MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS
Chifundo Polska Mlangeni
1. MULTIMETER
• A meter is a measuring instrument. An
ammeter measures current, a
voltmeter measures the potential
difference (voltage) between two
points, and an ohmmeter measures
resistance.
• A multimeter combines these
functions, and possibly some
additional ones as well, into a single
instrument.

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Principles - Ammeter
• Before going into detail about multimeters, it is
important for you to have a clear idea of how meters
are connected into circuits. Diagrams A and B below
show a circuit before and after connecting an
ammeter:
A B

to measure current, the circuit

must be broken to allow the
ammeter to be connected in series

ammeters must have

a LOW resistance 3
Principles - Ammeter (cont’d)
• To start with, you need to break the circuit so that the ammeter can
be connected in series.
• All the current flowing in the circuit must pass through the ammeter.
• Meters are not supposed to alter the behavior of the circuit, or at
least not significantly, and it follows that an ammeter must have a
very LOW resistance.

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Principles - Voltmeter
• Diagram C shows the same circuit after connecting a
voltmeter:
A C

to measure potential difference

(voltage), the circuit is not
changed: the voltmeter is
connected in parallel

voltmeters must have a HIGH resistance

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Principles - Voltmeter (cont’d)
• This time, you do not need to break the
circuit.
• The voltmeter is connected in parallel
between the two points where the
measurement is to be made.
• Since the voltmeter provides a parallel
pathway, it should take as little current
as possible.
• In other words, a voltmeter should
have a very HIGH resistance.
• Which measurement technique do you
think will be the more useful?
• In fact, voltage measurements are used
much more often than current
measurements.
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Principles - Voltmeter (cont’d)
• The processing of electronic signals is
usually thought of in voltage terms.
• It is an added advantage that a voltage
measurement is easier to make.
• The original circuit does not need to be
changed.
• Often, the meter probes are connected
simply by touching them to the points of
interest.

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Principles - Ohmmeter
• An ohmmeter does not function with a circuit connected to a
power supply. If you want to measure the resistance of a
particular component, you must take it out of the circuit
altogether and test it separately, as shown in diagram D:

A D
to measure resistance, the
component must be
removed from the circuit
altogether

ohmmeters work by passing a current through the

component being tested
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Principles – Ohmmeter (cont’d)
• Ohmmeters work by passing a small current through the component
and measuring the voltage produced.
• If you try this with the component connected into a circuit with a
power supply, the most likely result is that the meter will be
damaged.
• Most multimeters have a fuse to help protect against misuse.

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Digital Multimeter
• Multimeters are designed and
mass produced for electronics
engineers.
• Even the simplest and cheapest
types may include features which
you are not likely to use.
• Digital meters give an output in
numbers, usually on a liquid
crystal display.

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Digital Multimeter (cont’d)
• The central knob has lots of positions and you must choose which one
is appropriate for the measurement you want to make. If the meter is
switched to 20 V DC, for example, then 20 V is the maximum voltage
which can be measured.
• This is sometimes called 20 V fsd, where fsd is short for full scale
deflection.
• For circuits with power supplies of up to 20 V, which includes all the
circuits you are likely to build, the 20 V DC voltage range is the most
useful.

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Digital Multimeter (cont’d)
• Sometimes, you will want to measure smaller voltages, and in this case, the 2 V or
200 mV ranges are used.
• What does DC mean? DC means direct current. In any circuit which operates
from a steady voltage source, such as a battery, current flow is always in the same
direction. Every constructional project descirbed in Design Electronics works in
this way.
• AC means alternating current. In an electric lamp connected to the domestic
mains electricity, current flows first one way, then the other. That is, the current
reverses, or alternates, in direction. With UK mains, the current reverses 50 times
per second.

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Digital Multimeter (cont’d)

For safety reasons, you must NEVER connect a

multimeter to the mains supply.

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Analogue Multimeter
• An analogue meter moves a needle along a scale. Switched range analogue
multimeters are very cheap but are difficult for beginners to read accurately,
especially on resistance scales. The meter movement is delicate and dropping the
meter is likely to damage it!
• Each type of meter has its advantages. Used as a voltmeter, a digital meter is
usually better because its resistance is much higher, 1 MΩ or 10 MΩ , compared
to 200 kΩ for a analogue multimeter on a similar range. On the other hand, it is
easier to follow a slowly changing voltage by watching the needle on an analogue
display.

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Analogue Multimeter (cont’d)

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Analogue Multimeter (cont’d)
• Used as an ammeter, an analogue multimeter has a very low
resistance and is very sensitive, with scales down to 50 µA. More
expensive digital multimeters can equal or better this performance.
• Most modern multimeters are digital and traditional analogue types
are destined to become obsolete.

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2. Oscilloscope
• An oscilloscope is easily the most useful instrument available for
testing circuits because it allows you to see the signals at different
points in the circuit.
• The best way of investigating an electronic system is to monitor
signals at the input and output of each system block, checking that
each block is operating as expected and is correctly linked to the next.
With a little practice, you will be able to find and correct faults quickly
and accurately.

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The Interface
• An oscilloscope is an impressive piece of
kit.
• The diagrams show a Hameg HM 203-6
and a Tektronix model 475A portable
analogue oscilloscope, a popular
instrument in UK schools. Your
oscilloscope may look different but will
have similar controls.
• Faced with an instrument like this,
students typically respond either by
twiddling every knob and pressing every
button in sight, or by adopting a glazed
expression. Neither approach is specially
helpful. Following the systematic
description below will give you a clear
idea of what an oscilloscope is and what
it can do.

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The Display
• The function of an oscilloscope is
extremely simple: it draws a V/t
graph, a graph of voltage against
time, voltage on the vertical or Y-
axis, and time on the horizontal or
X-axis.
• As you can see, the screen of this
oscilloscope has 8 squares or
divisions on the vertical axis, and 10
squares or divisions on the
horizontal axis.
• Usually, these squares are 1 cm in
each direction.

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The Display (cont’d)
• Many of the controls of the oscilloscope allow you to change the
vertical or horizontal scales of the V/t graph, so that you can display a
clear picture of the signal you want to investigate.
• 'Dual trace' oscilloscopes display two V/t graphs at the same time, so
that simultaneous signals from different parts of an electronic system
can be compared.

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Working Principles

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Working Principles (cont’d)
• Like a television screen, the screen of an oscilloscope consists of a
cathode ray tube. Although the size and shape are different, the
operating principle is the same. Inside the tube is a vacuum. The
electron beam emitted by the heated cathode at the rear end of the
tube is accelerated and focused by one or more anodes, and strikes
the front of the tube, producing a bright spot on the phosphorescent
screen.
• The electron beam is bent, or deflected, by voltages applied to two
sets of plates fixed in the tube. The horizontal deflection plates, or X-
plates produce side to side movement. As you can see, they are
linked to a system block called the time base. This produces a
sawtooth waveform. During the rising phase of the sawtooth, the
spot is driven at a uniform rate from left to right across the front of
the screen. During the falling phase, the electron beam returns
rapidly from right ot left, but the spot is 'blanked out' so that nothing
appears on the screen.

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Working Principles (cont’d)
• In this way, the time base generates the X-axis of the V/t graph.
• The slope of the rising phase varies with the frequency of the sawtooth and can be
adjusted, using the TIME/DIV control, to change the scale of the X-axis. Dividing the
oscilloscope screen into squares allows the horizontal scale to be expressed in seconds,
milliseconds or microseconds per division (s/DIV, ms/DIV, µs/DIV). Alternatively, if the
squares are 1 cm apart, the scale may be given as s/cm, ms/cm or µs/cm.
• The signal to be displayed is connected to the input. The AC/DC switch is usually kept in
the DC position (switch closed) so that there is a direct connection to the Y-amplifier. In
the AC position (switch open) a capacitor is placed in the signal path.

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Working Principles (cont’d)
• The Y-amplifier is linked in turn to a pair of Y-plates so that it provides the Y-axis
of the the V/t graph. The overall gain of the Y-amplifier can be adjusted, using the
VOLTS/DIV control, so that the resulting display is neither too small or too large,
but fits the screen and can be seen clearly. The vertical scale is usually given in
V/DIV or mV/DIV.
• The trigger circuit is used to delay the time base waveform so that the same
section of the input signal is displayed on the screen each time the spot moves
across. The effect of this is to give a stable picture on the oscilloscope screen,
making it easier to measure and interpret the signal.

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Working Principles (cont’d)
• Changing the scales of the X-axis and Y-axis allows many different signals to be
displayed.
• Sometimes, it is also useful to be able to change the positions of the axes. This is
possible using the X-POS and Y-POS controls.
• For example, with no signal applied, the normal trace is a straight line across the
centre of the screen.
• Adjusting Y-POS allows the zero level on the Y-axis to be changed, moving the
whole trace up or down on the screen to give an effective display of signals like
pulse waveforms which do not alternate between positive and negative values.

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Connectors

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3. LOGIC PROBES
• Logic probes, as shown in figure
opposite, are extremely simple and
useful devices that are designed to help
you detect the logic state of an IC.
• Logic probes can show you immediately
whether a specific point in the circuit is
low, high, open, or pulsing.

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Logic Probe
• A high is indicated when the
light at the end of the probe is lit
and a low is indicated when the
light is extinguished.
• Some probes have a feature that
detects and displays high-speed
transient pulses as small as 5
nanoseconds wide.
• These probes are usually
connected directly to the power
supply of the device being
tested, although a few also have
internal batteries.

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Logic Probe (cont’d)
• Since most IC failures show up as
a point in the circuit stuck either
at a high or low level, these
probes provide a quick,
inexpensive way for you to locate
the fault.
• They can also display that single,
short-duration pulse that is so
hard to catch on an oscilloscope.

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Characteristics
• The ideal logic probe will have the following
characteristics:
1. Be able to detect a steady logic level
2. Be able to detect a train of logic levels
3. Be able to detect an open circuit
4. Be able to detect a high-speed transient pulse
5. Have over voltage protection
6. Be small, light, and easy to handle
7. Have a high input impedance to protect against
circuit loading

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Logic Pulser
• Another extremely useful device for
troubleshooting logic circuits is the
logic pulser.
• It is similar in shape to the logic
probe and is designed to inject a
logic pulse into the circuit under
test.
• Logic pursers are generally used in
conjunction with a logic clip or a
logic probe to help you trace the
pulse through the circuit under test
or verify the proper operation of an
IC.

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Logic Pulser (cont’d)
• Some logic pursers have a feature that
allows a single pulse injection or a train
of pulses.
• Logic pursers are usually powered by an
external dc power supply but may, in
some cases, be connected directly to
the power supply of the device under
test.

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Logic Pulser (cont’d)
• Figure on the left below shows a typical logic pulser. Figure on
the right shows a logic pulser (right) used with a logic probe
(left).

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 SIGNAL GENERATOR

4. SIGNAL GENERATOR
• The signal generator is a device
used to generate a variety of
electrical signal waveforms that
are used as inputs to various Signal Generator
electronic circuits during testing
and/or development activities.
• Useful piece of equipment in the
signal generator family is
function generator.
Function Generator

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 SIGNAL GENERATOR

Signal Generator (cont’d)

• It contains an electronic oscillator, an
electronic circuit that can create a
repetitive waveform.
• The most common waveform is a sine
wave, but sawtooth, step (pulse),
square, and triangular waveform
oscillators are commonly available as
are arbitrary waveform generators
(AWGs).
• If the oscillator operates above the
audio frequency range (>20KHz), the
signal generator will often include some
sort of modulation including one or
more of amplitude modulation (AM),
frequency modulation (FM), or phase
modulation (PM) as well as a second
oscillator that provides an audio
frequency modulation waveform.
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Reading Assignment

• A moving-coil instrument gives a full-scale displacement. when the

current is 40mA and its resistance is 25Ω. Calculate the value of the
shunt resistance to be connected in parallel with the meter to enable
it to be used as an ammeter for measuring currents up to 50A.
THANK YOU