….. SA:V ratio
○ ……………….. exchange of materials at the plasma membrane
● Larger cells have a …………….. SA:V ratio
○ ………….. efficiency exchanging materials
■ The cellular ……………. for resources …………………
■ Rate of …………. exchange decreases

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 Practice Problems

1. Surface Area: Volume:

3 cm

Surface Area: Volume: SA:V ratio:

3 cm 3 cm

2.

5 cm

5 cm

5 cm

SA:V ratio

3.
Surface Area: Volume:

2 cm

2cm

2 cm

SA:V ratio:

4. Which cuboidal cell above would have the most efficient transport of materials across the
membrane? Why?

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 Practice Problems Continued

5. Calculate the SA of a spherical cell with a radius of 2µm

6. Calculate the SA of a spherical cell with a radius of 10µm

7. Calculate the V of a spherical cell with a radius of 7µm

8. Calculate the V of a spherical cell with a radius of 15µm

9. Calculate the SA:V ratio of a spherical cell with a radius of 12µm

10. Calculate the SA:V ratio of a spherical cell with a radius of 8µm

11. Compare problems 8 and 9, which has optimal exchange across the membrane?

12. Eukaryotic cells can reach above 100µm in diameter, while prokaryotic cells, like bacteria, remain
small, reaching only to about 10µm in diameter. How are eukaryotic cells able to become so much
larger than prokaryotic cells while still efficiently exchanging material through the plasma membrane?

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 Cell Size: A Laboratory Approach to Understanding a Cell’s Limitations
Introduction: Why can’t cells grow infinitely large in size? Well, it has to do with a cell’s surface area-to-volume
ratio. When a cell is small it has a large surface area-to-volume ratio, which means that materials can efficiently
diffuse in and out of the cell membrane. This surface area-to-volume ratio is the limiting factor keeping cells
relatively small in size. In this lab, you will be looking at the diffusion of molecules into a cell by using beet cubes
Beets are colored a dark red due to the pigment betanin. This pigment will turn clear in the presence of bleach. For
this lab, you must complete all work in your lab notebook and then complete a formal lab write-up following the
guidelines given to you by your teacher.

Materials:

● Fresh beets ● 3 beakers or other glass container

● Knife ● Ruler
● Bleach ● Paper towels
● Gloves and goggles ● Timer
● Ruler ● Calculator
● Tongs ● Plastic wrap

Pre-Lab Questions: answer the following questions in your lab notebook

1. Propose a hypothesis for this experiment.

2. Why are the beet cubes placed in the bleach?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Based upon your knowledge of surface area-to-volume ratios, predict what will happen to each beet cube
when placed in the bleach solution.
……………………………………………………………………………………………

Procedure:

1. Put on all safety equipment

2. Using the knife, cut the beet carefully into 3 cubes of different sizes. One cube should have 3 cm sides, one
cube should have 2 cm sides, and one cube should have 1 cm sides.
3. Place each beet cube into a separate glass beaker
4. Pour the bleach into each beaker making sure that each cube is fully submerged. Cover the beakers with
plastic wrap
5. Set a timer for 30 minutes. During this time you can copy the data chart in your lab notebook
6. At the end of the 30 minutes, use the tongs to remove the beet cubes from the solution and place them on
a paper towel
7. Using the knife, cut each beet cube in half and take note of what you observe
8. Using a ruler calculate the volume of “penetrated beet cube” and the volume of “unpenetrated beet cube”
9. Record all data in your data table chart

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 Data:

Copy this data chart in your lab notebook. Then, do the calculations to complete the chart.

Cube Total Unpenetrated Penetrated Percent Surface SA:V

Size Volume Volume (cm3) Volume (cm3) Diffusion Area (cm2) Ratio
(cm3) (%)

3 cm

2 cm

1 cm

Helpful formulas:

● Total volume of each cube (Volume = L x W x H)

● Unpenetrated volume (Volume = L x W x H of the pink remaining)
● Penetrated volume = Total Volume – Unpenetrated Volume
● Percent diffusion = (Penetrated volume/Total Volume) x 100
● Surface area of a cube = (L x W) x (# of sides)
● Surface area/volume ratio = SA:V

Analysis/Post-Lab Questions: answer these questions in complete sentences on lined paper.

1. What happened to the SA:V ratio of the cells as they increased in size? Why does this happen (use
the formulas to help justify your response)?

2. Did the data support or reject your hypothesis?

3. Why do organisms grow by increasing in cell number rather than increasing the size of each cell?

4. If the beet cubes represented cells, what did the bleach solution represent?

5. Why did the bleach diffuse across all sides of the cubes equally?

6. How can organelles increase their surface area-to-volume ratio? What are examples of organelles
© Getting Down With Science 2020

that do this?

❏ A formal lab report needs to be completed for this experiment. Refer to the “How to Write a Formal
Lab Report” document for instructions on how to properly complete a lab write up.

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 Diffusion Lab
In this lab we will observe the diffusion of molecules through an artificial selectively permeable membrane
called dialysis tubing. Solutes tend to move down their concentration gradients from an area
of ......................... concentration of that solute to an area of ...................concentration of that solute.
This is called ......................... and is a type of .........................transport. Eventually, the movement will result
in a dynamic equilibrium at which the molecules or ions will be at an .......................... concentration on both
sides of the selectively permeable membrane. It should be noted that at dynamic equilibrium the solutes are still
moving - they are just moving across the membrane at the same rate in both directions.

The dialysis membrane is selectively permeable due to the size of tiny holes in the membrane. Only molecules
or ions small enough will be able to pass through the membrane.

Rank the following molecules form largest (1) to smallest (4)

Molecular mass: _____ starch _____ iodine (I2) _____ water _____ glucose

Directions:

Part 1 - Before
1. Close the end of a piece of wet piece of dialysis tubing with a green clip.
2. Add 10 ml of glucose/starch solution to the tube.
3. Clip the other end of the tubing and rinse the tube off with tap water.
4. Record the information in the artificial cell “before” column. Use the electronic balance to record the mass in
grams.
5. Fill a beaker 2/3 full with water and add enough iodine to make the solution a distinct amber color.
6. Before adding the artificial cell to the beaker, test the beaker solution for the presence of glucose by using a
glucose test strip. Record the results in the data table.
7. Add the artificial cell to the beaker solution and let it sit, undisturbed, for 40 minutes.

Part 2 - After
8. Remove the artificial cell from breaker and record observations in the “After” column.

Before After Change

Artificial cell Color of solution
Mass
Beaker Water Glucose Concentration
Color of solution

Model
Label the before and after models with the following:
* dialysis tubing * the location of the following:
iodine water starch glucose

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Analysis Questions
1. Did the following molecules diffuse through the membrane?
(For each molecule provide evidence from the experiment to support your claim.)

iodine: yes or no (circle one)

How do you know? .....................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................
glucose: yes or no (circle one)
How do you know? .....................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................

starch: yes or no (circle one)

How do you know? .....................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................

2. Provide the reason for why a molecule would not move across the artificial dialysis membrane even though
there was a concentration gradient.
.................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................

==> What chemical properties prevents a some molecules and all ions from passing through a
biological phospholipid membrane?
.................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................

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 Gummy Bear Osmosis
It’s time to test what happens to a gummy bear soaked in distilled water and a high salt concentration solution.
1) Take three gummy bears that are the same color and similar in size. Record their masses in the data table
below.
2) Take three identical cups, and put a gummy bear in each. Keep track of which gummy bear is going into
which cup.
 Fill ONE cup with water, so the bear is submerged, but measure the amount of water you use as this
information will be useful later on. (volume of water used: _______________)
 Fill the second cup with the same amount of 1M NaCl solution.
 The third cup remains dry (no water). This is your control bear which will show the bear does not
enlarge without water!
3) What do you think is going to happen to each bear? Make a prediction for each bear (increase, decrease, stay
the same)
.....................................................................................................................................
4) Leave the bears for several hours, preferably overnight, and compare the gummy bears.
5) The next day, take the bears out of their cups, trying not to lose any water from the wet bears, and pat the wet
ones dry with a paper towel. Record their masses in the data table below.
6) Calculate the percent change in mass of each bear. Divide the change in mass by the start weight and
multiply by 100. This is useful because it allows you to compare the results of different Gummy Bear osmosis
experiments, where the start weight will be slightly different for each bear.

7) Finally, measure the volume of water left behind in the enlarged bear’s cup...has it altered?
Where has it gone?

8) Enter your data into the class spreadsheet. Create a graph of the mean % change in mass with 2SEM.

9) Did the results of this experiment support your prior predictions?

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
10) Propose an explanation for the result of the experiment.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................

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 Topics 2.2 – Cell structure and function, 2.4 – Plasma membrane and 2.5 – Membrane Permeability

Plasma Membrane

Take a few minutes to review your unit 1 notes on phospholipids

1. Examine the phospholipid to the right and identify the

structures A:
B:
C:
D:

2. Examine the phospholipids below, which would be classified as having saturated fatty acids
chains? Which would be classified as having unsaturated fatty acid chains?

A. B.

3. Justify your answer to question #2 by labeling the image above with the structural component
that differentiates saturated fatty acid chains from unsaturated fatty acid chains.

4. The heads of phospholipids contain a phosphate group as seen below (R-represents variable molecules
the phosphate group can be attached to). Using this image, and your knowledge of chemistry from
Unit 1, justify why the heads of phospholipids are hydrophilic.

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 2.4 – Plasma Membrane

Separates ………………….. cell environment from ………………….. environment

● Comprised primarily of …………………..
● Phospholipids are …………………..
• Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails
• Forms a bilayer

………………….. permeability: The ability of membranes to ………………….. the substances that enter
and exit

………………….. heads: oriented ………………….. ………………….. environments

………………….. tails are facing inwards ………………….. from aqueous environments

Fluid Mosaic Model

A model to describe the structure of cell membranes

● …………….: membrane is held together by …… ………..…….:
interactions and can therefore move and shift
○ …………….: affects …………….:
○ ……………..….: hydrocarbon tails help maintain fluidity at low
temps
■ ……….: ……. prevent tight packing of phospholipids

○ ………………… helps maintain fluidity at high and low temps

■ High temp: reduces movement
■ Low temp: reduces tight packing of phospholipids
○ ………………..: comprised of many macromolecules

Membrane Proteins
There are …… major categories of proteins in the membrane

1. ………………. ……………..
● Proteins that are fully or partially …………… into the
………. bilayer
● Used for membrane …………………
● Transmembrane proteins
-Proteins that go all the way ……………. the membrane
-Usually found as ………….. ……………. that move
…………/………… molecules in and out of the cell
2. ………………… ……………….
○ Proteins that are ……. embedded into the lipid bilayer
■ Loosely bonded to the ………………..
■ Found attached to the ………… or ………… surface of the cell membrane
■ Usually used for cell ………………..

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Membrane Carbohydrates

Important for

● Glycolipids
○ Carbohydrates bonded to ………………

● Glycoproteins
○ Carbohydrates bonded to ………………
○ Most abundant

Plant Cells
Plants have a that cover their plasma
membranes Extracellular structure (not found in animal cells)
Provides:
■ Shape/structure
■ Protection
■ Regulation of water intake

The cell wall is composed of

● Thicker than plasma membranes

● Contain …………………………….
○ ………-………. structures in the cell wall filled with cytosol that …………… adjacent cells

Practice FRQ
The Channichthyidae fish, also known as the crocodile ice fish, lives in the Southern Ocean around
Antarctica. These waters are known to maintain extremely low temperatures all year, ranging from
approximately -2.2℃ to 1.7℃, or 28℉ to 35℉. These fish have adaptations that allow them to live in
cold, low oxygen waters. (a) If you were to examine the membrane lipid composition of cells from the
Channichthyidae fish identify what you would expect to find. (b) Justify why you might find what you
identified in part (a).

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 Plasma Membrane Review and Practice Problems

1. Using the image to the left, label: integral

protein(s), peripheral protein(s),
cholesterol(s), glycoprotein(s),
glycolipid(s), phospholipid heads,
phospholipid tails.

2. Which part of phospholipids is hydrophobic? Hydrophilic?

3. What is meant by “fluid mosaic” model?

4. Why do phospholipids form a bilayer?

5. How does cholesterol help stabilize the plasma membrane in hot and cold temperatures?

6. How do the unsaturated hydrocarbon tails (kinks) help stabilize membrane fluidity?

7. Some plants, like winter wheat, have evolved to tolerate extreme cold. Specifically, the winter wheat plant
can increase the percentage of unsaturated phospholipids in their membrane during the winter season. How is
this helpful to the plant? Be specific and draw a picture of winter wheat’s plasma membrane before and
during the winter season.

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8. The image below represents the 3D protein structure of an integral protein.

a. Label the hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions of the 3D integral protein.

b. What would happen to transport across the membrane if the protein did not fold correctly?

9. Below is a simple illustration of a plasma membrane. For each of the following in the list (charged molecules,
gases, small polar molecules, hydrophobic molecules) draw either an arrow going through the plasma
membrane (to demonstrate diffusion) OR an arrow bouncing off the plasma membrane (to illustrate that
facilitated or active transport is needed). Then justify your drawing for each. One has been done for you.
Large polar molecules

● Large polar molecules: cannot diffuse across the plasma membrane because they cannot interact with
the hydrophobic interior of the membrane. They require channel proteins or active transport.

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 Topics 2.5 – Membrane Permeability, Topic 2.6 – Membrane Transport,
2.7 – Facilitated Diffusion, and 2.9 – Mechanisms of Transport

Concentration Gradient
● Concentration Gradient - the ............................ in concentration of molecules across a space.
○ One area will have a higher concentration of molecules than the other.
○ Biological concentration gradients occur when there is a ............................ in the concentration of
biomolecules, water or ions across the cell membrane.
● Best way to describe in an FRQ:
○ Molecules moving with the concentration gradient are moving from an area of ………
concentration to an area of ………. concentration of the molecule that is moving.

Selective Permeability
Some substances can cross the membrane more easily than others

................. passage across the membrane if:

● ................. ................., hydrophobic molecules
○ Examples:
■ Hydrocarbons
■ …….., ………., ……….

................. passage or protein assisted passage if:

● ..............................., polar molecules, ................ molecules, ions
○ Examples:
■ Sugars, water

Transport Across a Membrane

There are two main types of transport across a membrane: and

Passive transport

Passive transport: transport of a molecule that does require from the cell
because a solute is moving its concentration or electrochemical gradient

○ Examples:
○ ………………
○ ………………
○ ……………… diffusion

● Diffusion: a ……………….. process resulting from the constant motion of molecules

○ Substances move from a ……… to ……… concentration
■ Move ……………… the concentration gradient

26
 Remember: even with
Molecules ……………… directly across the membrane diffusion the
Different ……… of ……………… for different molecules membrane is still
selectively permeable

Osmosis: the ……………. of …………… …………… its concentration gradient across a ……………
…………… ……………
● Can also be thought of as the diffusion of water from areas of …… ………… concentration to areas of
…… ………… concentration

Osmosis is the OVERALL NET movement of free water molecules from a region of
high water concentration to a region of low water concentration
across a partially permeable membrane.

◆ Hypotonic Solution: Concentration of solute is ……………. than inside cell.

– Solutions that cause cells to ……… or ………. due to an …………. of water.
◆ Isotonic Solution: Water and solute concentrations are in ……….. quantities inside and outside the cell.
◆ Hypertonic Solution: Concentration of solute is ………….. than inside cell.
– Solutions that cause cells to …………… due to water ……………. the cell.

● Facilitated diffusion: diffusion of molecules through the membrane via ……………. ………………..
○ Increases rate of diffusion for:
■ ………………, ………………
○ Two categories of transport proteins: ……………… and ……………….
■ Each transport protein is ………………. for substances it can facilitate movement for

Why is facilitated diffusion passive transport and not active transport?

○ Facilitated diffusion is still passive transport because the substances the proteins are helping to
move are moving ……………. their concentration gradient and …… …………….. is required

● ……………. …………….: provide a channel for molecules and ions to pass

○ Channel is …………….
● Many are gated channels
○ Only allow passage when there is a stimulus
● …………….: specific channel protein for …………….

Aquaporins: Channel proteins that allow ………………. to pass through more

easily

◆ Membranes are ………….. ……………..: allowing only …………….. molecules into the cell while
keeping others out.
-…..-…………. molecules cross …………….
27
-………….. molecules need ……………. to transport.

28
 Practice
1. In terms of diffusion, describe what is most likely to happen to the particles in the image below?
(The dashed lines represent a plasma membrane)

2. Explain why energy is NOT required for facilitated diffusion.

3. Using the diagram above, label a) simple diffusion, b) facilitated diffusion, and c) osmosis
4. Describe the movement of molecules in diffusion.

5. What type of molecules pass directly through the membrane?

6. What type of molecules pass through the membrane via channel proteins?

7. What types of molecules pass through the membrane via carrier proteins?

29
 8. List two factors that could affect the rate of diffusion.

9. Describe how structure is related to function for channel proteins.

10. What would happen to the transport of water across a membrane if the aquaporins
were non-functional? Would water still be able to cross, why or why not?

11. Cisplatin is a chemotherapy medication used to treat a number of different cancers. Cisplatin is
administered through a vein as an infusion (IV). One of the side effects of cisplatin is kidney toxicity,
which can potentially lead to renal (kidney) failure. The kidneys perform many crucial functions for
the human body, one of them including maintaining water balance. Kidney cells do this by absorbing
water from urine before it is excreted from the body. Researchers examined the urinary flow rate
(the amount of urine produced per hour) of individuals after treatment with various concentrations of
cisplatin. The results are in the table below.

Control Cisplatin (4mg/kg) Cisplatin (8 mg/kg) Cisplatin (12 mg/kg)

Urinary flow rate (mL/hr) 103 ± 15 244 ± 14 357 ± 11 621 ± 17

a. Describe the effect that cisplatin has on urinary flow rate. What does this mean in terms of
the composition of the urine?

b. Using what you know about transport across membranes, what component of the
plasma membranes of kidney cells are most likely being affected? Why?

30
Dry Lab: Diffusion

Introduction: Dialysis Tubing, Diffusion, and Osmosis

Dialysis tubing is an artificial, selectively permeable membrane tubing used in separation techniques. Dialysis tubing
contains very small pores, which substances can diffuse through. In the medical field it can be used to filter toxins
from a patient’s bloodstream who suffers from diminished or lost kidney function. In a much more general sense, it
can be used in labs to separate molecules like glucose from water. Dialysis tubing comes with many options for pore
sizes, so depending upon the use, the appropriate pore size should be chosen. Small solutes and water can pass freely
through semi-permeable membranes, but larger molecules will pass slowly or not be able to pass through at all.
Remember, diffusion is the spontaneous movement of substances from a high to low concentration and osmosis is the
diffusion of water down its concentration gradient (or the movement of water from areas of low solute concentration to
areas of high solute concentration). Separation techniques will often also use indicator tests, like Lugol’s test and
Benedict’s reagent, to determine the presence of substances.
Materials (Part 1: Diffusion)
● Beaker
● Pre-prepared solution of 10% glucose and 1% starch
● Dialysis tubing
● Distilled water
● Iodine
● Lugol’s test kit
● Benedict's Reagent
Procedure (Part 1: Diffusion)
1. Fill the dialysis tubing with the pre-prepared glucose and starch solution
2. Fill a beaker with 350 mL water
3. Add a few drops of iodine to the water, just enough so the water has a faint yellow color
4. Test the solution in the dialysis tubing using both Lugol’s test and Benedict’s reagent
5. Test the water in the beaker using both Lugol’s test and Benedict’s reagent
6. Place the securely closed dialysis tubing into the beaker
7. Wait 30 minutes. While you wait, answer the analysis questions below.
8. Re-test both the solution in the dialysis tubing and the water in the beaker with Lugol’s test and Benedict’s reagent
Analysis Questions
1. Predict the movement of starch and glucose.

2. Research Lugol’s test on your own. How does it work and what does it detect in a solution?

3. Research Benedict’s reagent on your own. How does it work and what does it detect in a solution?

31
 Data
After 30 minutes, both solutions were tested with Lugol’s test and Benedict’s Reagent. The results are in the table
below.

Initial contents Lugol’s Test

Initial Color Final Color

Dialysis 10% glucose and 1% Purple Purple

Tubing starch solution

Beaker H2O + Iodine Yellow Yellow

Initial contents Benedict’s Reagent

Initial Color Final Color

Dialysis 10% glucose and 1% Green Green

Tubing starch solution

Beaker H2O + Iodine Blue Green

Post-Lab Questions
1. What do the results from the Lugol’s test in the data table above mean in terms of the diffusion of starch?

2. What do the results from the Benedict’s reagent in the data table above mean in terms of the diffusion of glucose?

3. Did diffusion occur? If so, what molecules were able to diffuse through the dialysis tubing?
© Getting Down With Science

32
Biological Application of Dialysis
When kidneys are damaged, or fail, a treatment known as dialysis can help do the job of the kidneys by removing
harmful substances from the blood and excess water from the body. Dialysis usually takes place in a clinic that
specializes in this process and the machines involved apply the basic concepts of osmosis and diffusion to filter the
blood and remove excess water. The process works as follows: patients are made comfortable while a medical
professional inserts an arterial line to remove blood. The blood will be removed from the patient, passed through a
dialyzer (dialysis device, which acts as a kidney), and then be brought back into the body (see Figure 1 below). The
whole process takes approximately four to seven hours and needs to be done 2-3 times a week.

The Dialyzer
Dialyzer
The dialyzer acts as an artificial human kidney.
Inside is two compartments, one for the incoming
blood and the other for the incoming fresh
dialysis fluid (notice the counter-current flow in
the dialyzer). The only thing separating the blood
from the dialysis fluid is a very thin
semi-permeable membrane. Dialysis fluid
consists of pure water, glucose, and electrolytes.
In order to see the dialyzer function using the
principles of osmosis and diffusion, examine the
two figures below, which are “zoomed in”
versions of the dialyzer to the left.
Figure 1: Overview of Dialysis

Glucose Dialysis fluid Blood Dialysis fluid Blood

Toxins

Water

Figure 2: Process of osmosis in Figure 3: Process of diffusion in dialyzer

dialyzer (blood cells present but not (blood cells present but not shown)
shown)

33
Analysis Questions
1. How does dialysis work?

2. Who would need to receive dialysis treatments?

3. Define diffusion and osmosis.

4. Why is glucose added to the dialysis fluid? (hint: look at figure 2)

5. Describe how water will move across the membrane in Figure 2. Then add an arrow to represent this in Figure 2.

6. Describe how the particles will diffuse across the membrane in Figure 3. Then add an arrow to represent this
in Figure 3.

7. Propose an explanation for the importance of counter-current flow in the dialyzer

34
Active Transport
Active transport: Transporting molecules …… the concentration gradient which requires ……………. because
it moves a solute ……………..its concentration gradient.
Mechanisms of Active Transport includes:
■ Protein Pumps
■ Cotransport
■ Exocytosis
■ Endocytosis

Active transport requires …………………

○ Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): ………… source used by cells
○ ATP can transfer the ………………… ………………… …………… to the transport protein, which
changes the shape of the transport protein to better move a substance
○ Also known as ………………… …………………

● Protein Pumps: Membrane …………….. that use ……….. to pump molecules …………….. the
concentration gradient.
● Help maintain membrane …………….
● Membrane potential: ……………. concentrations of ……….. across the membrane results in
an ……………….. ………….. (electrochemical gradient)
○ The cytoplasm is relatively ………………… in comparison to the extracellular fluid
○ ……………… is stored in ………………… …………………

Examples of pumps:

………………… …………: ……………. that generate ……………. across membranes, which can be used
later as an ……………… source for cellular processes

● Sodium potassium pump

○ Animal cells will regulate their relative concentrations of ….. and ……
■ … Na+ get pumped …….. of the cell
■ …. K+ get pumped …… the cell
● Results in a … …….. …………… to the ……………………. fluid

o Responsible for ................ the ..................... .................. of Na+

and K+ ions across the membranes of neurons.
 This allows for maintenance of .................. ...............,
which is required for electrochemical signalling in
neurons

 Essentially, the membrane is acting like a .................... ands storing

electrical potential energy
o When ions change concentrations on both sides of the membrane through transport, the
membrane can become ................. and fire an ................. .....................

Examples of pumps:
● ………… ……… : integral membrane protein that builds up a ………….. ………… across the
membrane
○ Used by plants, fungi, and bacteria
○ Pumps …+ ….. of the cell
35
● …………………. the …………….of a ……………… movement of one substance ……….. an
…………………. movement of another substance
○ Uses the …………… stored in electrochemical gradients (generated by pumps) to move
substances ……………… their concentration gradient

Favorable movement: …………………………..

Unfavorable movement: …………………………

Plants use cotransport for ……………. and ………… ……………

● Example: ………………………
● Sucrose can travel ……….. a plant cell ……………. its concentration gradient
………. if it is coupled with H+ that is diffusing down its electrochemical gradient

Transport of …………….. molecules is done through…………….. and ……………..

Exocytosis: the secretion of molecules via …………….. that ……………..to the plasma membrane
● Vesicles can fuse to the membrane by forming a bilayer
○ Once fused, the …………….. of the vesicle are …………….. to the extracellular fluid
○ Example: nerve cells releasing ……………..……………..

Endocytosis: the …………….. of molecules from vesicles fused from the plasma membrane (think: opposite
of exocytosis), ………….. the cell.
3 main types:
● Phagocytosis
● Pinocytosis
● Receptor-mediated
Both endocytosis and exocytosis require the input of metabolic …………….. (ATP) to occur.

Phagocytosis: when a cell …………….. particles to be later digested by lysosomes

● Cell surrounds particle with pseudopodia
● Packages particles into a food ……………..
○ Food vacuole fuses with a …………….. to be digested
Pinocytosis: nonspecific uptake of extracellular …………… containing dissolved molecules
● Cell takes in dissolved molecules in a …………… …………… ……………
○ Protein coat helps to mediate the transport of molecules
Receptor mediated endocytosis: …………… uptake of molecules via solute binding to …………… on
the plasma membrane
● Allows the cell to take up …………… ……………of a …………… substance
● When solutes bind to the receptors they cluster in a coated vesicle to be taken into the cell

36
AP Biology: Modelling Membrane Transport

Objective: To model a eukaryotic plasma membrane; to model passive and active transport. (50 pts)

Procedure:
In groups of 3-5, take a modelling clay kit and construct a plasma membrane demonstrating membrane
transport.

Requirements:

Your model must include, but is not limited to, the following:
✓ Phospholipids (3 pts)
✓ Integral and peripheral proteins (4 pts)
✓ Glycolipids and glycoproteins (4 pts)
✓ Cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (4 pts) ✓ Cholesterol (2 pts)
✓ Channel and carrier proteins (4 pts)
✓ Aquaporin (3 pts)

Your model must demonstrate:

✓ Passive transport including:
□ Simple diffusion (3 pts)
□ Facilitated diffusion (4 pts)
□ Osmosis through aquaporin (5 pts)
✓ Active transport including:
□ Amino acid transport (4 pts)
□ Sodium/potassium pump (5 pts)

✓ Bulk transport:
□ phagocytosis, pinocytosis, OR receptor-mediated (3 pts)

You must label your model. This could be embedded in the model or separate. Be neat and creative (2 pts)

~Take a photo of your model to put in your booklet!~

Group Members:

37
 Practice FRQ

1. You want to determine the effect of pH on the uptake of sucrose in tomato plant cells. You expose the
cells to a sucrose solution at varying pH levels and record the data seen in the chart below. (a)
Identify the optimal pH for sucrose uptake in tomato plant cells. (b) Describe why the pH identified in
part (a) would lead to an increase in sucrose
uptake.

2. When a pathogen, such as a bacteria, invades the human body, the immune system is alerted. Once
alerted, white blood cells such as macrophages locate the pathogen and engulf it through
phagocytosis.

(a) Describe the process of phagocytosis. (b) Identify the most likely component of the plasma
membrane that the immune system uses to recognize the pathogen.

38
 Active Transport Review

Extracellular fluid

Cytoplasm

1. Using the diagram above, label a) sodium potassium pump, b) proton pump, and c) cotransport
2. Define active transport.

3. Why is ATP required for active transport?

4. What would happen to the flow of molecules across a membrane if ATP was broken down?

5. How do proton pumps contribute to membrane potential?

6. Using the figure above, how is cotransport used to move sucrose across the membrane?

7. Sodium potassium pumps are vital to neurons because they create a change in membrane potential. How do
they accomplish this?

39
 In developing countries, contamination of food Intestinal cells
and water from cholera is a serious problem.
Cholera is a disease caused by the bacterium
Toxin
Vibrio cholerae. Cholera causes severe diarrhea,
which leads to the loss of large amounts of water Lumen
per day. Cholera works by releasing a toxin that
g Bacteria
attaches to the linin of the digestive system. This
causes the release of sodium and chlorine into the
e
intestinal lumen (spac inside intestines).
8. Explain how the release of sodium and chlorine would lead to a loss of water in the intestines.

9. In the intestinal cells there are sodium-glucose cotransporters. Knowing this, explain why doctors give
patients recovering from cholera a sodium-glucose solution to drink.

10. The image to the left illustrates a portion of a neuron. What process
is occurring?

11. The image to the right illustrates a portion of a white blood

cell. What process is occurring?

40
 Case Study: Alzheimer’s Disease

Introduction
Alzheimer’s disease is a common, progressive disorder that causes mental decline, memory loss, and difficulty
thinking or understanding. The disease primarily affects people over the age of 65 and the likelihood of developing
Alzheimer’s disease increases with age. The disease is irreversible, but there are medications available to help with
the symptoms

History
In 1901 a German psychiatrist and neuroanatomist named Dr. Alois Alzheimer met a 50 year
old, female patient named Auguste. Auguste was admitted to a psychiatric hospital by her
husband due to reports of severe paranoia, sleep problems, confusion, and aggression. Dr.
Alzheimer was intrigued by Auguste because he had never encountered a patient with her set
of symptoms. Dr. Alzheimer decided to document her behavior and study her during her stay
at the psychiatric hospital. After admission into the hospital, Auguste’s symptoms rapidly
worsened.

Due to this, Auguste was admitted to permanent care at the hospital until her death in 1906. During her stay at the
hospital, Dr. Alzheimer kept detailed notes on her symptoms and the progression of her disease. After her death, Dr.
Alzheimer was able to study Auguste’s brain tissue. It was during this autopsy that he found strange deposits around
nerve cells. At the time, he could not explain his findings, but he documented them in great detail. Dr. Alzheimer
compiled his research and presented his findings to a team of physicians. He presented both the physiological and
histological reports he had kept on Auguste and told the physicians that this was an illness that had never been seen
before. Dr. Alzheimer’s work was officially published in 1907, and in 1909 Dr. Alzheimer’s work appeared in the
famous textbook Psychiatrie A. It was here in this textbook that the author suggested the disease be called Alzheimer’s.

A Surprising Connection
During the years after Dr. Alzheimer’s work, and as more
documented cases of Alzheimer’s disease appeared, research
became focused on finding the genes involved. In the 1980s, a
team of scientists documented that people with Down
syndrome suffer from early onset Alzheimer’s disease at a
disproportionately high rate in comparison to the general
population; nearly all individuals with Down syndrome will
develop Alzheimer’s by the age of 40. Since Down syndrome
is classified as having an extra copy of chromosome 21,
scientists hypothesized that the gene responsible for producing
proteins associated with Alzheimer’s must be located on this
chromosome. After performing analysis of the genes on
chromosome 21, scientists found the Amyloid Precursor
© Getting Down With Science

Protein (APP) gene. This gene is highly concentrated in

neurons, the primary cell type of the nervous system.

Figure 1: Karyotype of Trisomy 21

41
 Amyloid Precursor Protein Gene
When Dr. Alzheimer examined the brain tissue of Auguste, he found strange build ups around the neurons.
Approximately eighty years after his findings, scientists determined that these buildups were caused by excess
proteins in the brain. The APP gene provides instructions for making a protein called amyloid precursor protein.
This protein, when produced properly, is important for the growth and repair of neurons. The amyloid precursor
protein is cut by enzymes to create smaller fragments (peptides) that are released from the cell and then used as
needed. If mutations occur at the APP gene, however, the sequence of amino acids is changed. Specifically, one
amino acid, valine, is switched with isoleucine at position 717. This mutation causes the peptides to be longer and/or
or stickier than usual. When these peptides are released from the cell, they can accumulate and cause the buildups,
now known as plaques, which Dr. Alzheimer originally documented. The two hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease are
amyloid plaques and neuritic plaques. Amyloid plaques are the result of a buildup of amyloid-beta proteins, and
neuritic plaques are the result of a buildup of Tau-proteins in the brain.

Figure 2: The production of APP in a neuron. APP is represented by the triangles.

Analysis Questions

1. Using Figure 1, label the following: neuron, nucleus, rough ER, Golgi, transport vesicles, APP, and exocytosis.

2. Using Figure 1, describe each step of the production and movement of the APP (protein) through a neuron.
© Getting Down With Science

42
 3. Mutations to the APP gene results in the buildup of plaques in the brain, the hallmark of Alzheimer’s
disease. Describe how the mutation to the APP gene causes a change to the primary structure of the amyloid
precursor proteins.

4. If the primary structure of the protein is changed, what will happen to a) the secondary structure and b)
the tertiary structure of the protein?

5. If the tertiary structure of a protein is changed, what happens to its function? What happens in the case of
the amyloid precursor protein?

6. Describe the process of exocytosis and the role it plays in neurons. Identify if it is active or passive transport.
© Getting Down With Science

43
 Treatments for Alzheimer’s Disease
There is no cure for Alzheimer’s disease or drugs that prevent the buildup of plaques in the brain. Currently, there are
only symptomatic treatments. The primary symptomatic treatment is a class of drugs known as cholinesterase
inhibitors. Inside the brain, neurons communicate with each other by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters.
Acetylcholine is an important neurotransmitter for memory. People with Alzheimer’s disease have low levels of
acetylcholine because of an overactive enzyme called cholinesterase. Cholinesterase catalyzes the hydrolysis of
acetylcholine. Cholinesterase inhibitors partially correct the deficit of acetylcholine by stopping or inhibiting the
enzymes from breaking down acetylcholine. This helps increase the levels of acetylcholine, which in turn, may help
improve symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease, such as: the ability to think clearly, memory, and the ability to perform
daily activities

Figure 3: Acetylcholine levels in neurons with and without cholinesterase inhibitors

Analysis Questions

7. Compare and contrast the left and right sides of figure 3. What happens when the cholinesterase inhibitor
is added
© Getting Down With Science

8. People who suffer from Alzheimer’s disease have higher than normal levels of cholinesterase in their brains,
why is this a problem?

44
 9. How do cholinesterase inhibitors work? Why are they used as a symptomatic treatment for Alzheimer’s disease?

Recently, research was performed to test the efficacy of two new drugs to treat the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease.
A baseline cognitive score was taken at the start of the experiment. This was used to assess the patient’s mental
capacity at the start of the experiment. The same test was taken each week for the course of six weeks. The graph
below shows the results

10. What is the purpose of a placebo?

11. From the graph, describe the experimental design of the study. What were the results of the new drug
© Getting Down With Science

trial? Identify which drug was the most effective.

45
 Topic 2.8: Tonicity and Osmoregulation
Osmosis Review

1. What is osmosis?

2. What is happening in the picture below?

Water Balance

…………………: the ability of an extracellular solution to cause a cell to ………… or ………….water

● Depends on the concentration of …………… that ……….. ………… through the cell membrane
● Cells can be in three types of solutions:
○ ………tonic
○ ………tonic
○ ………tonic

● Osmoregulation: cells must be able to …………… their ……. concentrations and maintain ……. balance
○ Animal cells will react differently than cells with cell walls, like plants, fungi, and some protists

46
 Isotonic Solutions

Cells immersed in an ……………… solution have .... .... ................... of water

● The concentration of nonpenetrating solutes inside the cell is ……... to that outside
the cell.
○ Water diffuses into the cell at the same rate water moves out of the cell

Hypertonic Solutions

Cells immersed in a ……………… solution ......... water to their extracellular

surroundings
● The concentration of nonpenetrating solutes is …………. outside of the cell
○ Water will move to the ………………. fluid
■ Cells …………. and die
■ Plasmolysis: …………….. shrinks and the plasma membrane
…………… away from the cell wall

Hypotonic Solutions

Cells immersed in a ……………… solution ………. water

● The concentration of nonpenetrating solutes is …………. outside of the cell

○ The cell will gain water

■ Animal cells ……… and ………. (burst)
■ Plant cells work optimally

Water Potential

Water potential: a physical property that predicts the ……………… water will ……………
● Includes the effects of solute concentration and physical pressure
○ Water will flow from areas of:
● …….. ………..potential to areas of ……. ………… potential
● …….. ……….. to areas of …….. ……….. concentration
● High pressure to areas of low pressure

47
Water potential formula:

𝚿 = 𝚿s + 𝚿p

Solute potential formula:

𝚿s = -iCRT

48
Practice Problems

1. If the concentration of NaCl inside a plant cell is 0.15M, which way will water diffuse if the cell
is placed in a 0.3M NaCl solution?

2. The molar concentration of a sugar solution is 0.3M. This beaker is sitting on your desk in the open
air. Calculate the solute potential at 27℃. Find your answer in bars

3. Using the information from practice problem #2, now solve for the water potential of this beaker
of liquid.

4. Calculate the solute potential of a 0.2M NaCl solution at 30℃. Find your answers in bars.

5. The value for 𝚿 in root tissue of a plant has found to be -4.6 bars. If you place this root tissue in a
0.2M sucrose solution at 20℃ in an open beaker, what is the 𝚿 of the solution? Which direction will
the net flow of water be?

49
 Determining the Water Potential of Potato Cells

In animal cells, the movement of water into and out of the cell is influenced by the relative concentration of
solute on either side of the cell membrane. If water moves out of the cell, the cell will shrink. If water
moves into the cell, the cell may swell or even burst. In plant cells, the presence of a cell wall prevents the
cells from bursting, but pressure does eventually build up inside the cell and affects the process of osmosis.

When the pressure inside the cell becomes large enough, no additional water will accumulate in the cell
even the though cell still has a higher solute concentration than does pure water. So movement of water
through the plant tissue cannot be predicted simply through knowing the relative solute concentrations on
either side of the plant cell wall. Instead, the concept of water potential is used to predict the direction in
which water will diffuse through living plant tissues.

In a general sense, the water potential is the tendency of water to diffuse from one area to another under a
given set of parameters. Water potential is expression in bars, a metric unit of pressure equal to about
1atmosphere and measured with a barometer. Water potential is abbreviated by the Greek letter psi and has
two major components: solute potential , which is dependent on solute concentration and pressure potential,
which results from the exertion of pressure - either positive or negative - on a solution. We express this as:

Determining the Water Potential of Potato Cells

4. Determine the water potential of the cells on potato cores. This would be the water potential of the
sucrose molarity that is isotonic to the solute concentration inside the potato cells. To find this, draw line of
best fit on your graph that best fits your data of the most linear part of the graph starting of 0M.

The point at which this line crosses the x-axis represents the molar concentration of sucrose with a water
potential that is equal to the potato's water potential. At this concentration, there is no net gain or loss of
water from the tissue. So water potential of solution outside the cell = water potential inside the cell.

=> Sucrose concentration that is isotonic with the potato cells = _____________

5. Calculate the water potential for the sucrose solution using the solute potential formula on your formula
sheet. Show Calculations!

50
We will be coming back to water potential later on in this unit…

Graph the results. In order to do so, the 0 axis line should actually be in the middle of your graph.
The y axis above this line should be labeled % increase in mass while the y axis below this line
should be labeled % decrease. The x axis is the sucrose molarity within the beakers.

51
52
6. Only osmosis was observed in this lab. Why do you think the sucrose in the lab solutions was unable to
diffuse into the potato cells?
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
7. What is the mathematic relationship between solute concentration and water potential of a solution?
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
8. Explain why water tends not to move out of a solution has a higher solute concentration.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
9. What would happen to a sample of your red blood cells if they were placed in a hypotonic solution?
Explain your answer using information from the lab and include why the result may be different from what
happen to the potato cells. You may include a diagram to assist with your explanation.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................

53
Osmosis Group Lab Demo
Analysis and Conclusion: Pick any two experimental groups and Explain what happened in each cell.
(shrink, swell, stay the same)
(Include claim (which way water osmosed due to water potential), evidence (specific data) to support your
claim, and reasoning (science principles) that link the evidence to your claim)

1. Beaker __________________ Tubing ____________________

Claim
....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
Evidence
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Claim
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54
 Tonicity and Water Potential

To answer the questions 1-8 go back to pages 38-39. Review the data collected/graphed in the Dry Lab on osmosis.

1. Calculate the solute potential (in bars) of the potato cores, using the molar concentration of the potato
cores identified in question 1 on page 37, and assume the experiment was done at 27℃. Box your answer.

2. Calculate the water potential (in bars) of the potato cores (in open air/sitting on the lab bench). Box your answer.

3. Next, calculate the solute potential and water potential (in bars) of each sucrose solution in the beaker, again
assuming the experiment was done at 27℃ and is exposed to open air. Show all your work below and place
your answers in the chart.

Molarity of the
Sucrose Solution Ψs Ψ

0M

0.2 M

0.4 M

0.6 M

0.8 M

1.0 M
© Getting Down With Science

55
 4. Using the values for water potential calculated for each sucrose solution in question 3, draw an arrow in the
chart below to represent the net flow of water between the potato core and the sucrose solution in the beaker.

Net Flow of Water

Molarity of the Sucrose Solution in
Potato Core
Sucrose Solution Beaker
0M

0.2 M

0.4 M

0.6 M

0.8 M

1.0 M

5. Do your calculations in question 3 and the net movement of water predicted in question 4 agree with the
data obtained and graphed on page 37? Explain.

6. Which sucrose solutions are isotonic to the potato core? Hypertonic? Hypotonic?

7. Explain the movement of water in relation to solute concentration.

8. Explain the movement of water in relation to pressure.

© Getting Down With Science

56
 Review and Practice Problems: Tonicity and Osmoregulation
Read the following passage to help answer questions 1-2

Red blood cells are 0.9% NaCl. Red blood cells are placed into flasks containing solutions of varying NaCl
concentrations. Identify if the solutions are isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic, and then predict what will happen to
the red blood cells (cytolysis, shrivel, plasmolysis, turgor pressure increases/decreases or nothing).

1. 2.

Solution: 0.5% NaCl Solution: 1.5% NaCl

The solution is: The solution is:

Prediction: Prediction:
Net flow of water: Net flow of water:

Read the following passage to answer questions 3-4

A new nurse named Scott was hired at Charleston Regional Hospital. He was hired to work the day shift in the
emergency room. On his first day he was asked to work a double shift. He was feeling tired so he drank a 5 hour energy
to help get him through the night. The night was slow, but he knew he had to stay awake because a patient could be
brought in at any time. Around midnight, a patient was rushed in who had sustained major injuries in a motorcycle
crash. The doctor in charge yelled to Scott to get the patient a saline IV drip. Scott grabbed the IV bag and inserted the
needle into the patient’s antecubital vein. Almost immediately the patient’s heart rate increased drastically, and the
oxygen levels decreased. Scott heard the doctor yell, “Code blue, he’s flatlining!” The doctor began performing CPR
and yelled for another nurse to get the defibrillator to shock the heart. The doctor and nurses worked hard to resuscitate
him, but their efforts were unsuccessful. The doctor began walking over to Scott when he noticed that the IV drip bag
had blood in it. He turned to Scott and asked what he had done. Fearfully, Scott looked at the IV bag to see his mistake.
Instead of giving the patient a saline IV, he gave the patient distilled water. Scott was responsible for the patient’s
death.

3. A normal saline IV is 0.9%NaCl to be isotonic to the patient’s blood cells. Distilled water is 100% water.
What problem did this create in the patient’s bloodstream?

4. How did the cells react to the distilled water? Why?

© Getting Down With Science

57
 Read the following passage to help answer questions 5-7

A U-tube is divided into two sides (A and B) by a semipermeable membrane. The membrane is freely permeable
to water, but not to glucose. Side A is filled with a 5% glucose concentration, while side B is filled with a 9%
glucose concentration.

5. In terms of tonicity, side B is to

side A.

6. Which molecule(s) are able to move across the membrane,

Side A Side B and in what net direction?

7. Notice that the water levels on both sides are equal, will it stay this way? Why or why not?

Read the following passage to help answer questions 8-9

A plant cell has a concentration of 0.5mM NaCl and is placed in flasks with varying NaCl concentrations. Identify if
the solutions are isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic, and then predict what will happen to the plant cells (cytolysis,
shrivel, plasmolysis, turgor pressure increases/decreases or nothing).

8. 9.

Solution: 0.2mM NaCl Solution: 0.9mM NaCl

The solution is: The solution is:

Prediction: Prediction:
Net flow of water: Net flow of water:

10. Why do grocery stores spray their produce with water before selling them?
© Getting Down With Science 2020

11. Someone walks by your house with their dog, and each day the dog pees on the same spot of grass. Urine has
a high salt concentration. What will happen to this patch of grass over time?

58
 Dry Lab: Osmosis
Materials
● Beaker
● Potato corer and potato
● Varying sucrose solutions (0 M, 0.2 M, 0.4 M, 0.6 M 0.8 M, and 1 M). 200 mL of each solution in a beaker
● Plastic wrap

Procedure (Part 2: Osmosis)

1. Use the potato corer to cut into the potato
2. Three potato cores will go into each solution so you can average the weight before and after exposure to the
sucrose solution.
3. Weight out each set of 3 potato cores and record their initial total mass (in grams) in the data table
4. Place the set of three weighed potato cores into each sucrose solution
5. Cover the beaker with plastic wrap and allow the potato core to remain in the sucrose solutions overnight
6. Weigh the potato cores and record their final total mass (in grams) in the data table
7. Repeat this 3 times to find an average % change in mass
Data

0 M Sucrose Solution (Distilled H2O) 0.2 M Sucrose Solution 0.4 M Sucrose Solution
% Change % Change % Change
Group Initial Final ΔMass in mass Initial Final ΔMass in mass Initial Final ΔMass in mass
1 2.8 3.9 2.4 2.9 2.6 2.4

2 2.5 3.7 2.5 2.8 2.8 2.3

3 2.6 3.9 2.3 2.8 2.5 2.2

Average % change in mass Average % change in mass Average % change in mass

0.6 M Sucrose Solution 0.8 M Sucrose Solution 1 M Sucrose Solution

% Change % Change % Change
Group Initial Final ΔMass in mass Initial Final ΔMass in mass Initial Final ΔMass in mass
1 2.9 2.3 2.6 1.8 2.8 1.5

2 2.7 2.0 2.5 1.7 2.8 1.4

3 2.6 2.1 2.9 1.8 2.9 1.4

Average % change in mass Average % change in mass Average % change in mass

1. Calculate Δ mass by subtracting the initial weight of the potato cores from the final weight of the potato cores.
Fill in the data table above with your calculations.
2. Calculate percent change in mass by using the following formula below. Fill in the table with your calculations.
© Getting Down With Science 2020

3. Calculate the average % change in mass of the potato cores in each solution. Record your calculations in the table.
4. Graph the average % change in mass of the potato cores vs the molar concentration of the solutions in the
graph space provided on the next page.
Graph:

Post-Lab Questions
1. Based upon the data, what is the molar concentration of sucrose in the potato cores?

2. Explain the relationship between the % change in mass and the molarity of the sucrose solution in the beaker.

3. Explain the relationship between osmosis and the molarity of the sucrose solution in the beaker. Use this to
justify the % change in mass of the potato cores.

*Please note, we will come back to this data after we cover Topic 8

60
 AP Biology Water Potential Problems

Reminders:
Units of water potential, pressure potential and solute potential are typically
bars, megapascals or kilopascals.

When solving water potential problems, use the same units as the prompt.
If there are no units in the prompt, your units for water potential will be bars
because the R constant in your Appendix B is 0.0831 liters bars/moles K.
You will not be given problems with any other units.

Note: Equilibrium means no net movement of water in or out of a cell.

Give your answers to the nearest tenth.

1. A cell is in equilibrium with its surrounding at 25°C. The molarity of the

surrounding sucrose solution is 0.45M.
a. Calculate the solute potential (Ψs) of the surrounding solution.

b. What is the water potential (Ψ)of the surrounding solution?

c. What is the water potential (Ψ) of cytoplasm of the cell?

2. You measure the water potential (Ψ) of a cell and find it to be -1.2 bars.
If the pressure potential (Ψp) of the same cell is 3.5 bars, what is the solute potential (Ψs)of that cell?

3. What is the water potential of a cell with a solute potential of -6.5 bars and a pressure potential of 4 bars?

4. If a cell’s pressure potential is 3 bars and its solute potential is -4.5 bars, what is the resulting water
potential?

5. A hypertonic solution has a higher/lower (circle one) solute potential compared to a cell's cytosol. Why?

61
Using the Water Potential to Predict Direction of New Movement (Osmosis)
Suggestion: Draw and annotate a model like in problem #1.

6. The cell from question #4 is placed in a beaker of sugar water with solute potential of -2.5 bars. In which
direction will the net flow of water be?

7. The cell from question #5 is placed in a beaker of sugar water with solute potential of -1.5bars.
In which direction will the net flow of water be?

8. The value for water potential in root tissue was found to be -3.1 bars. If you take the root tissue and
place it in a 0.2 M solution of sucrose at 20°C in an open beaker, what is the water
potential of the solution and in which direction will the net flow of water be?

9. NaCl dissociates into 2 particles in water: Na+ and Cl-

. If the solution in question 8 contained 0.2M NaCl instead of 0.2M sucrose, what would be the water
potential of the solution and in which direction will the net flow of water be?

Challenge Question

10. At 20°C, a cell with pressure potential of 3 bars is in equilibrium with the surrounding 0.4M solution of
sucrose in an open beaker. What is the molar concentration of sucrose in the cell?

62
 Case Study: A Fatal Hazing in College
Adapted from a true story

It was John’s first day of college at Richmond University in California. With his class schedule in hand, he walked
across campus to his English class. He was feeling a bit nervous, but the fact that he made friends with a few other
guys in his dorm that had the same English class helped calm him. When he got to class, he saw his friends and sat
next to them. They were holding bright orange papers that read, “Pledge Beta Kappa” in bold font across the top.
John asked one his friends, Eric, what they were looking at. “Next week is Rush Week, all the sororities and
fraternities are handing these out,” replied Eric. “We are all planning on rushing for Beta Kappa,” replied his other
friend Sam. Eric handed John a pledge paper. John read the information listed about Beta Kappa. From the flier it
seemed that Beta Kappa was active in the community and had several connections to local hospitals for volunteer
opportunities, which interested John, who had already declared his major as sports medicine. With this information
John decided that he would give Rush Week a try.

On Friday, September 3rd, John joined his friends and several other new pledges at the Beta Kappa fraternity house.
They were welcomed into the frat house and given a tour by the president of the fraternity, Robert. During the tour,
Robert gave an extensive history of the fraternity, citing facts about the house and even mentioning some celebrities
and politicians who were once members. As the night progressed, they got to meet the rest of the members of the
fraternity, and to John, it seemed that all was going well. At around 10 pm, Robert told the new pledges that he
wanted to show them the basement, where they would perform the pledging ceremony. As they headed to the
basement, they saw fraternity members collecting the phones of the new pledges. It was at this moment, that John
began to feel uncomfortable, and turned to his friend Eric. “Do you think we should do this?” asked John,
“Something doesn’t feel right,” he continued. “Don’t worry, every fraternity does something. They will probably
just play a prank on us,” Eric replied. John, not fully consoled by Eric, started down the stairs. When they reached
the bottom of the staircase, they saw nothing but the unfinished bare walls and concrete floor that surrounded them.
John heard a sound from the corner and saw Robert standing there. “Welcome to Hell Week, this is where you will
be staying for the next few nights, pledges. We will test your mental and physical stamina to determine who will
become a member of Beta Kappa.” John turned to Eric, worried about what was to come. Eric reassured John,
“Seriously, don’t worry; the worst they’re going to do is make us sleep here in the cold, without beds.”

Robert addressed the group again, “The first test is a physical test. Each one of you pledges must perform 200
push-ups and 200 sit-ups back to back.” Hesitantly, the pledges got on the ground and began exercising.
Robert
continued to shout out rules as the pledges worked; they could not have water, they could not take a break, and they
were not allowed to leave to use the restroom. “If any one of you pledges cannot follow these rules, you will be
punished,” continued Robert. Robert went into another corner of the basement and came back to the group carrying a
hose. John wanted out of this hell, and looked up the staircase, only to see members of the fraternity guarding it.

It took over an hour for each pledge to finish the exercises. Some pledges took breaks, which caused Robert to spray
each member with the hose. It was cold, dark, and now wet in the basement. When the exercises were complete,
Eric turned to John and sighed, relieved, “This should be it, and then we can finally leave.” Little did they know,
this was only the start of the night.
© Getting Down With Science

“The next phase of the night is the mental test,” Robert stated to the soaking wet pledges, “Earlier in the night, we
did a tour of the house. Let’s see how many of you can remember what was covered.” Several fraternity members
came down the staircase holding 5 gallon jugs of water. Each pledge received one jug. “Each of you must drink
from the jug of water if you answer a question wrong. If you finish your jug, we will refill it,” Robert motioned to
another fraternity member standing in the room to get the hose.

63
The questions were rapid fire; the pledges only had seconds to respond or else they had to drink their water. During
this test, John lost all sense of time. He had answered many questions incorrectly, which caused a fraternity member
to refill his jug of water. The questions seemed to never end and they became increasingly non-related to the
fraternity house. Confused, tired, and cold John refused to drink another sip. A fraternity member came over to him
and shouted at him to chug his water, and feeling helpless and confused, John did. It was at this moment that Eric
looked over to see John collapse on the ground. John began to shake violently, in an apparent seizure. Eric shouted
for someone to call 911.

John was rushed to a nearby hospital and taken to the intensive care unit. John had consumed nearly 10 gallons of
water over the course of 2 hours. As soon as he arrived at the hospital the doctors gave him an IV containing a
sodium solution. It was too late, however. Only hours after arriving at the hospital, John went into cardiac arrest and
died. In the autopsy report, the medical examiner determined the cause of death as cerebral edema, or swelling of the
tissue in the brain due to hyponatremia, which is water intoxication.

Analysis Questions

1. What problem did drinking nearly 10 gallons of water create in John’s body?

2. Define osmosis.

3. What happened to John’s brain cells (hint: connect to tonicity)?

4. When John made it to the hospital, the doctors gave him a sodium IV solution. Why did the doctors do this?

5. Diagram and label a section of the plasma membrane below.

6. Indicate (with reference to your drawing above) how the plasma membrane is able to regulate what crosses
in/out of the cell.

7. Imagine for a second that human cells were more like plant cells, in that they had cell walls and central
vacuoles. What would have happened to John? Would he have still died? Justify your response.

64
 Topic 1: Cell Structure- Subcellular Components.

Learning Objectives:
SYI-1.D: Describe the structure and/ or function of subcellular components and organelles.

Essential Knowledge
SYI-1.D.1: Ribosomes comprise ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
and protein. Ribosomes synthesize protein according to mRNA sequence.
SYI-1.D.2: Ribosomes are found in all forms of life, reflecting the common ancestry of all known life.
SYI-1.D.3: Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) occurs in two forms—smooth and rough. Rough ER is associated with
membrane-bound ribosomes—
a. Rough ER compartmentalizes the cell.
b. Smooth ER functions include detoxification and lipid synthesis.
SYI-1.D.4: The Golgi complex is a membrane-bound structure that consists of a series of flattened membrane sacs—
a. Functions of the Golgi include the correct folding and chemical modification of newly synthesized proteins and
packaging for protein trafficking.
b. Mitochondria have a double membrane. The outer membrane is smooth, but the inner membrane is highly convoluted,
forming folds.
c. Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed sacs that contain hydrolytic enzymes.
d. A vacuole is a membrane-bound sac that plays many and differing roles. In plants, a specialized large vacuole serves
multiple functions.
e. Chloroplasts are specialized organelles that are found in photosynthetic algae and plants. Chloroplasts have a double
outer membrane

Vocabulary
Cells Prokaryote Eukaryote Chromosomes Organelles Nucleolus Ribosomes
Rough ER Smooth ER Cisternae Autophagy Lysosomes Peroxisomes
Golgi Nucleus Vacuoles Mitochondria Chloroplast Stroma Microfilaments
Grana Thylakoids Intermediate filaments Microtubules Actin Cilia
Flagella Plasma membrane

Review Questions

1. What organelles are in animal cells, but not in plant cells?

2. What organelles are in plant cells, but not in animal cells?
3. How do ribosomes help carry out instructions encoded in the DNA?
4. If a cell has a high rate of protein synthesis, what organelle would you expect it to have a large number of? Why?
5. Differentiate between the rough and smooth ER.
6. Identify the main differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
7. Describe the endomembrane system.
8. Trace the path of a protein, from mRNA to modifications to final function.
9. Create a chart to compare the main functions of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
10. Plants have a cell wall, therefore they do not have a plasma membrane. Is this true or false

65
Topic 2: Cell Structure and Function

Learning Objective
SYI-1.E: Explain how subcellular components and organelles contribute to the function of the cell.
SYI-1.F: Describe the structural features of a cell that allow organisms to capture, store, and use energy.

Essential Knowledge
SYI-1.E.1: Organelles and subcellular structures, and the interactions among them, support cellular function—
a. Endoplasmic reticulum provides mechanical support, carries out protein synthesis on membrane-bound ribosomes,
and plays a role in intracellular transport.
b. Mitochondrial double membrane provides compartments for different metabolic reactions.
c. Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes, which are important in intracellular digestion, the recycling of a cell’s
organic materials, and programmed cell death (apoptosis).
d. Vacuoles have many roles, including storage and release of macromolecules and cellular waste products. In plants, it
aids in retention of water for turgor pressure.
SYI-1.F.1: The folding of the inner membrane increases the surface area, which allows for more ATP to be synthesized.
SYI-1.F.2: Within the chloroplast are thylakoids and the stroma. SYI-1.F.3: The thylakoids are organized in stacks, called
grana. SYI-1.F.4: Membranes contain chlorophyll pigments and electron transport proteins that comprise the photosystems.
SYI-1.F.5: The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur in the grana.
SYI-1.F.6: The stroma is the fluid within the inner chloroplast membrane and outside of the thylakoid.
SYI-1.F.7: The carbon fixation (Calvin-Benson cycle) reactions of photosynthesis occur in the stroma.
SYI-1.F.8: The Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) reactions occur in the matrix of the mitochondria.
SYI-1.F.9: Electron transport and ATP synthesis occur on the inner mitochondrial membrane

Vocabulary
Krebs cycle Electron transport chain Calvin cycle Light reactions
Endosymbiotic theory Photosynthesis

Review Questions
1. Compare the Golgi Complex to a warehouse/mail facility. How is its function similar?
2. Plant cells get their energy from photosynthesis, therefore they do not have mitochondria. Do you agree or disagree
with this statement? Why?
3. Describe the roles of both the mitochondria and the chloroplasts.
4. Differentiate between the light dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle in the chloroplast.
5. Differentiate between the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain in mitochondria.
6. Identify the location where each process occurs:
a. Light dependent reactions
b. Calvin cycle
c. Krebs cycle
d. ATP synthesis
e. Electron transport chain (ETC)
7. Why are pigments, like chlorophyll, important to plants?

Topic 3: Cell Size

Learning Objective
ENE-1.B: Explain the effect of surface area-to-volume ratios on the exchange of materials between cells or
organisms and the environment.
ENE-1.C: Explain how specialized structures and strategies are used for the efficient exchange of molecules to the
environment.

Essential Knowledge
ENE-1.B.1: Surface area-to-volume ratios affect the ability of a biological system to obtain necessary resources,
eliminate waste products, acquire or dissipate thermal energy, and otherwise exchange chemicals and energy with the
environment.
66
ENE-1.B.2: The surface area of the plasma membrane must be large enough to adequately exchange materials—
a. These limitations can restrict cell size and shape.
Smaller cells typically have a higher surface
area-to-volume ratio and more efficient exchange of materials with the environment.
b. As cells increase in volume, the relative surface area decreases and the demand for internal resources
increases.
c. More complex cellular structures (e.g., membrane folds) are necessary to adequately exchange materials
with the environment.
d. As organisms increase in size, their surface area-to-volume ratio decreases, affecting properties like rate
of heat exchange with the environment.
ENE-1.C.1: Organisms have evolved highly efficient strategies to obtain nutrients and eliminate wastes. Cells and
organisms use specialized exchange surfaces to obtain and release molecules from or into the surrounding
environment.

Vocabulary/Review Questions

1. Describe how the surface area-to-volume ratio should be in order for cells to optimize the exchange of material
through the plasma membrane.
2. Propose problems that would occur if a single cell were to keep getting larger and larger over time.
3. The following lists will compare the surface area-to- volume ratio of three cells. Circle the ratio of the cell that will
have the most efficient exchange across its cell membrane

a. 2.0; 0.9; 1.2

b. 0.9; 0.6; 1.1
c. 0.6; 0.7; 0.5
4. You have a set of data regarding the surface area-to- volume ratios of four cells. Circle the ratio belonging to the cell
that would be best suited for storage.

a. 4.5; 7.2; 3.1; 5.5

5. Calculate and compare the SA:V ratios of the cubes below. Then identify which will have the best exchange of
material through the plasma membrane.

Topic 4: Plasma Membranes

Learning Objective
ENE-2.A: Describe the roles of each of the components of the cell membrane in maintaining the internal environment
of the cell.
ENE-2.B: Describe the Fluid Mosaic Model of cell membranes.

Essential Knowledge
ENE-2.A.1: Phospholipids have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. The hydrophilic phosphate regions of
the phospholipids are oriented toward the aqueous external or internal environments, while the hydrophobic fatty
acid regions face each other within the interior of the membrane.
ENE-2.A.2: Embedded proteins can be hydrophilic, with charged and polar side groups, or hydrophobic,
with nonpolar side groups.
ENE-2.B.1: Cell membranes consist of a structural framework of phospholipid molecules that is embedded with
proteins, steroids (such as cholesterol in eukaryotes), glycoproteins, and glycolipids that can flow around the surface
of the cell within the membrane.

67
Vocabulary

Amphipathic Fluid mosaic model Integral proteins Peripheral proteins

Glycolipids Glycoproteins Hydrophilic Hydrophobic

Review Questions

1. Draw a small section of a plasma membrane. Label all parts.

2. Why is the plasma membrane often referred to as a fluid mosaic model?
3. What is the purpose of the plasma membrane?
4. Think back to unit 1, what is the difference between unsaturated and saturated tails of the phospholipids?
5. What causes kinks in the tails of phospholipids?
6. What molecule embeds itself within the membrane and affects fluidity? How does it affect fluidity?
7. Differentiate between integral and peripheral proteins.
8. How are human cells able to maintain membrane fluidity when they are in cold temperatures?
9. Draw an integral protein embedded within the plasma membrane. Label its hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions.

Topic 5: Membrane Permeability

Learning Objective
ENE-2.C: Explain how the structure of biological membranes influences selective permeability.
ENE-2.D: Describe the role of the cell wall in maintaining cell structure and function.

Essential Knowledge
ENE-2.C.1: The structure of cell membranes results in selective permeability.
ENE-2.C.2: Cell membranes separate the internal environment of the cell from the external environment.
ENE-2.C.3: Selective permeability is a direct consequence of membrane structure, as described by the fluid mosaic model.
ENE-2.C.4: Small nonpolar molecules, including N2, O2, and CO2, freely pass across the membrane. Hydrophilic substances,
such as large polar molecules and ions, move across the membrane through embedded channel and transport proteins.
ENE-2.C.5: Polar uncharged molecules, including H2O, pass through the membrane in small amounts.
ENE-2.D.1: Cell walls provide a structural boundary, as well as a permeability barrier for some substances to the internal
environments.
ENE-2.D.2: Cell walls of plants, prokaryotes, and fungi are composed of complex carbohydrates.

Vocabulary

Selective permeability Polar Nonpolar Charged

Review Questions
1. In your own words, what does it mean that the plasma membrane is selectively permeable?
2. What qualities of the plasma membrane make it selectively permeable?
3. Are nonpolar molecules hydrophobic or hydrophilic? What does this mean in terms of their passage across the plasma
membrane?
4. Are polar molecules hydrophobic or hydrophilic? What does this mean in terms of their passage across the plasma
membrane?
5. Identify the following as (a) polar or (b) nonpolar:
a. Carbon dioxide
b. Ions
c. Oxygen
d. Water
e. Glucose
6. If plant cells have a cell wall, then they cannot exchange material through their plasma membrane. True or False.
Why?
7. What are cell walls composed of?
8. What kind of cells have a cell wall? What is the purpose of a cell wall?

68
Topic 6: Membrane Transport

Learning Objective
ENE-2.E: Describe the mechanisms that organisms use to maintain solute and water balance.
ENE-2.F: Describe the mechanisms that organisms use to transport large molecules across the plasma membrane.

Essential Knowledge
ENE-2.E.1: Passive transport is the net movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration without the
direct input of metabolic energy.
ENE-2.E.2: Passive transport plays a primary role in the import of materials and the export of wastes.
ENE-2.E.3: Active transport requires the direct input of energy to move molecules from regions of low concentration to
regions of high concentration.
ENE-2.F.1: The selective permeability of membranes allows for the formation of concentration gradients of solutes across the
membrane.
ENE-2.F.2: The processes of endocytosis and exocytosis require energy to move large molecules into and out of cells—
a. In exocytosis, internal vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and secrete large macromolecules out of the cell.
b. In endocytosis, the cell takes in macromolecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles derived from the
plasma membrane.

Vocabulary

Passive transport Active transport Concentration gradient Endocytosis

Diffusion Exocytosis Pinocytosis

Review Questions
1. What are the main differences between passive and active transport?
2. Imagine a room is a cell and someone brings in freshly popped popcorn (gas molecules). The smell slowly drifts
through the room What type of transport is this an example of?
3. Fill in the blanks: in passive transport, molecules move from _____ to _____ concentration.
4. How are molecules able to go through diffusion? (i.e. what about them allows for this process?)
5. How is it possible that animal cells have a high internal concentration of potassium in comparison to their external
environments?
6. What molecule is necessary for active transport?
7. Draw two diagrams: one of a cell going through endocytosis and one of a cell going through exocytosis.

Topic 7: Facilitated Diffusion

Learning Objective
ENE-2.G: Explain how the structure of a molecule affects its ability to pass through the plasma membrane.

Essential Knowledge
ENE-2G.1: Membrane proteins are required for facilitated
diffusion of charged and large polar molecules through a membrane—
a. Large quantities of water pass through aquaporins.
b. Charged ions, including Na+ and K+, require channel proteins to move through the membrane.
c. Membranes may become polarized by movement of ions across the membrane
ENE-2G.2: Membrane proteins are necessary for active transport.
ENE-2G.3: Metabolic energy (such as from ATP) is required for active transport of molecules and/or ions across the
membrane and to establish and maintain concentration gradients.
ENE-2G.4: The Na+/K+ ATPase contributes to the maintenance of the membrane potential.

Vocabulary
Facilitated diffusion Carrier proteins Channel proteins Aquaporins

69
Review Questions
1. Is facilitated diffusion a type of active or passive transport? Why?
2. Identify the two types of transport proteins.
3. What are two ways water can pass through the cell membrane?
4. How does facilitated diffusion affect the rate of diffusion?
5. Predict the effect on a cell if there was a mutation that changed the amino acid sequence of the proteins that make up
aquaporins.
6. How can a chemical gradient be a source of energy for the cell (think about membrane potential)?
7. Contrast “concentration gradient” to “chemical gradient.”

Topic 8: Tonicity and Osmoregulation

Learning Objective
ENE-2.H: Explain how concentration gradients affect the
movement of molecules across membranes.
ENE-2.I: Explain how osmoregulatory mechanisms contribute to the health and survival of organisms.

Essential Knowledge
ENE-2.H.1: External environments can be hypotonic, hypertonic or isotonic to internal environments of cells—
a. Water moves by osmosis from areas of high water potential/low osmolarity/low solute concentration to areas of low water
potential/high osmolarity/high solute concentration.
ENE-2.I.1: Growth and homeostasis are maintained by the constant movement of molecules across membranes.
ENE-2.I.2: Osmoregulation maintains water balance and allows organisms to control their internal solute composition/water
potential.

Vocabulary

Osmosis Tonicity Hypertonic Isotonic

Hypotonic Osmoregulation Plasmolysis Turgid

Review Questions
1. Create a chart that defines hypertonic, isotonic and hypotonic in terms of solute concentration. Describe what would
happen to a plant and animal cell if placed in each of these solutions.
2. Circle one: a saltwater fish lives in a (hypertonic, isotonic, hypotonic) solution. To survive in this solution the
saltwater fish must consume a lot of (salt, water) and must excrete a lot of excess (salt, water).
3. If the concentration of NaCl inside a plant cell is 0.45M, which way will water diffuse if the cell is placed in a 0.25M
NaCl solution?
4. Calculate the solute potential of a 0.3M NaCl solution at 35℃. Find your answers in bars.

Topic 9: Mechanisms of Transport

Learning Objective
ENE-2.J: Describe the processes that allow ions and other molecules to move across membranes.

Essential Knowledge
ENE-2.J.1: A variety of processes allow for the movement of ions and other molecules across membranes, including passive
and active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis.

Review Questions
1. Review active and passive transport.

Topic 10: Compartmentalization

Learning Objective
ENE-2.K: Describe the membrane-bound structures of the eukaryotic cell.

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ENE-2.L: Explain how internal membranes and membrane- bound organelles contribute to compartmentalization of
eukaryotic cell functions.

Essential Knowledge
ENE-2.K.1: Membranes and membrane-bound organelles in eukaryotic cells compartmentalize intracellular metabolic
processes and specific enzymatic reactions.
ENE-2.L.1: Internal membranes facilitate cellular processes by minimizing competing interactions and by increasing surface
areas where reactions can occur.

Review Questions
1. Why is compartmentalization important in cells (use lysosomes as an example to support your reasoning)?
2. Discuss how both the mitochondria and chloroplast compartmentalize processes (be specific).
3. How does compartmentalization affect surface area?
4. Why is the mitochondria highly folded? (i.e. what is it producing?)
5. How do eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells differ in terms of compartmentalization?

Topic 11: Origins of Cell Compartmentalization

Learning Objective
EVO-1.A: Describe similarities and/or differences in compartmentalization between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
EVO-1.B: Describe the relationship between the functions of
endosymbiotic organelles and their free-living ancestral counterparts.

Essential Knowledge
EVO-1.A.1: Membrane-bound organelles evolved from once free-living prokaryotic cells via endosymbiosis.
EVO-1.A.2: Prokaryotes generally lack internal membrane- bound organelles but have internal regions with specialized
structures and functions.
EVO-1.A.3: Eukaryotic cells maintain internal membranes that partition the cell into specialized regions.
EVO-1.B.1: Membrane-bound organelles evolved from previously free-living prokaryotic cells via endosymbiosis.

Review Questions
1. Describe the endosymbiotic theory in your own words.
2. What evidence is there that supports the endosymbiotic theory?
3. Mitochondria and chloroplasts can still be found as free-living prokaryotes (i.e. not in a symbiotic relationship with a
eukaryote). True or False?

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