Mary Jones

Cambridge IGCSE®

Combined and
Co-ordinated
Sciences
Biology Workbook

Cam b r id g e
UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE
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Contents
Introduction iv B7.03 Risk of heart attack 47
B7.04 Changes in the blood system at high altitude 48
B1 Cells 1
B1.01 Observing and drawing organisms 1 B8 Respiration and gas exchange 50
B1.02 Animal and plant cells 5 B8.01 Effect of temperature on the rate of respiration 50
B1.03 Drawing cells and calculating magnification 6 B8.02 Effect of animals and plants on the
carbon dioxide concentration in water 52
B1.04 Organelles 8
B8.03 Gas exchange surfaces in rats 53
B2 Movement in and out of cells 9
B9 Co-ordination and homeostasis 56
B2.01 Diffusion experiment 9
B9.01 Caffeine and reaction time 56
B2.02 How plants take up water 11
B9.02 Accommodation in the eye 58
B2.03 Osmosis and potatoes 12
B9.03 Auxin and tropism 59
B3 Biological molecules 16 B9.04 Endotherms and ectotherms 61
B3.01 Carbohydrates 16 B9.05 Diabetes 63
B3.02 Testing a hypothesis 17
BIO Reproduction in plants 65
B3.03 Writing enzyme questions 18
B10.01 Pollination in forests of different shapes and sizes 65
B3.04 Lipase experiment 19
B3.05 Findingthe optimum pH for amylase 22 B ll Reproduction in humans 67
B3.06 How enzymes work 26 B11.01 Gametes 67
B l l . 02 Gas exchange in the placenta and lungs 69
B4 Plant nutrition 28
B4.01 How a palisade cell obtains its requirements 28 B12 Inheritance 71
B4.02 Sun and shade leaves 29 B12.01 Fruit fly inheritance 71
B4.03 Analysing data about rates of B12.02 Black and chestnut horses 73
photosynthesis 31 B12.03 Pedigree 75

B5 Animal nutrition 35 B13 Variation and inheritance 77

B5.01 Diet 35 B13.01 Water hyacinth experiment 77
B5.02 Functions of the digestive system 37 B13.02 Big-horn sheep 79
B5.03 Tooth decay data analysis 38 B13.03 Goats on an island 81
B5.04 Vitamin D absorption 40 B13.04 Selective breeding for high milk yield 83

B6 Transport in plants 42 B14 Organisms and their environment 85

B6.01 A transpiration experiment 42 B14.01 Energy transfer in a food chain 85
B14.02 Eutrophication 86
B7 Transport in mammals 45
B14.03 Introduced species in New Zealand 88
B7.01 Double and single circulatory systems 45
B7.02 The heart in a fetus 46 Answers 90
Introduction
This workbook covers two syllabuses: Cambridge IGCSE Combined Science (0653) and
Cambridge IGCSE Co-ordinated Sciences (0654). Before you start using this workbook, check with
your teacher which syllabus you are studying and which papers you will take. You wilt sit either the
Core paper or the Extended paper for your syllabus. If you are sitting the Extended paper, you will
study the Core material and the Supplement material for your syllabus.

Once you know which paper you will be sitting, you can use the exercises in this workbook to help
develop the skills you need and prepare for your examination.

The examination tests three different Assessment Objectives, or AOs for short. These are:
AO l Knowledge with understanding
A02 Handling information and problem solving
A03 Experimental skills and investigations.

In the examination, about 50% of the marks are for AOl, 30%forAO2 and 20%forAO3. Just learning
your work and remembering it is therefore not enough to make sure that you get the best possible grade
in the exam. Half of all the marks are for A02 and A03. You need to be able to use what you’ve learned in
unfamiliar contexts (A02) and to demonstrate your experimental skills (A03).

There are lots of activities in your coursebook which will help you to develop your experimental skills by
doing practical work. This workbook contains exercises to help you to develop A02 and A03 further.
There are some questions that just involve remembering things you have been taught (AOl), but most of
the questions require you to use what you’ve learned to workout, for example, what a set of data means,
or to suggest how an experiment might be improved.

These exercises are not intended to be exactly like the questions you will get on your exam papers.
This is because they are meant to help you to develop your skills, rather than testing you on them.

There’s an introduction at the start of each exercise that tells you the purpose of it - which skills you
will be working with as you answer the questions.

For some parts of the exercises, there are self-assessment checklists. You can try using these to mark
your own work. This will help you to remember the important points to think about. Your teacher should
also mark the work and will discuss with you whether your own assessments are right.

There are sidebars in the margins of the book to show which material relates to each syllabus and paper.
If there is no sidebar, it means that everyone will study this material.
 Introduction

Use this table to ensure that you study the right material for your syllabus and paper:

Cambridge IGCSE Combined Science (0653) Cambridge IGCSE Co-ordinated Sciences (0654)
Core Supplement Core Supplement
You w ill stu d y the You w ill stu d y the You w ill stu d y the You w ill stu d y
m aterial: m aterial: m aterial: everything.
This in clu d e s the
Without a Without a Without a
m aterial:
sidebar sidebar sidebar
Without a
With a double With a single
sidebar
grey sidebar grey sidebar
With a single
With a double With a double
grey sidebar
black sidebar grey sidebar
With a double
grey sidebar
With a single
black sidebar
With a double
black sidebar

We would like to thank Cambridge International Examinations for permission to reproduce exam questions.
Chapter B1
Cells
KEY TERMS

excretion: removal from organisms of the waste products of metabolism (chemicat reactions in cells
including respiration), toxic materials and substances in excess of requirements
growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number or cell size or both
movement: an action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or place
nutrition: taking in of materials for energy, growth and development; plants require light, carbon
dioxide, water and ions; animals need organic compounds and ions and usually need water
reproduction: the processes that make more of the same kind of organism
respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules and release energy for
metabolism
sensitivity: the ability to detect or sense stimuli in the internal or external environment and to make
appropriate responses
magnification: the size of an object in illustration divided by the real size of the object

Exercise B1.01 Observing and drawing organisms

This exercise will help you to improve your observation and drawing skills (A03.3). You will also
practise calculating magnification.

You need:
• specimens of two different fish
• a sharp HB (medium hard) pencil and a good eraser
• a ruler to measure in mm.

a Observe the fish carefully. Look for similarities and differences between them.
b On the blank page following, make a large drawing of one of the fish. You can turn the page sideways if this
works better. Leave space around the drawing for labels.
c Label your drawing to point out any interesting features of the fish.
Chapter B l: Cells
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Use the checklist below to give yourself a mark for your drawing. For each point, award yourself:
• 2 marks if you did it really well
• 1 mark if you made a good attempt at it and partly succeeded
• 0 marks if you did not try to do it, or did not succeed.

Self-assessment checklist for drawing:

Check point Marks awarded

You Your teacher
You used a sharp pencil and rubbed out mistakes really
thoroughly.
You have drawn single lines, not many tries at the same
line.
You have drawn the specimen the right shape, and with
different parts in the correct proportions.
You have made a really large drawing, using the space
provided.
You have included all the different structures that are
visible on the specimen.
You have drawn label lines with a ruler, touching the
structure being labelled.
You have written the labels horizontally and neatly,
well away from the diagram itself.
Take 1 mark off if you used any shading or colours.
Total (out of 14)

12-14 Excellent.
10-11 Good.
7-9 A good start, but you need to improve quite a bit.
5-6 Poor. Try this same drawing again, using a new sheet of paper.
1-4 Very poor. Read through alt the criteria again, and then try the same drawing.

d i Measure the actual length of the fish, in mm.

length of real fish = .................................mm

ii Measure the same length on your drawing,

length on drawing = .................................mm

iii Use your measurements to calculate the magnification of your drawing. Write down the equation you will
use, and show your working.

magnification =
 Chapter B l: Cells

e Complete Table 1.01 to describe at least three differences between the two fish.

Feature Fish 1 Fish 2

m
I

Table 1.01
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B1.02 Animal and plant cells

This exercise will help you to improve your knowledge of the structure of animal and plant cells,
and give you more practice in calculating magnification.

The diagram shows an animal cell, and the outline of a plant cell. They are not drawn to the
same scale.

a On the animal cell, label the following parts:

cell membrane cytoplasm nucleus

b Complete the diagram of the plant cell, and then label the following parts:

cell membrane cytoplasm large vacuole containing cell sap nucleus

chloroptast cell wall membrane around vacuole

c The actual maximum width of the animal cell is 0.1 mm.

i Measure the maximum width of the diagram of the animal cell, in mm........................

ii Calculate the magnification of the animal cell diagram. Show your working.

magnification = .....................................

d The magnification of the plant cell diagram is><80. Calculate the real height of the plant cell.
Show yourworking.

height =
 Chapter B l: Cells

Exercise B1.03 Drawing cells and calculating magnification

This exercise helps you to improve your observation and drawing skills (A03.3), as well as giving
you more practice in calculating magnification.

Look carefully at Image B1.01 in the Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences Coursebook.

a i In the space below, make a large diagram of the largest cell (the one on the right of the photograph).
You cannot see all of the cell, as its ends are out of the picture. Draw only the part that you can see.

ii Label these structures on your diagram. You will have to make a sensible guess as to which structure is the
nucleus.

cell wall position of cell membrane chloroptast nucleus

Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Use the checklist below to give yourself a mark for your drawing. For each point, award yourself:
• 2 marks if you did it really well
• 1 mark if you made a good attempt at it and partly succeeded
• 0 marks if you did not try to do it, or did not succeed.

Self-assessment checklist for drawing:

Check point Marks awarded

You Your teacher
You used a sharp pencil and rubbed out mistakes really
thoroughly.
You have drawn single lines, not many tries at the same
line.
You have drawn the specimen the right shape, and with
different parts in the correct proportions.
You have made a really targe drawing, using the space
provided.
You have included all the different structures that are
visible on the specimen.
You have drawn label lines with a ruler, touchingthe
structure being labelled.
You have written the labels horizontally and neatly, well
away from the diagram itself.
Take 1 mark off if you used any shadingor colours.
Total (out of 14)

12-14 Excellent.
10-11 Good.
7-9 A good start, but you need to improve quite a bit.
5-6 Poor. Try this same drawing again, using a new sheet of paper.
1-4 Very poor. Read through alt the criteria again, and then try the same drawing.

b The magnification of the photograph in Figure B1.6 is x 2000.

i Calculate the real width of the largest cell in the photograph.

Show your working.

width
 Chapter B l: Cells

ii Calculate the magnification of your drawing of the plant cell.

magnification =

Exercise B1.04 Organelles

This exercise tests your knowledge of the functions of organelles in animal and plant cells.

This list contains organelles that are found in cells.

cell membrane cell wall cytoplasm chloroplast

mitochondrion nucleus ribosome vacuole

Write the name of the organelle beneath its function.

a Contains chromosomes made of DNA, and controls the activity of the cell.

b An extra, strong layer surrounding a plant cell, made of cellulose.

c A jelly-like substance where many metabolic reactions happen.

d Every cell is surrounded by one of these. It controls what enters and leaves the cell.

e Some plant cells have these, but animal cells never do. This is where photosynthesis takes place.

f This is a space inside a cell that contains a liquid, for example cell sap.
Chapter B2
Movement in and out of cells
KEY TERMS

diffusion: the net movement of molecules and ions from a region of their higher concentration to
a region of their lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random
movement
osmosis: the diffusion of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a
region of lower water potential (concentrated solution), through a partially permeable membrane

Exercise B2.01 Diffusion experiment

This exercise asks you to handle and interpret data collected during an experiment, and also to
think about how the experiment was planned (A03.4 and A03.2).

A student did an experiment to test this hypothesis:

The higher the temperature, the faster diffusion takes place.
She took four Petri dishes containing agar jelly. She cut four holes in the jelly in each dish. She placed 0.5 cm3
of a solution containing a red pigment (coloured substance) into each hole. The following diagram shows the
experimental set-up.

agarjelly hole cut in jelly,

containing red solution

The student then covered the dishes and very carefully placed them in different temperatures. She left them for
two hours. Then she measured how far the red colour had diffused into the agar around each hole. Table 2.01
shows the student’s results.

Dish Temperature / °C Distance red colour had diffused into the jelly / mm
Hole 1 Hole 2 Hole 3 Hole 4 Mean (average)
A 10 2 3 2 3
B 20 5 5 6 4
C 40 9 11 8 10
D 80 19 21 18 123

Table 2.01
a Complete Table 2.01 by calculating the mean distances diffused by the red colour in each dish. (Give each
distance to the nearest whole number, because this is how the student’s measurements were taken.)
Write your answers in the table.
 Chapter B2: Movement in and out of cells

b Do the results support the student’s hypothesis? Explain your answer.

c State four variables that the student kept constant in her experiment, or that she should have kept constant.
1

4 .........................................................................................................................................................

d Explain why it was a good idea to have four holes in each dish, rather than just one.

e Suggest two significant sources of experimental error in this investigation.

1 ..............................................................................................

2
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B2.02 How plants take up water

This exercise checks that you haven’t forgotten about cell structure. It also develops your ability
to use your knowledge in a new situation (A02).

Plants take up water into their roots, from the soil. They have tiny hairs on their roots which help with this.
The hairs are called root hairs, and each one is part of a single ceil. The diagram shows a root hair cell.

a State two structural features of this cell that are typical of plant cells but not animal cells.

1 ..............................................................................................................................................................

2 ..............................................................................................................................................................

b On the diagram of the cell, label a partially permeable membrane. Use a ruler to draw the labelling line.

c The concentration of the cytoplasm and the cell sap inside the root hair cell is greater than the concentration of
the water in the soil around the root hair cell. Use your knowledge of osmosis to explain how water is absorbed
into the root hair cell.

d Root hair cells are tiny, and there are hundreds of them on each plant root. Suggest how this helps to increase
the rate at which the plant can take up water.
 Chapter B2: Movement in and out of cells

Exercise B2.03 Osmosis and potatoes

In this exercise, you will practise drawing a results chart and recording numerical results in it
(A03.3). You will also construct a graph and evaluate the results (A03.4). Question d is a good test
of your understanding of osmosis, and your ability to use your knowledge in a new situation (A02).

A student investigated the effect of different concentrations of sugar solutions on some potato cylinders.
He took a large potato and used a cork borer to cut out several cylinders, each exactly the same diameter.
He trimmed the peel off the ends of the cylinders, and then cut them into exactly 1 cm lengths. He then
measured the mass of each piece.

He placed one piece of potato in each of six beakers. He then covered each piece with either water, or one of
five different concentrations of sugar solution. He used the same volume of solution in each beaker. The student
left the potato pieces in the beakers for 30 minutes. Then he removed them from the beakers, blotted them dry
with filter paper and measured their mass again. His results are shown in Table 2.02.

Before piece A = 5.2 g piece B = 5.1 g piece C = 4.9 g

piece D = 5.0 g piece E = 5.1 g piece F = 5.2 g
Solutions A, distilled water B, 0.1% sugar solution C, 0.2% solution
D, 0.5% solution E, 0.8% solution F, 1.0% solution
After A = 5.5g B = 5.2 g C = 4.9 g
D - 5.3 g E = 5.0 g F = 5.0 g
Table 2.02

a In the space below, draw your own results table and fill in the student’s results. Include a row or column
showing the change in mass. Take care to head each column and row fully, with units.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

b Decide if there are any anomalous results. If you think there are, draw a ring around them.

c Display the results as a line graph on the grid below. Put concentration of solution on thex-axis and change in
mass on they-axis. Remember to include units in your axis labels.

d Use your knowledge of osmosis to explain the results.

 Chapter B2: Movement in and out of cells

e Suggest how the student could have changed his method to make his results more reliable.

f The student’s teacher suggested that it would have been better if he had calculated the percentage change in
mass of each piece of potato, rather than just the change in mass. Do you agree? Explain your answer.

Use the checklist below to give yourself a mark for your results chart. For each point, award yourself:
• 2 marks if you did it really well
• 1 mark if you made a good attempt at it and partly succeeded
• 0 marks if you did not try to do it, or did not succeed.

Self-assessment checklist for results charts:

Check point Marks awarded

You Your teacher
You have drawn the chart with a ruler.
Headings have correct units in each column and row
(there are no units inside the cells of the table).
Your chart is easy for someone else to read and
understand.
If your chart contains readings, all are to the same number
of decimal places (for example, 15.5,9.0).
Total (out of 8)

8 Excellent.
7 Good.
5-6 A good start, but you need to improve quite a bit.
3-4 Poor. Try this same results chart again, using a new sheet of paper.
1-2 Very poor. Read through all the criteria again, and then try the same results chart again.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Use the checklist below to give yourself a mark for your graph. For each point, award yourself:
• 2 marks if you did it really well
• 1 mark if you made a good attempt at it and partly succeeded
• 0 marks if you did not try to do it, or did not succeed.

Self-assessment checklist for graphs:

Check point Marks awarded

You Your teacher
You have drawn the axes with a ruler, and used most of the
width and height of the graph paperforthe axis labels.
You have used a good scale for the x-axis and they-axis,
going up in Is, 2s, 5s or 10s.
You have included the correct units with the scales on
both axes.
You have plotted each point precisely and correctly.
You have used a small, neat cross for each point.
You have drawn a single, clear line - either by ruling
a line between each pair of points or by drawing a
well-positioned best-fit line.
You have ignored any anomalous results when drawing
the line.
Total (out of 14)

12-14 Excellent.
10-11 Good.
7-9 A good start, but you need to improve quite a bit.
5-6 Poor. Try this same graph again, using a new sheet of paper.
1-4 Very poor. Read through all the criteria again, and then try the same graph again.
Chapter B3
Biological molecules
KEYTERMS

enzymes: proteins that function as biological catalysts

Exercise B3.01 Carbohydrates

This exercise will give you practice in constructing results charts (A03.3) and drawing
conclusions (A03.4), as well as helping you to remember important facts about carbohydrates.

A student carried out tests on two foods. This is what she wrote in her notebook.

S ta rch t e s t - food A went brown, food B went black

Benedict's reagent - food A went orange-red, food B went blue

a Construct a results table and complete it to show the student’s results. Think carefully about the best way of
showing what she did, what she was testing for, what results she obtained and what these results mean.

b Complete Table 3.01 about carbohydrates.

Type of carbohydrate Example Role in living organisms

glucose
sugar
the form in which carbohydrates
are transported in plants

the form in which plants store

energy
polysaccharide
glycogen

Table 3.01
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B3.02 Testing a hypothesis

This exercise will help you to remember the biuret test for proteins. It will also help you to
improve your skills in planning experiments (A03.2). Your teacher may allow you to carry out
your experiment - if so, you are almost certain to find you want to make some changes to it.
That is good - it is what most scientists do.

The biuret test is used to test foods for proteins. The intensity of the colour obtained depends on the concentration
of protein in the sample being tested.

Plan an investigation to test this hypothesis:

Milk from cows contains a higher concentration of protein than milk from goats.
a First, describe how you would do the biuret test.

b Now think about how you could use this test to test the hypothesis,

i What variable would you change in your experiment?

ii What would you keep the same? Try to think of at least three variables you would keep the same.

iii What would you measure in your experiment?

iv How would you measure it?

v If the hypothesis is correct, what results would you expect to obtain?

 Chapter B3: Biological molecules

Exercise B3.03 Writing enzyme questions

This exercise will make you think hard about some of the facts you know about enzymes, which
should help you to remember them.

Write a multiple-choice question for each of the following sets of answers. Then underline the correct answer to
your question.

A amylase B catalase C lipase D protease

A denatured B killed C slowed down D speeded up

A fat B protein C maltose D starch

Now write two more multiple-choice questions about enzymes. For each question, indicate the correct answer by
underlining it.

5
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B3.04 Lipase experiment

This exercise will help you improve your ability to analyse and evaluate data (A03.4), and to plan
experiments (A03.2). It will also reinforce your knowledge of the role of lipase.

An experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of temperature on the enzyme lipase. Lipase digests fats to
fatty acids (which have a low pH) and glycerol.
A solution of lipase was made and equal volumes of it were added to five test tubes. The tubes were treated as
follows:

kept at... 20 °C 20 “C 0°C 40 °C 100 °C

All five tubes were kept at these temperatures for five minutes.
9
A pH meter was used to measure the pH of the liquid in each tube.

Equal volumes of milk (which contains fat) were then added to tubes 2,3,4 and 5.

Every two minutes, the pH of the contents of each tube was tested as before. The results are shown Table 3.02.

Tube 1 2 3 4 5
Temp / °C 20
Milk added? yes
pH at: 0 min 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
2 min 7.0 6.8 7.0 6.7 7.0
4 min 7.0 6.7 7.0 6.5 7.0
6 min 7.0 6.6 7.0 6.3 7.0
8 min 7.0 6.6 6.9 6.2 7.0
10 min 7.0 6.5 6.9 6.2 7.0

Table 3.02

a What is the substrate of the enzyme lipase?

b What are the products when lipase acts on its substrate?

 Chapter B3: Biological molecules

c Explain why the pH becomes lower when lipase acts on its substrate.

d Complete Table 3.02 by filling in all the blank cells,

e Explain why the pH did not change in tube 1.

f Explain why the pH did not change in tube 5.

g Explain why the results for tubes 2 and 3 differed from each other.

h The student who did this experiment concluded that the optimum temperature for lipase is 40 °C.
What are your opinions about this conclusion?

i Suggest some changes that could be made to this experiment to obtain a more reliable or more precise value
for the optimum temperature of lipase.
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

j Explain how you could use lipase to investigate whether cow’s milk contains a higher concentration of fat than
goat’s milk. (Remember to think about the variables you will need to control.)

I
 Chapter B3: Biological molecules

Exercise B3.05 Finding the optimum pH for amylase

This exercise leads you through designing an experiment (A03.2), and thinking about variables
you will change, variables you will control and variables you will measure. Your teacher may let
you do your experiment when you have designed it, in which case you can come back to your
original design and make changes to it that you think might have worked better.

The pH of a liquid can be kept steady by adding a buffer solution to it. You can obtain buffer solutions for any pH
value you require. You can use a pH meter to measure the pH.
Plan an investigation to test this hypothesis:

The optimum pH for amylase is 7.5.

Here is some of the apparatus you might like to include.

a What will you vary in your experiment?

b Over what range will you vary it?

Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

c How will you vary it?

d What variables will you keep constant in your experiment? How will you do this?

e What results will you measure in your experiment, how will you measure them and when will you
measure them?

Briefly outline the steps you will follow in your investigation.

 Chapter B3: Biological molecules

g Draw a results table in which you could record your results.

h Sketch a graph to show the results you would expect if the hypothesis is correct.
I
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Use the checklist below to give yourself a mark for planning your experiment. For each point, award
yourself:
• 2 marks if you did it really well
• 1 mark if you made a good attempt at it and partly succeeded
• 0 marks if you did not try to do it, or did not succeed.

Self-assessment checklist for planning an experiment:

Check point Marks awarded

You Your teacher
You have stated the variable to be changed (independent
variable), the range of this variable and how you will
vary it.
You have stated at least three important variables to
be kept constant (and not included ones that are not
important).
You have stated the variable to be measured (dependent
variable), how you will measure it and when you will
measure it.
You have drawn up a results chart into which you can write
your results.
If a hypothesis is being tested, you have predicted what
the results will be if the hypothesis is correct.
Total (out of 10)

10 Excellent.
8-9 Good.
5-7 A good start, but you need to improve quite a bit.
3-4 Poor. Try this same plan again, using a new sheet of paper.
1-2 Very poor. Read through all the criteria again, and then try the same plan again.
 Chapter B3: Biological molecules

Exercise B3.06 How enzymes work

You will need to think about how an enzyme interacts with its substrate in order to answer these
questions. It is important to use correct scientific terminology when you are answering part c.

The diagram shows an enzyme and a molecule of its substrate, maltose. The enzyme is able to split
a maltose molecule into two glucose molecules.

a On the diagram, label the active site of the enzyme.

2i
b In the space below, draw two new diagrams to show:

i the enzyme and substrate bound together

ii the enzyme and products after the reaction is completed.

Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

c Use the diagrams to explain each of the following statements,

i An enzyme is specific for one type of substrate.

ii Enzyme-catalysed reactions happen faster at 20 °C than at 10 °C.

iii Enzyme-catalysed reactions happen faster at 30 °C than at 50 °C.

Chapter B4
Plant nutrition

photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials using
energy from light

Exercise B4.01 How a palisade cell obtains its requirements

Writing these descriptions will help you to summarise and remember how a palisade cell obtains
the things it needs for photosynthesis, and the fate of the products.

Write short descriptions in each box in the following diagrams, to explain how a palisade cell in a
leaf obtains its requirements for photosynthesis, and what happens to the products. Use each of
these words at least once.

airspace diffusion epidermis osmosis phloem starch

root hair stoma transparent sucrose xylem

Light energy Oxygen

Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Carbon dioixde Carbohydrates

Water

Exercise B4.02 Sun and shade leaves

You don’t need to know about sun and shade leaves, so don’t worry - you don’t have to learn
facts about them. This exercise is about observing carefully and using what you can see, as well
as what you already know about leaves, to work out (rather than just remember) answers to
questions (A02).

Some of the leaves on a tree spend most of the day in bright sunlight, while others are in the shade.
The diagrams show sections through a leaf growing in the shade and a leaf growing in the sunlight.
 Chapter B4: Plant nutrition

a Label these tissues on the shade leaf diagram:

upper epidermis palisade mesophyll
spongy mesophyll lower epidermis

b Put a few green spots in each cell that you would expect to contain chloroplasts on the shade leaf diagram,

c Complete Table 4.01 to compare the structures of each of these parts of the leaves.

Part of leaf Sun leaf Shade leaf

cuticle

palisade mesophyll

spongy mesophyll

Table 4.01

d Suggest an explanation for the difference in the cuticle that you have described in Table 4.01.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

e Suggest an explanation for the difference in the palisade layer that you have described in Table 4.01.

Exercise B4.03 Analysing data about rates of photosynthesis

In this exercise, you can practise drawing a line graph (A02) and analysing data to draw
conclusions and suggest explanations (A02 and also A03.4). It will also help you to check your
understanding of limiting factors.

An experiment was performed to find out how fast a plant photosynthesised as the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the air around it was varied. The results are shown in Table 4.02.

Percentage concentration Rate of photosynthesis in arbitrary units

of carbon dioxide Low light intensity High light intensity
0.00 0 0
0.02 20 33
0.04 29 53
0.06 35 68
0.08 39 79
0.10 42 86
0.12 45 89
0.14 46 90
0.16 46 90
0.18 46 90
0.20 46 90

Table 4.02

a Plot these results on the grid provided.

You can mark your graph using the self-assessment checklist for graphs.
Chapter B4: Plant nutrition

K
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Use the checklist below to give yourself a mark for your graph. For each point, award yourself:
• 2 marks if you did it really well
• 1 mark if you made a good attempt at it and partly succeeded
• 0 marks if you did not try to do it, or did not succeed.

Self-assessment checklist for graphs:

Check point Marks awarded

1You Your teacher
You have drawn the axes with a ruler, and used most of the
width and height of the graph paper for the axis labels.
You have used a good scale forthex-axis and they-axis,
going up in Is , 2s, 5s or 10s.
You have included the correct units with the scales on
both axes.
You have plotted each point precisely and correctly.
You have used a small, neat cross for each point.
You have drawn a single, clear line - either by ruling
a line between each pair of points or by drawing a
well-positioned best-fit line.
You have ignored any anomalous results when drawing
the line.
Total (out of 14)

12-14 Excellent.
10-11 Good.
7-9 A good start, but you need to improve quite a bit.
5-6 Poor. Try this same graph again using a new sheet of paper.
1-4 Very poor. Read through all the criteria again and then try the same graph again.

b State the carbon dioxide concentration of normal air.

c Use your graph to find the rate of photosynthesis in normal air in high light intensity.

d Up to what concentration is carbon dioxide a limiting factor for photosynthesis in low light intensity?

e Above this concentration (your answer to d), what is the limiting factor for photosynthesis?
 Chapter B4: Plant nutrition

f Farmers and market gardeners often add carbon dioxide to the air in glasshouses where crops are growing.
Use your graph to explain the advantage of doing this.

g It is expensive to add carbon dioxide to glasshouses. Suggest a suitable concentration of carbon dioxide
to add to a glasshouse in high light intensity, to obtain a good financial return from the sale of the crop.
Explain your answer.

3 ‘
Chapter B5
Animal nutrition
KEY TERMS

digestion: the breakdown of large, insoluble food molecules into small, water-soluble molecules using
mechanical and chemical processes
ingestion: taking substances (e.g, food, drink) into the body
absorption: the movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the intestine into the blood
egestion: the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as faeces
assimilation: the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they are used,
becoming part of the cells
mechanical digestion: the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to the
food molecules
chemical digestion: the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules

Exercise B5.01 Diet

This exercise helps you to practise using information to work out the answers to questions (A02).

Table 5.01 shows the energy and nutrients contained in 100 g of five foods.

Food Protein Fat/g Carbohydrate Calcium / Iron / Vitamin C Vitamin D

/g /g mg mg /m g /m g
apple 150 0.2 0 9.0 0 0.2 2 0
chicken, 630 25.0 5.0 0 0 0.8 0 0
roast
egg- 1050 10.0 23.0 0 60 2.0 0 1.8
scrambled
rice, 500 2.0 0.3 30.0 0 0 0 0
boiled
spinach, 130 5.0 0.5 1.5 600 4.0 25 0
boiled
Table 5.01

a What pattern can you see in the kinds of food that contain carbohydrate?

b Scrambled egg has the highest energy content per gram of all of the foods in the table. What data in the table
could explain why the energy content of scrambled egg is so high?
 Chapter B5: Animal nutrition

c Use the data in the table to work out which of the five foods contains the greatest mass of water per 100 g.
Show your working.

d A person is suffering from anaemia. Which foods from the table would be most helpful for her to include in her
diet? Explain your answer.

I
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B5.02 Functions of the digestive system

This exercise will help you to remember the roles of the different parts of the digestive system.
The diagram is not the same as the one in your coursebook, Figure B5.08 - you need to be
prepared to interpret different versions of diagrams.

The diagram shows a number of boxes which contain descriptions of things that happen to food as it
moves along the alimentary canal. Draw label lines to the appropriate parts of the digestive system
on the diagram.

Saliva is secreted into here Mastication increases the

from the salivary glands. surface area of food.

Amylase breaks down starch

Gastric juice is made here, to maltose.
containing pepsin and
hydrochloric acid.

Bile salts emulsify fats.

Pancreatic juice flows into

here. Pepsin breaks down proteins
to polypeptides.

Amylase breaks down starch Sodium hydrogencarbonate

to maltose. neutralises acid from the
stomach.

Lipase breaks down fats to

fatty acids and glycerol.
 '

Chapter B5: Animal nutrition

Exercise B5.03 Tooth decay data analysis

These questions help you to develop your abilities to find and describe patterns in data and
suggest explanations for them (A02).

A study was carried out into the effect of two factors on the number of decayed teeth in five-year-old children in
three towns. The two factors were:
• whether or not fluoride was added to the drinking water, or if the water naturally contained fluoride (fluoride is
known to strengthen tooth enamel)
• the general standard of living of the family, measured using a score from -30 (very high living standards) to +50
(very low living standards).

The results are shown in the graph.

A town where the water does B town where water does not C town where water naturally
not naturally contain fluoride, and naturally contain fluoride, and contains fluoride
where fluoride w as not added where fluoride was added

a Describe the effect of standard of living on tooth decay in town A.

b Suggest reasons why a low standard of living may have the effect you describe in your answer to part a.
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

c Describe the effect of adding fluoride to drinking water that does not naturally contain fluoride.

d Suggest reasons for the differences in the results for town B and town C.

I
 Chapter B5: Animal nutrition

Exercise B5.04 Vitamin D absorption

This exercise asks you to describe data provided in a graph, in words. It’s a good idea to focus on
parts of the graph where the line changes gradient or direction, and to quote some coordinates
from the graph, remembering to give the units of the figures that you refer to.

In an investigation into the absorption of vitamin Dfrom the alimentary canal, a volunteer ate
a measured quantity of vitamin D o n a piece of toast. Blood samples were then taken from her
at intervals over a period of 72 hours, and the amount of vitamin D in each blood sample was
measured. The results are shown in the graph.
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

a Describe the changes in the amount of vitamin D in the blood over the 72-hour period.

b Name the part of the alimentary canal in which vitamin D is absorbed into the blood.

c List three other substances that are absorbed in this part of the alimentary canal.

d Describe how this part of the alimentary canal is adapted to make absorption efficient.

e Explain why vitamin D does not need to be digested before it is absorbed.

f The volunteer was asked not to expose her skin to sunlight during the investigation. Suggest why this was done.
Chapter B6
Transport in plants
KEYTERMS

transpiration: loss of water vapour from plant leaves by evaporation of water at the surfaces of the
mesophyli cells followed by diffusion of water vapour through the stomata

Exercise B6.01 A transpiration experiment

This exercise gives you practice in recording results (A03.3), constructing graphs (A03.4),
drawing conclusions and evaluating the reliability of results (also A03.4).

A student investigated this hypothesis:

Transpiration happens more quickly in windy conditions than in still air.

The diagram shows the apparatus that the student used.

The student placed a leafy shoot in the apparatus and stood it in a quiet place in the lab, where the air was still.
He read off the position of the meniscus every two minutes forten minutes.
He then placed the fan close to the apparatus and switched it on. He continued to read the position of the
meniscus every two minutes for the next ten minutes. These are the results he wrote down.

start Ocm 2 min, 2.8 4 min, 6.1 6 min, 10.0

8 min, 12.9 10 min, 16.2 12 min, 21.8 14 min, 27.9
16 min, 31.1 18 min, 39.5 20 min, 44.9
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

a Draw a suitable results chart, and fill it in.

b Plot these results on the grid provided. Draw a vertical line upwards from thex-axis, to divide the graph into the
period of time when the air was still, and when it was moving. Draw two best-fit lines, one on either side of this
dividing line. If you think any of the results are anomalous, then ignore them when drawing your best-fit lines.
 Chapter B6: Transport in plants

c Use the graph to calculate the mean rate of movement, in cm per minute, of the meniscus in still air and in
moving air.

still air......................................... moving air.........................................

d Do the results support the student’s hypothesis? Explain your answer.

e Suggest any significant sources of error in this experiment. (For example, did the student control all the
important variables? Did his method really measure what he thought he was measuring?)
Chapter B7
Transport in mammals
Exercise 87,01 Double and single circulatory systems

Constructing a diagram in a slightly different way is often a good way of checking that you really
do understand a concept. You will also need to use your knowledge to explain how and why one
type of circulatory system might have advantages over another (A02).

The diagram shows a simple plan of a double circulatory system.

a In the space above, draw a similar diagram to show a single

circulatory system.

b Name one organism that has a double circulatory system.

c Name one organism that has a single circulatory system.

d Many animals with double circulatory systems have higher metabolic rates than those with single circulatory
systems.
Suggest an explanation for this relationship.
 Chapter B7: Transport in mammals

Exercise B7.02 The heart in a fetus

This exercise will make you think hard about the double circulatory system of a human and
how it works, and use your previous knowledge to work out some likely explanations (A02).

The diagram shows the heart of a fetus (a baby developing in its mother’s uterus).

In a fetus, the lungs do not work. The fetus gets its oxygen from the mother, to whom it is connected by the
umbilical cord. This cord contains a vein, which carries the oxygenated blood to the fetus’s vena cava.

a On the diagram, write the letter 0 in the chamber of the heart that first receives oxygenated blood in an
adult person
b On the diagram, write the letters OF in the chamber of the heart that first receives oxygenated blood in a fetus,
c If you look carefully at the diagram, you can see that there is a hole in the septum between the left and
right atria. Suggest the function of this hole in the heart of a fetus.

d When the baby is born, it takes its first breath. The hole in the septum of the heart quickly closes.
Explain why this is important.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B7.03 Risk of heart attack

In this exercise, you will practise picking out relevant information from a table of data and using
it to suggest answers to questions about a real-life situation (A02).

Table 7.01 shows part of a chart that doctors use to predict the likelihood of someone having a
heart attack. Diabetes is an illness caused by a faulty mechanism for regulating the concentration of
glucose in the blood. It can be controlled, but not cured.

Table 7.01

a Imagine that you are a doctor. A woman patient is 54 years old. She has diabetes and she smokes. What will you
tell her about her chance of having a heart attack within the next five years?

b What will you tell her she should do to reduce her chances of having a heart attack? How will you use the chart
to explain this to her?

c Suggest how the figures used in this chart have been determined.
 Chapter B7: Transport in mammals

Exercise B7.04 Changes in the blood system at high altitude

This exercise will give you further practice in describing patterns in bar charts. You will also use
what you know about the functions of the blood to suggest explanations for a set of data, and
to make predictions (A02).

The air is much thinner at high altitude, so less oxygen is drawn into the lungs with each breath. When a person
who normally lives at low altitude travels into high mountains, changes occur in their blood system.

The bar charts shows changes in the pulse rate and the number of red blood cells in a person who
moved to high altitude, stayed there for two years, and then returned to sea level.

I
Red blood cell
concentration
/millions per
mm3

I
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

a Describe the changes in the pulse rate over the period shown in the bar chart.

b Describe the changes in the number of red blood cells over the period shown in the bar chart.

c State the function of red blood cells.

I
d Suggest a reason for the change in the number of red blood cells during the first year of the study.

e Muscles need a good supply of oxygen in order to be able to work hard and fast. Athletes often train at
high altitude for several months before a major competition that will be held at a lower altitude.
Use the data in the bar chart to suggest how this might help them to perform well in the competition.
Chapter B8
Respiration and gas exchange
KEY TERMS

aerobic respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down nutrient molecules
to release energy
anaerobic respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules to release
energy, without using oxygen

Exercise B8.01 Effect of temperature on the rate of respiration

This is a planning exercise (A03.2). It has not been broken up into sections, because by now you
are probably getting the hang of planning good experiments and should be able to organise your
answer yourself. Your teacher may allow you to carry out your experiment once your design has
been checked.

Plan an investigation to test this hypothesis:

Germinating peas respire faster as temperature increases, up to an optimum.
Think carefully about controlling variables, what you will measure and when, and how you will record and interpret
your results. Predict what the results will be if the hypothesis is correct.
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

I
 Chapter B8: Respiration and gas exchange

Exercise B8.02 Effect of animals and plants on the

carbon dioxide concentration in water

This exercise will make you think about photosynthesis and respiration, as well as interpreting
results and making predictions (A02).

A student had a fish tank, in which she kept tropical fish. She knew it was meant to be a good idea to keep living
plants in the tankas well. She wanted to find out how the plants affected the concentration of carbon dioxide in
the water.

The diagram shows the apparatus that she set up. She used hydrogencarbonate indicator solution
because it is yellow when it contains a large amount of carbon dioxide, orange with a small amount
and red when it contains no carbon dioxide at all.

a b c D

The student left all four tubes in a sunny place for 30 minutes. When she looked at the tubes again, she found the
indicator had turned yellow in tube A, deep red in tube B, and stayed orange in tubes C and D.

a Draw a results chart and fill it in to show the student’s results.

Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

b Explain the results in each tube. (Remember that living organisms all respire all the time, and that plants also
photosynthesise in the light.)

Tube A ..............................................................................................................................................................

Tube B

TubeC

Tube D

c Predict the results that would be obtained if all the tubes were left in the dark.

d Discuss what these results and your predictions in c suggest about whether or not it is good to have living
plants in a fish tank.

Exercise B8.03 Gas exchange surfaces in rats

There is further practice in plotting line graphs here, as well as interpreting data and thinking
about their possible implications (A02). When making comparisons of data, try to link your
statements with words such as ‘however’, or ‘but’. As always, make sure that you quote some
actual figures in your comparisons. Better still, you could make a comparative calculation, such
as the total change in the ratios for males and for females, or the difference between males and
females at a particular age.

Rat lungs have a similar structure to human lungs. Researchers measured the surface area of the alveoli in the
lungs of female and male rats of different ages. They also measured the mass of each rat, and calculated the
number of square centimetres of alveolar surface area per gram of body mass.
 Chapter B8: Respiration and gas exchange

Their results are shown in Table 8.01.

Age/days Ratio of alveolar surface area to body mass / cm2 per gram
Females Males
21 21.6 23.1
33 15.4 15.2
45 12.9 12.1
60 13.4 10.9
95 13.4 9.4
Table 8.01

a Plot line graphs to display these data. Plot both curves on the same pair of axes. (Take care with the scale for
the x-axis.)
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

b Suggest why the researchers recorded the ratio of alveolar surface area to body mass, rather than just the
alveolar surface area.

c Compare the results for female and male rats.

d Female rats are able to become pregnant when they are about 60 days old. Their lungs then have to supply

1 oxygen for themselves, and also for their developing offspring.

Suggest how the data in Table 8.01 could relate to this fact.
Chapter B9
Co-ordination and homeostasis
KEY TERMS

hormone: a chemical substance, produced by a gland, carried by the blood, which alters the activity of
one or more specific target organs and is then destroyed by the liver
gravitropism: a response in which a plant grows towards or away from gravity
phototropism: a response in which a plant grows towards or away from the direction from which light
is coming
homeostasis: the maintenance of a constant internal environment

Exercise B9.01 Caffeine and reaction time

You should be getting quite confident at planning experiments by now, so there are no reminders
here about all the different things you need to include (A03.2). You’ll find it quite tricky to control
variables in this one. You may be able to try out your experiment when you’ve planned it.

Reaction time is the time between receiving a stimulus and responding to it.
Plan an experiment to test this hypothesis:

Consuming drinks containing caffeine decreases reaction time.

Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences
 Chapter B9: Co-ordination and homeostasis

Exercise B9.02 Accommodation in the eye

Doing this exercise - preferably without looking anything up - will be a good test of how well
you understand how the eye changes in order to focus on objects at different distances, which is
called accommodation. Use a ruler to draw the light rays on your diagram, and take great care to
show clearly where they change direction and where they are brought to a focus.

The diagram shows an eye focused on a distant object.

a Complete the diagram below to show the eye when it is focused on a nearby object. Add labels to match those
on the first diagram.

b Describe how the changes that you have shown are brought about. Use these words in your description:

ciliary muscles lens suspensory ligaments

Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

c Accommodation in the eye is a reflex action,

i Explain what is meant by a reflex action.

ii Suggest what could be the stimulus that brings about this reflex action.

d As people get older, their lenses become less able to change shape. Suggest how this may affect their vision.

Exercise B9.03 Auxin and tropism

For the line graphs in this exercise, you are asked to draw best-fit lines. Your lines should be
smooth, and should have roughly the same number of points above them as below them. Start
both lines exactly at 0,0, but they do not necessarily have to go exactly through the final point.

A plant growing in a pot was placed on its side, in conditions of uniform light. The diagram shows
the appearance of the plant after three days.

a This response is known as negative gravitropism. Explain what is meant by the term negative gravitropism.
 Chapter B9: Co-ordination and homeostasis

b A scientist measured the concentration of auxin in the upper and lower surfaces of the plant shoot. She also
measured the percentage increase in length of the upper and lower surface of the plant shoot over a period of
one hour.
Tables 9.01 and 9.02 show her results.

Time/ Percentage increase in length

minutes Upper surface Lower surface
10 0.9 1.1
20 1.1 2.2

Upper 30 1.6 3.8

Lower
surface surface 40 2.0 5.3
Concentration of 50 2.3 6.6
1.0 1.4
auxin / arbitrary units 60 2.8 7.6
Table 9.01 Table 9.02

i On the grid provided, draw line graphs to show the results in Table 9.02. Draw both lines on the same set of
axes. Draw best-fit lines for each set of results.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

ii Use the results in Tables 9.01 and 9.02 to explain what made the plant shoot grow upwards afterthe pot
was turned onto its side.

Exercise B9.04 Endotherms and ectotherms

In this exercise, you are asked to use your knowledge of temperature regulation in humans,
and some new data, to work out answers to questions (A02).

Humans are endotherms - we are able to regulate our body temperatures, keeping the core body temperature
roughly constant no matter what the temperature of our environment. Many animals, however, are ectotherms.
Their core temperature varies according to the temperature of their environment.

The graph shows the core temperatures of six animals in different environmental temperatures.

Core body temperature

 Chapter B9: Co-ordination and homeostasis

a Write the name of each animal in the correct column of Table 9.03.

Table 9.03

b Cyclodus lizards, gopher snakes and alligators need to eat much less food than cats, rabbits or bettongs.
Use the information in the graph above to explain why.

c Use the graph above to compare the probable activity of a cat and a cyclodus lizard when the environmental
temperature is 5 °C.

d Cats are predators. Rabbits are herbivores, preyed on by cats and other mammals. Explain the advantages to
cats and rabbits of being endothermic.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B9.05 Diabetes

This exercise is about interpreting data shown in a graph, and relating this to your knowledge of
the regulation of blood glucose (A02).

In some people, the control of blood glucose concentration does not work correctly.
In type I diabetes, the pancreas does not secrete insulin when it should.

a In what circumstances does the pancreas normally secrete insulin?

The graph shows the concentration of glucose in the blood of two people, after they had eaten a
meal containing starch at time 0. One person had type I diabetes, and the other did not.

Blood glucose concentration /

arbitrary units

t T im e/h o u rs
meal

b Explain why the concentration of glucose in the blood increases when a person has eaten a meal
containingstarch.
 Chapter B9: Co-ordination and homeostasis

c Suggest which person, A or B, has type I diabetes. Explain your answer fully.

d Explain why it is important to keep the concentration of glucose in the blood neither too high nor too low.

I
Chapter BIO
Reproduction in plants
KEY TERMS

asexual reproduction: a process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from
one parent
sexual reproduction: a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a
zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other
pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the plant (anther of stamen) to the
female part of the plant (stigma)

Exercise B10.01 Pollination in forests of different

shapes and sizes

This exercise presents the results of some research relating to deforestation. Although this is
not covered until Chapter 14, you probably know a little about it already and will be able to
make some sensible suggestions when answering questions (A02). You will also need to draw
conclusions (A03.4) and think about planning a further investigation (A03.2).

All over the world, forests are being cut down and destroyed. Small patches are often left behind, and research is
being carried out to see how the shape and size of these patches affects the animals and plants that live in them.
One piece of research looked at the pollination of holly flowers by butterflies in three different areas of forest.
The areas were:

A: a set of patches of forest all connected to each other by long, narrow tree-covered areas (‘corridors’)
B: a set of patches of forest the same size as those in A, but not connected
C; a set of smaller patches of forest, not connected.

The butterflies that pollinated the holly flowers were known to spend most of their time at the edges of forests,
rarely penetrating into deep forest for very long.
The researchers inspected samples of holly flowers in each forest area, and counted the numbers of ovaries that
were turning into fruits. They then calculated the mean number of fruits per flower in each area. The barchart
shows their results.

Area A Area B Area C

 Chapter BIO: Reproduction in plants

a Describe the results shown in the bar chart.

b Using the information in the introduction to this exercise, suggest explanations for the results obtained.

c It is likely that your suggested reasons are not actually proved by these results. Suggest how the researchers
could modify their original experiment to test one of your suggestions more fully and reliably.

d It could be argued that this research suggests it is better to leave small patches of forest rather than large ones.
However, most conservationists would say that this is not correct. With reference to this research, and using
your own thoughts about the importance of forests, discuss these two points of view.
Chapter B i l
Reproduction in humans
Exercise B11.01 Gametes

Answer this question without looking anything up - you should be able to do it from memory.
Remember to draw label lines with a ruler, and make sure that the end of the line touches the
part of the cell that you are labelling. The labels should be written horizontally and should not
overlap the diagram.

The diagrams show human female and male gametes.

a Use black or dark blue to label all the structures on each gamete that you would find in any animal cell.

b Use red or another contrasting colour to label alt the structures on each gamete that are adaptations for their
specialised functions. Explain how each feature that you label helps the cell to perform its function.
Chapter B ll: Reproduction in humans
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B11.02 Gas exchange in the placenta and lungs

This exercise asks you to use data to make a comparison between two very different body
organs - the placenta and the lungs - which have some functions in common (A02). It would be a
good idea to plan your answers to parts bii and c before you begin to write.

The placenta is an organ that allows a mother’s blood and her fetus’s blood to be brought very close together,
without mixing. Substances are exchanged by diffusion between the two blood systems.
The lungs also contain surfaces where substances are exchanged by diffusion. (This is not the case in the fetus,
whose lungs do not function until after it is born.)
Table 11.01 shows some features of the placenta and the lungs in a human.

Feature Placenta Lungs

Total surface area / m2 16 55
Thickness of the barrier across which substances must diffuse / pm 3.5 0.5
Approximate rate of blood flow / cm3 per minute 500 5000

Table 11.01

a Explain how the structure of the lungs provides the large surface area shown in the table.

b Oxygen moves by diffusion across the exchange surface in both the placenta and the lungs,

i State precisely where oxygen moves to and from in the lungs.

ii Explain fully why the net movement of oxygen is in this direction.

 Chapter B ll: Reproduction in humans

c Use the data in the table, and your knowledge of the features of gas exchange surfaces, to explain why
more oxygen can be absorbed per minute across the lungs than across the placenta.

I
Chapter B12
Inheritance
KEY TERMS

inheritance: the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation

chromosome: a thread-like structure of DNA, carrying genetic information in the form of genes
gene: a length of DNA that codes fora protein
allele: any one of two or more alternative forms of a gene
haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes, e.g. in gametes
diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes, e.g. in body cells
mitosis: nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells
meiosis: reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid,
resulting in genetically different cells
genotype: genetic make-up of an organism in terms of the alleles present
phenotype: the observable features of an organism
homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular gene. Two identical homozygous individuals
that breed together will be pure-breeding
heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular gene, not pure-breeding
dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present
recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present

Exercise B12.01 Fruit fly inheritance

In this exercise, you will practise using a genetic diagram to predict the results of crosses
between organisms.

Fruit flies, Drosophila melanogaster, are often used for research into genetics.
The diagram shows a fruit fly.

Fruit flies can have normal wings or vestigial (really small) wings. The allele for normal wings, N, is dominant.
The allele for vestigial wings, n, is recessive.

a Complete Table 12.01 to show the possible genotypes and phenotypes for fruit fly wings.

Genotype Phenotype

I 'V ' 1.' 'M

1 ■ ■ ■
Table 12.01
 Chapter B12: Inheritance

b Complete the genetic diagram to predict the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring of a heterozygous
normal-winged fly and a vestigial-winged fly.

phenotypes of parents normal wings vestigial wings

genotypes of parents

gametes from
vestigia I-winged fly

gametes from
normal-winged fly

c The two flies had 82 offspring.

Predict approximately how many of these would have vestigial wings.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B12.02 Black and chestnut horses

This exercise is all about being able to use genetic terms correctly, and drawing correct genetic
diagrams (AOl and A02). Remember that, when you show the gametes that can be produced by
each parent, you only need to show two if there are two different types of gametes produced.
If only one type of gamete is possible, then you need only show that one.

In horses, the colour of the coat is determined by genes. One gene determines whether or not the black pigment,
melanin, is produced. Horses with the genotype EE or Ee are black, while horses with the genotype ee are chestnut
(brown).

a Write down:

i the symbol for the allele that allows melanin to be produced

ii the genotype of a heterozygous horse

iii the phenotype of a horse that is homozygous recessive.

b A black stallion was mated with a chestnut mare. The foal that was born was chestnut,

i What was the genotype of the black stallion? Explain how you worked this out.

ii Construct a genetic diagram, similar to the one in Exercise B12.01, to explain how the chestnut foal was
produced.
 Chapter B12: Inheritance

iii If the same stallion and mare are bred together again, what are the chances of the second foal being
chestnut? Explain your answer.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B12.03 Pedigree

This exercise asks you to work out genotypes, given some information about phenotypes in
a family (A02). You will also use your knowledge of genetics to think about the advice that a
counsellor might give to a member of this family.

The family tree shows the incidence of a genetic disease called PKU in four generations of a family.

Key
p 3 male f
phenylketonuria
(PKU)

‘6 - p
2 ___ ___
c p 1- 1 6 ( normal

- p O p yO
± X ± ^ X
i □ 5
i
a Describe one piece of evidence from the diagram that suggests PKU is caused by a recessive allele.

b If PKU is caused by a recessive allele, explain why it is unlikely that mutation in person 4 was responsible for
their disease.
 Chapter B12: Inheritance

c Deduce the genotypes of persons 1,2,3 and 4. Use the symbol q for the PKU allele and the symbol Q for the
normal allele.

I
d Person 5 is worried that her children might have PKU. She talks to a genetic counsellor. What might she be told?
Chapter B13
Variation and inheritance

mutation: a change in a gene or chromosome

adaptation: the process, resultingfrom natural selection, by which populations become more suited
to their environment over many generations
variation: differences between individuals of the same species

Exercise B13.01 Water hyacinth experiment

There is a tough magnification calculation in this exercise, using a unit you may not be familiar
with. Don’t worry - you are not supposed to know this unit - the task is about being able to use
your understanding of magnification and the information given to work out the answer to a
problem (A02). (It’s not easy, though!) The exercise will also help you to look carefully at data
and make comparisons (also A02), and to think about adaptations of plants that grow in water.

Water hyacinths are aquatic plants that originally came from Brazil but now grow in waterways in many tropical
countries. They are sometimes used to help to clean up polluted water, as they are able to take up pollutants such
as heavy metals.
An experiment carried out in China investigated differences in the structure of the leaf epidermis of water hyacinth
plants grown in clean water and in polluted water.
The diagram and Table 13.01 show some of their results.

upper epidermis of a waj

grown in polluted water
 Chapter B13: Variation and inheritance

Type of water Upper or lower Mean width of Mean length of Mean number of
epidermis stomatal pore / pm guard cell / pm stomata per mm2
clean upper 4 7 2.83
lower 4 7 3.32
polluted upper 3 5 2.80
lower 3 5 2.83
Table 13.01

a From the data in the table, what is the mean length of a guard cell in the upper epidermis of a water hyacinth
leaf grown in polluted water?

b Measure the length, in mm, of a guard cell in the diagram of the epidermis of a water hyacinth leaf.

.............................................................................. mm

Now convert your answer in mm to an answer in pm. 1 mm = 1000 pm

............................................................................... pm.

Now use your answerto a, and your answerto b in pm above, to calculate the magnification of the diagram.
Write down the formula that you use, and show your working.

c Explain how the results in the table for water hyacinth leaves grown in clean water indicate that this plant is
adapted for growing in water.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

d Compare the characteristics of the leaf epidermis of the plants growing in clean water with plants growing in
polluted water.

Exercise B13.02 Big-horn sheep

In this exercise, you will use your understanding of natural selection to try to work out what has
caused a change in the characteristics of big-horn sheep (A02).

Big-horn sheep live on rocky mountain sides in Canada. The males have very large horns.
The size of their horns is caused by their genes.

a i Name the part of a cell that contains the genes.

ii In which cells in the big-horn sheep’s body will the gene for horn size be present?
 Chapter B13: Variation and inheritance

b Hunters kill big-horn sheep and keep their horns as trophies. They kill the sheep with the largest horns.
The graph shows how the average size of the horns in a population of big-horn sheep changed between
1970 and 2005.

70 -

60 -

Mean horn length/cm 50

40

30 -
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year

Explain how hunting of big-horn sheep could have caused the general trend shown in the graph.

c In summer it may be very hot in the mountains, but in winter it is very cold.

i Explain how the big-horn sheep’s sweat glands can help to keep them cool in summer.

ii Explain how vasoconstriction can help to keep the sheep warm in winter.

[Cambridge IG CSE Co-ordinated Sciences 0654 Paper 3 Q 4 b , c & d Ju n e 2006]

Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B13.03 Goats on an island

This is another exercise that tests your understanding of several different parts of the syllabus,
and asks you to use your knowledge and understanding to suggest explanations and make
predictions (A02). It’s not actually a true story, but it could be!

In the nineteenth century, a ship travelling across the southern Pacific Ocean stopped at an island to collect
fresh water. The sailors left one male goat, P, and two female goats, Q and R, on the island, hoping that they
would breed and so provide food if the ship stopped there again.

a Goats P, Q and R all had short hair. They were all homozygous for allele A. However, a mutation happened in
the testes of goat P, so that some of its sperm contained a new allele, a. Allele was recessive, and coded for
longhair.

i What is meant by the term ‘mutation’?

ii Explain why none of the offspring of goats P, Q and R had longhair.

iii In the following year, some of the offspring from the three original goats bred with each other and with
their parents. Some of their offspring did have longhair.
Assuming that no new mutations appeared, explain how this happened. (You may use a genetic diagram
if it makes your answer clearer.)
 Chapter B13: Variation and inheritance

b The winters on the island were very cold. The goats needed to eat more food in winter to keep themselves
warm. The long-haired goats did not need as much food as the short-haired goats.

i Suggest why the long-haired goats did not need as much food as the short-haired goats during the winter.

ii Twenty years after the goats were first introduced to the island, almost all of the goat population had
tong hair. Explain how this would have happened.

Adapted from [Cam bridge IGCSE Co-ordinated Sciences 0654 Paper 3 Q 6 b & c November 2003]
s:
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B13.04 Selective breeding for high milk yield

This exercise contains some real data about the effects of artificial selection to try to develop
herds of cows that produce more milk than usual. You will need to use your knowledge of
selection pressures and their effects to make sense of the data and suggest explanations for the
results (A02). For the last part of the question, you’ll need to think back to work you covered
much earlier in your course.

Dairy cattle are kept to produce milk. The milk is produced and stored in the cow's udder. In 1965, a long
experiment was begun to find out if artificial selection could increase the milk yield of cows. In one set of cows,
artificial selection for high milk yield was carried out in each generation. These were called the selected line.
In the other set, there was no artificial selection. These were called the control line.
Both sets of cows were kept under the same conditions. The mean milk yield from the cows that were born in each
year from 1965 to 1990 was calculated. The results are shown in the graph.

Mean milk yield per cow

/kg

a Calculate the change in mean milk yield per cow between 1965 and 1990 for

i the selected line,

ii the control line.

 Chapter B13: Variation and inheritance

b Describe how artificial selection would have been carried out in the selected line.

c Suggest a reason for the results for the control line.

d The researchers also looked at the costs of health treatment in each of the two breeding lines.
Table 13.02 shows some of the results.

Health problem Cost of treatment in Cost of treatment in

selected line / $ control line / $
mastitis (inflammation of the udder) 43 16
lameness
Table 13.02
10 6
I
i Suggest an explanation for the results shown in the table.

ii State and explain one reason, other than health treatment costs, why it would be more expensive to keep
the cows from the selected line than the cows from the control line.

[Cam bridge IG CSE Co-ordinated Sciences 0654 Paper 3 Q3 N ovem ber2007]

Chapter B14
Organisms and their environment
KEY TERMS

food chain: a diagram showing the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, beginning with
a producer
food web: a network of interconnected food chains
producer: an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using energy from sunlight,
through photosynthesis
consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms
herbivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating plants
carnivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals
decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic matter
trophic level: the position of an organism in a food chain, food web or pyramid of numbers, biomass
or energy
ecosystem: a unit containing all of the organisms and their environment, interacting together, in a
given area, e.g. a lake

Exercise B14.01 Energy transfer in a food chain

This exercise involves a percentage calculation - remember to show your working clearly.
You’ll also need to think about how to explain quite difficult ideas clearly.

The diagram shows the quantity of energy contained within four trophic levels of a food chain.

a What is meant by the term ‘trophic level’?

b Underneath each box in the diagram above, write the correct term for the organisms in that trophic level.

c i Calculate the percentage of energy in the first trophic level that is transferred to the fourth trophic level.
Show your working.
 Chapter B14: Organisms and their environment

ii Describe where all the rest of the energy goes.

d Use the information in the diagram to explain:

i why the populations of predators are normally smaller than the populations of their prey

ii why food chains rarely have more than four or five links.

8i

Exercise B14.02 Eutrophication

You’ll need to use your understanding of the effects of pollution by fertilisers on aquatic
organisms to answer these questions (A02). Some of the questions also require you to remember
some facts covered much earlier in your biology course.

A farmer sprayed fertilisers containing ammonium nitrate onto a field in which young wheat
seedlings were growing.

a Explain why farmers often add nitrogen-containing fertilisers to the soil where crops are growing.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

b Some of the fertiliser was washed into a river which ran alongside the wheat field.
The graph shows how this affected the numbers of bacteria, algae and fish in the river, downstream from the
wheat field. It also shows how it affected the oxygen concentration.

Increasing quantities

point at which fertiliser flowed

into the river

i Explain the shape of the curve for the numbers of algae.

ii With reference to the curves for bacteria and oxygen in the graph, explain the shape of the curve for fish.

[Cam bridge IG CSE Co-ordinated Sciences 0654 Paper 3 Q 7 a & c Ju n e 2003]

 Chapter B14: Organisms and their environment

Exercise B14.03 introduced species in New Zealand

This exercise is about one of the ways in which humans can cause harm to the environment.
You are asked to look carefully at a set of data, and then to use this and your own knowledge to
make predictions (A02).

New Zealand has been separated from the other land masses on Earth for millions of years. Fossils show that
very few land-living mammals ever evolved there, but birds and bats were able to colonise. Until humans arrived,
there were no predatory animals, and the native birds had not evolved adaptations that would help them to
avoid predation.

Humans probably first arrived in New Zealand about 1500 years ago. Unintentionally, they brought rats with them,
and since then have introduced other mammals. This has affected the native species.

a Suggest why birds, and bats but not other mammals, were able to colonise New Zealand.

b Use the theory of natural selection to suggest why many New Zealand birds are not able to fly. (This is quite a
tricky question. You will need to think about selection pressures, and the costs to a bird of being able to fly.)
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

c Introduced animals can also harm populations of native plants. Nikau palms are found only in New Zealand
and its surrounding islands, such as Great Barrier Island. Researchers counted the numbers of Nikau palm
seedlings in areas where rats have been trapped and removed, and areas where no trapping was done.
The results are shown in the bar chart.

trapped area

untrapped area

Area A Area B Area C

d Use the data in the bar chart to suggest how removing rats could affect the population of Nikau palms on
Great Barrier Island.
Answers
Exercises include questions from past Cambridge exam papers and other questions written by the authors.
Answers to all questions, including past paper questions, have been written by the authors.

Chapter B1 Cells c Answer provided when we know the final size of the image

d Answer provided when we know the final size of the image

Exercise B1.01 Observing and drawing
organisms Exercise B l.03 Drawing cells and
a, b, c Use the self-assessment checklist to assess the
calculating magnification
drawing and labelling.

d Check the measurements and calculation against the

student’s drawing.

e Look for clear, comparable points opposite each other.

Exercise B1.02 Animal and plant cells

a cell membrane

Use the self-assessment checklist to assess the drawing and

labelling.

b i Answer provided when we know the final size of the

image

ii Answer provided when we know the final size of the

image

Exercise B1.04 Organelles

a nucleus

b cell wall

c cytoplasm

d cell membrane

e chloroplasts

f vacuole
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Chapter B2 Movement in and out of cells

Exercise B2.01 Diffusion experiment

a See Table A2.01

Dish Temperature / °C Distance red colour diffused into jelly / mm

Hole 1 Hole 2 Hole 3 Hole 4 Mean (average)
A 10 2 3 2 3 3
B 20 5 5 6 4 5
C 40 9 11 8 10 10
D 80 19 21 18 23 20
Table A2.01

b Yes. As temperature increased, the distance the red colour permeable membrane. (Some students may answer
diffused through the jelly increased. As the dishes were all in terms of water potential. The water potential of the
left for the same period of time, this must mean the colour solution outside the cell is higher than that inside,
was moving fasterin the warmer dishes. Adoublingofthe so water moves down its water potential gradient.)
temperature caused the distance diffused by the colour to
roughly double. d This provides a large surface area, so more water can pass
across the surface at any one time.
c The four most important variables to be controlled are:
concentration of the solution of red pigment; size of hole
in the jelly; depth of jelly in the dish; volume of solution Exercise B2.03 Osmosis and potatoes
placed in the hole.
a The table should have rows or columns for the percentage
d This allowed for a mean to be calculated. It improves the concentration of the solution, and rows or columns for
reliability of the results. the mass of potato pieces, with the unit g in the heading.
Students should also calculate the change in mass.
e Measurement of the distance diffused, because the ‘edge’ The following is an example of a suitable results table
between the colour and the uncoloured jelly wilt not be (see Table A2.02).
very distinct. Some dye may have got into thejelly before
the dishes are transferred to their final temperatures Percentage Mass / g
(especially as they were carried). Time taken for the dye concentration Before After Change
and jelly in each dish to reach their final temperature - of solution soaking soaking
the dye won’t have been at the correct temperature for
0.0 5.2 5.5 +0.3
the entire duration of the experiment.
0.1 5.1 5.2 +0.1
0.2 4.9 4.9 0
Exercise B2.02 How plants take up water
0.5 5.0 5.3 +0.3
a cell wall, large vacuole 0.8 5.1 5.0 -0.1

b Label line to the cell surface membrane, or to the 1.0 5.2 5.0 -0.2
membrane around the vacuole.
Table A2.02
c Water molecules move randomly. There is a greater
b The mass of the potato piece soaking in 0.5% solution
concentration of them outside the cell than inside,
has increased, but it would be expected to decrease.
so more will (by chance) move into the cell than out of it,
This does not follow the pattern of the other results and so
through the partially permeable cell surface membrane.
is anomalous.
The solutes in the cell cannot get out through the partially
 Answers

c L o o k fo r th e fo llo w in g fe a tu re s o n th e g ra ph : S tu d e n ts m ig h t d e c id e to h a ve tw o s e p a ra te c o lu m n s fo r th e
• P e rc e n ta g e c o n c e n tra tio n o f s o lu tio n ’ o n th e x -a x is , c o n c lu s io n s, o n e fo r s ta rc h and o n e fo r re d u c in g sugar, w h ic h
a n d ‘C h a n g e in m ass / g ’ o n th e y -a x is w o u ld be fine.

• s u ita b le scales
b See T a b le A3.02
• all p o in ts p lo tte d c o rre c tly (a llo w 0.5 m m to le ra n c e ) as
c ro s s e s o r as e n circ le d d o ts Type of Example Role in living
• e ith e r a b e st-fit tine, d ra w n as a s m o o th c u rv e w ith carbohydrate organisms
e q ua l n u m b e rs o f p o in ts a b o v e a n d b e lo w th e line,
sugar g lu c o s e p ro v id e s e n e rg y ;
o r p o in ts jo in e d w ith s tra ig h t lines d ra w n w ith a ruler;
re le a s e d b y re s p ira tio n ;
th e a n o m a lo u s re su lt s h o u ld be ig no re d .
a ls o t h e fo rm in
d T h e 0 and 0.1% s o lu tio n s had a h ig h e r w a te r p o te n tia l th a n w h ic h c a rb o h y d ra te s
in sid e th e p o ta to cells, so w a te r m o v e d in b y o sm o sis and a re t ra n s p o rte d in
m a d e th e cells in cre a se in m ass. T h e 0.2% s o lu tio n had a m a m m a lia n b lo o d
w a te r p o te n tia l e q ua l to th a t o f th e p o ta to cells, so th e re s u c ro s e t h e fo rm in w h ic h
w a s n o n e t m o v e m e n t o f w a te r into o r o u t o f th e cells
c a rb o h y d ra te s a re
(th e s a m e a m o u n t w e n t in as c a m e o u t) s o th e re w a s no
t ra n s p o rte d in p la n ts
c h a n g e in m ass. T h e s o lu tio n s w ith h ig h e r c o n c e n tra tio n s
th a n th is had w a te r p o te n tia ls lo w e r th a n th a t o f th e p o ta to p o ly s a c c h a rid e s ta rc h t h e fo rm in w h ic h
cells, so w a te r m o v e d o u t o f th e cells b y o sm o sis and th e ir p la n ts s to re e n e rg y
m ass th e re fo re d e cre a se d . g ly c o g e n t h e fo rm in w h ic h
a n im a ls s to re e n e rg y
e H a ve s e v e ra l p iece s o f p o ta to in each s o lu tio n , and
c a lc u la te a m ea n c h a n g e in m ass fo r each. Table A3.02

f Yes, th is w o u ld h a ve b e en b e tte r b e ca u se th e o rigin a l

m a sse s o f th e p o ta to p iece s w e re n o t id en tica l. Exercise B3.02 Testing a hypothesis
C a lc u la tin g p e rc e n ta g e c h a n g e w o u ld g ive a fa ire r
c o m p a ris o n b e tw e e n th e p iece s - it w o u ld a vo id a A d d d ilu te s o d iu m h yd ro x id e (o r p o ta s s iu m h yd ro xid e ) and
v e r y d ilu te c o p p e r su lfa te s o lu tio n to th e m ilk. A p u rp le
d isc re p a n c ie s c a u s e d b y th is u n c o n tro lle d va ria b le.
c o lo u r in d ica te s th e p re s e n c e o f p ro te in . (A lte rn a tive ly,
b iu re t re a g e n t cou ld be ad d ed .)

b i T h e v a ria b le to be c h a n g e d is th e ty p e o f m i l k - c o w ’s
Chapter B3 Biological molecules m ilk and g o a t’s m ilk.
ii T h e m o s t im p o rta n t va ria b le s to be c o n tro lle d are: th e
Exercise B3.01 Carbohydrates v o lu m e o f m ilk, th e age o f th e m ilk, th e te m p e ra tu re
o f th e m ilk, th e v o lu m e and c o n c e n tra tio n o f re a ge n ts
a L o o k fo r a sin g le ru le d ta b le (see T a b le A3.01) w ith a d d e d to it, th e tim e left b e fo re th e in te n s ity o f th e
fu lly h e a d e d ro w s and c o lu m n s. c o lo u r is a ssessed.
iii T h e q u a n tity to b e m e a s u re d is th e in te n s ity o f th e
Food Result of Result of Conclusion c o lo u r p ro d u c e d a fte r th e b iu re t te s t has b e en c a rrie d
test with test with o u t o n th e m ilk.
iodine Benedict’s iv T h is co u ld be m e a s u re d b y c o m p a rin g th e c o lo u rs
A b ro w n o ra n g e -re d c o n ta in s visually.
r e d u c in g s u g a r v If th e h yp o th e s is is c o rre c t, th e p u rp le c o lo u r fo rm e d in
b u t n o t s ta rc h th e c o w ’s m ilk w ill b e m o re in ten se th a n th e c o lo u r in
th e g o a t’s m ilk.
B b la c k b lu e c o n ta in s s ta rc h
b u t n o t re d u c in g
sugar

Table A3.01
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B3.03 Writing enzyme questions 40 °C - say, 35 °C, 45 °C, 50 °C and so o n. O n c e th e s e re su lts
h a ve b een fo u n d , th e te m p e ra tu re ra n g e can be n a rro w e d
d o w n e ve n m o re to keep m o v in g in c lo s e r and c lo s e r to th e
L o o k fo r q u e s tio n s th a t are v e r y clear, b io lo g ic a lly c o rre c t and
o p tim u m te m p e ra tu re .
th a t h a ve u n a m b ig u o u s a n sw e rs.

j Ta k e e q ua l v o lu m e s o f c o w ’s a n d g o a t’s m ilk. A d d eq ua l
Exercise B3.04 Lipase experiment v o lu m e s o f lipase to b o th sam p le s. K eep th e tu b e s a t 40 °C
fo r five m inu tes.
a fa ts (lipids) M easure th e pH e v e ry tw o m inu tes.

b fa tty a cid s and g lyc e ro l R e p ea t th e e x p e rim e n t th re e tim e s , and ca lcu la te th e

m ea n pH fo r cow 's m ilk and m ea n pH fo r g o a t’s m ilk at
c F a tty a cid s a re p ro d u c e d , w h ic h are acids and th e re fo re e a ch tim e in te rva l.
h a ve pH b e lo w !
T h e m ilk in w h ic h th e pH d ro p s fa s te r is th e o n e th a t
c o n ta in e d m o s t fat.
d S ee T a b le A3.03

Tube 1 2 3 4 5 Exercise B3.05 Finding the optimum pH

Temp / °C 20 20 0 40 100 for amylase
Milk added? no ye s yes yes yes
a pH
pH at: 0 m in 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
2 m in 7.0 6.8 7.0 6.7 7.0 b 1 to 14 (a n a rro w e r ra n ge w o u ld be a cc e p ta b le )
4 m in 7.0 6.7 7.0 6.5 7.0
c U sing b u ffe r so lu tio n s. T u b e s c o u ld b e s e t up u sin g b u ffers
6 m in 7.0 6.6 7.0 6.3 7.0
fo r pH 1,2 and s o o n .
8 m in 7.0 6.6 6.9 6.2 7.0
10 m in 7.0 6.5 6.9 6.2 7.0 d T h e v o lu m e and c o n c e n tra tio n o f s ta rc h s o lu tio n used
s h o u ld be k e p t c o n s ta n t. D o th is b y m a k in g up o n e lot
Table A3.03 o f sta rc h s o lu tio n , k e e p in g it w e ll m ixe d , and m e a s u rin g
v o lu m e s u sin g a s yrin g e o r o th e r c a lib ra te d in stru m e n t.
e T h e re w a s n o m ilk, so no fat, so no fa tty acids w e re m ade. T h e v o lu m e a n d c o n c e n tra tio n o f a m yla se s o lu tio n s h o u ld
a lso be k e p t c o n s ta n t - d o th is as fo r th e s ta rc h so lu tio n .
f T h e high te m p e ra tu re d e n a tu re d th e lipase m o le c u le s , T h e te m p e ra tu re s o f all s o lu tio n s to o n e ed to be kep t
so th e re w a s n o d ig e s tio n o f fa ts and n o fa tty acids w e re c o n s ta n t - use w a te r baths.
m ade.
e T h e tim e ta ke n fo r th e s ta rc h to d is a p p e a r s h o u ld be
g T h e s e tu b e s differed o n ly in th e ir te m p e ra tu re . Lipase m ea su red . Ta k e s a m p le s fro m th e m ixtu re s o f a m yla se and
acts m o re ra p id ly at 20 °C th a n at 0 °C b e ca u se its s ta rc h at tim e d in te rv a ls (e.g. e v e ry m inu te ); place th e m o n
m o le c u le s (and th o se o f its sub stra te ) are m o v in g ro u n d a tile and ad d io d in e so lu tio n . R eco rd th e colour. T h e tim e
fa ste r and th e re fo re collision s b e tw e e n e n zy m e and a t w h ic h th e s a m p le d o e s n o t go b lack w ith io d in e s o lu tio n
s u b s tra te m o le c u le s h a p p e n m o re fre q u e n tly and w ith is th e tim e to re co rd .
m o re en ergy. T h is m ea n s th e rate o f rea ctio n is fa ste r at
20 °C th a n atO °C. f M easure e q ua l v o lu m e s o f s ta rc h s o lu tio n into six tu b e s.
A d d e q u a l v o lu m e s o f d iffe re n t b u ffe r s o lu tio n s, fo r pH 1,
h 40 °C is c e rta in ly th e te m p e ra tu re a t w h ic h th e e n zy m e 3 ,5 ,7 ,9 and 11, to e a ch tu b e. S tand th e tu b e s in a w a te r
w o rk e d fa ste s t in th is e x p e rim e n t, b u t th e o p tim u m could b a th a t a k n o w n te m p e ra tu re (e.g. 30 °C). M easure eq ua l
a c tu a lly be s o m e w h e re e ith e r sid e o f th is - e ith e r a bit vo lu m e s o f a m yla se s o lu tio n , and a dd th e m to th e s ta rc h
b e lo w o r a n y w h e re b e tw e e n 40 °C and 100 °C. m ixtu re s. U se a clean glass ro d to ta k e s a m p le s fro m each
tu b e (a d iffe re n t glass ro d fo r each, w ip e d clean b e tw e e n
i T h e e x p e rim e n t co u ld be re p e a te d , to o b ta in a n o th e r sa m p le s) a n d place th e m o n a tile. A d d io d in e s o lu tio n and
s e t o f re su lts, to see if th e s e m a tch e d th e first o nes. re co rd th e c o lo u r o b ta in e d .
A lte rn a tiv e ly (o r as w ell), th re e tu b e s co u ld be s e t up
fo r e a ch te m p e ra tu re , and a m e a n calcu late d . T o find
a m o re p re cise v a lu e o f th e o p tim u m te m p e ra tu re ,
m o re te m p e ra tu re s n eed to be te ste d o n e ith e r sid e o f
 Answers

g L o o k fo r c o lu m n s o r ro w s fo r th e pH and th e tim e ta k e n
fo r th e b ro w n c o lo u r to d isa p p ear. In th is case, th e va lu e s
Chapter B4 Plant nutrition
w ritte n in th e ta b le w o u ld b e tim e s in m inu te s.
S tu d e n ts m a y a lso like to s h o w th e c o lo u r e a ch tim e a Exercise B4.01 How a palisade cell
s a m p le w a s te ste d , in w h ic h case th e re su lts ta b le
obtains its requirements
s h o u ld a lso h a ve c o lu m n s o r ro w s w ith h e a d in g s fo r
th e tim e in te rva ls. T h e re su lts w ritte n in th e ta b le w o u ld • L ig h t e n e rg y: fro m su n lig h t, w h ic h p a sses th ro u g h
th e n b e co lo u rs . transparent epidermis cells to reach th e c h lo ro p h y ll in
th e c h lo ro p la s ts .
h T h e ske tch g ra p h sh o u ld h a ve an x-a xis lab elled ‘p H ’, and
• O x yg e n : b y diffusion into th e air spaces th e n o u t o f a
a y -a x is la b elle d T im e ta k e n fo r s ta rc h to d is a p p e a r/
stoma in to th e air.
m in u te s ’. T h e line sh o u ld b egin high at th e lo w e s t pH s,
d ro p d o w n to p H 7.5 and th e n rise again. • C a rb o n d io xid e: fro m th e air, b y diffusion th ro u g h a stoma
and th e n th e air spa ce s in th e s p o n g y m e s o p h yll.
• W ater: fro m th e soil, b y osmosis into th e root hair cells,
Exercise B3.06 How enzymes work th e n up th ro u g h th e stem in th e xylem ve sse ls, th e n b y
o sm o sis o u t o f th e x y le m and into th e p a lisa d e cell.
• C a rb o h y d ra te s : s to re d as starch in th e c h lo ro p la s t, o r
c h a n g e d to sucrose and tra n s p o rte d a w a y in th e phloem.

Exercise B4.02 Sun and shade leaves

a T h e s e q u e n c e o f labels ru n s fro m upper epidermis at th e
to p , th e n palisade mesophyll, th e n spongy mesophyll,
and fin a lly lower epidermis at th e b o tto m o f th e d ia gra m .

b G re e n s p o ts s h o u ld be p u t inside all th e cells e xc e p t th o s e

in th e u p p e r a n d lo w e r e p id e rm is; b u t g u a rd cells sh o u ld
a lso c o n ta in g re e n spots.

c S ee T a b le A4.01

Part of leaf Sun leaf Shade leaf

c u tic le re la tiv e ly th ic k r e la tiv e ly th in
p a lis a d e t w o la y e rs o n e la y e r
m e s o p h y ll
spongy m o re lo o s e ly q u ite t ig h t ly
c i E ach ty p e o f e n z y m e has an a c tiv e site o f a sp e cific
m e s o p h y ll p a c k e d ; la rg e r p a c k e d ; s m a ll
sha p e. It can o n ly bind w ith a s u b s tra te w h o s e s h a p e is
c o m p le m e n ta ry to this. c e lls a n d m o re c e lls a n d s m a ll a ir
a irs p a c e s spaces
ii T h e m o le c u le s o f th e e n z y m e and th e s u b s tra te m o v e
fa s te r at h ig h e r te m p e ra tu re s , so co llid e w ith each Table A4.01
o th e r m o re fre q u e n tly.
d T h e cu tic le help s to p re ve n t w a te r loss fro m th e leaf. T h e
iii A b o v e its o p tim u m te m p e ra tu re , an e n z y m e m o le c u le sun leaf w ill be h otter, so w o u ld te n d to lose m o re w a te r b y
lo se s its s h a p e (b e c o m e s d e n a tu re d ), so th e s u b s tra te e va p o ra tio n , so th e th ic k e r c u ticle help s to p re ve n t this. T h e
c a n n o t fit into its a ctive site. sh a d e leaf has a th in c u tic le so m o re o f th e lim ited a m o u n t
o f s u n lig h t can get th ro u g h it and reach th e p alisad e cells.

e T h e sun leaf is e xp o s e d to m u ch m o re s u n lig h t, so h a vin g

m o re p a lisa d e cells e n a b le s it to m ake m o re use o f this
light and p h o to s yn th e s is e m ore. T h e re can be tw o la ye rs o f
cells b e c a u se at least s o m e s u n lig h t w ill p e n e tra te th ro u g h
th e to p la ye r and reach th o s e u n d e rn e a th . T h e s h a d e leaf
has m u ch less light, so o n ly v e r y little w o u ld p ass th ro u g h
th e to p la ye r o f cells to reach a s e c o n d layer, so th e re is no
p o in t in h a vin g a s e c o n d la ye r o f p a lisa d e cells.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B4.03 Analysing data about • P a n cre a tic j u i c e ... in d u o d e n u m

rates of photosynthesis • Lip a se ... in d u o d e n u m

a Look for: ‘Percentage concentration of carbon dioxide’ on • Bile sa lts ... in d u o d e n u m

the x-axis, and ‘Rate of photosynthesis / arbitrary units’ • S o d iu m h y d ro g e n c a rb o n a te ... in d u o d e n u m
on they-axis; suitable scales; points plotted accurately, as
• S aliva ... in m o u th .
crosses or encircled dots; best-fit lines drawn (though you
could allow points joined with ruled lines); the two lines
labelled ‘low light intensity’ and ‘high light intensity’. Exercise B5.03 Tooth decay data analysis
b 0.04% a T h e in cid e n ce o f to o th d e c a y in cre a se s as s ta n d a rd o f
livin g d e cre a se s. W h e re th e s ta n d a rd o f livin g w a s high est,
c 53 arbitrary units five -y e a r-o ld s had a m ea n to o th d e c a y s c o re o f 1.0 (th a t is,
o n a ve ra g e e a ch child had o n e d e c a ye d to o th ), b u t w h e re
d 0.12% (Note that if students have drawn a best-fit line, their sta n d a rd o f livin g w a s lo w e s t th e y had a m ea n s c o re o f 4.0
line m ay flatten a little before or after this value; if so, take (on a ve ra g e , e a ch child had fo u r d e c a ye d teeth).
the reading from their graph.)
b P e rh a p s c h ild re n w h o h a ve a lo w s ta n d a rd o f livin g d o n o t
e light intensity h a ve as m u c h ca lciu m in th e ir diet. P e rh a p s th e y d o n o t
clean th e ir te e th o r use flu o rid e to o th p a s te . P e rh a p s th e y
f Carbon dioxide is often a limiting factor for photosynthesis,
ea t m o re s w e e ts o r d rin k m o re c a rb o n a te d d rin ks.
so adding more will make photosynthesis take place faster.
This enables the plant to make more carbohydrates and c T h is d e cre a se s th e n u m b e r o f d e c a ye d te e th . W e can see
grow faster, therefore producing higher yields. th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e re su lts fo r to w n A and to w n B,
w h e re flu o rid e w a s a d d e d to th e w ater. T h is ro u g h ly h a lved
g Around 0.08 to 0.10%. Above this, the increase in rate of
th e n u m b e r o f d e c a ye d te e th in five -y e a r-o ld s at a n y
photosynthesis is quite small (the graph is flattening off) so
p a rtic u la r s ta n d a rd o f living.
the extra yield is likely to be small.
d Perhaps th ere is m o re fluoride in th e naturally fluoridated
w a te r than w a s added to th e w a te r in to w n B. Perhaps the
fluoride in to w n B has o n ly been added recently, so th e children
C hapter B5 A n im a l n u tritio n
d id n ’t have fluorid e in th e w a te r w h e n th e y w e re younger.

Exercise B5.01 Diet

Exercise B5.04 Vitamin D absorption
a They alt come from plants.
a It ro se v e r y ra p id ly o v e r th e first 12 h o u rs, fro m 0 to ju s t
b Scrambled egg contains a large quantity of fat, which o v e r 140 a rb itra ry units. A fte r p e a k in g a t 12 h o u rs, it fell less
contains more energy per gram than any other nutrient. ra p idly, re a c h in g 60 a.u. at 8 h o u rs. It th e n c o n tin u e d to fall
b u t n o w v e r y s lo w ly, re a c h in g 56 a.u. a t 72 ho urs.
c Spinach, because the total massofthe listed nutrients in
100 g of food is least, and therefore the remaining mass, b sm all in te s tin e / ile u m
which is mostly water, is greatest.
c g lu co se , a m in o acids, fa tty acids, g lyc e ro l, w a te r, a n y o th e r
d Egg and spinach, as these have the highest concentrations vita m in , a n y m in e ra l (e.g. calciu m )
of iron. Iron is needed to make haemoglobin. Anaemia is
d It is long, so fo o d is in c o n ta c t w ith its w alls fo r a lo n g tim e . It is
caused by a lack of haemoglobin.
covered w ith villi, w h ich increase its surfa ce area. It is folded,
w h ich also increases surfa ce area. T h e w a lls o f th e villi are
Exercise B5.02 Functions of the digestive thin, and th e re is a good blood supply, so it is e asy fo r digested
n utrients to diffuse th ro u g h th e w alls and into th e blood.
system
e Its m o le c u le s a re a lre a d y sm all e n o u g h to be a b so rb e d .
• Pepsin ... in stomach
• Mastication ... in mouth f V ita m in D is m a d e in th e skin w h e n sun sh in e s o n to it.
If th is had h a p p e n e d , w e w o u ld n o t k n o w h o w m u c h o f th e
• Gastric juice... in stomach v ita m in D in th e b lo o d had c o m e fro m th is so u rc e , and
• Amylase... in mouth and in duodenum h o w m u ch fro m th e vita m in D th a t w a s ingested .
 Answers

Chapter B6 Transport in plants

Exercise B6.01 A transpiration experiment

a T h e re su lts c h a rt c o u ld to o k like T a b le A6.01:

Condition Still air Moving air

Time / min 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Distance / cm 0 2.8 6.1 10.0 12.9 16.2 21.8 27.9 31.1 39.5 44.9

Table A6.01

b L o o k fo r ‘T im e ’ o n th e x -a x is and ‘D ista n c e ’ o n th e y -a x is , Chapter B7 Transport in

b o th w ith u n its and s e n s ib le scales; p o in ts p lo tte d
a c c u ra te ly e ith e r as cro s s e s o r e n circ le d d o ts; ru led mammals
s tra ig h t b e st-fit lines d ra w n , w ith c h a n g e in g ra d ie n t sha rp
and c le a r at tim e 10 m in.
Exercise B7.01 Double and single
c Still air: m e n is cu s m o v e d 16.2 to 0 = 16.2 cm in 10 m inu te s. circulatory systems
So, m ea n ra te w a s 1.62 cm p e r m inute.

M o vin g air: m e n is c u s m o ve d 44.9 to 16.2 = 28.7 cm in

10 m inu te s. So, m ea n ra te w a s 2.87 c m p e r m inute.

d Yes. T h e m ea n ra te p e r m in u te o f m o v e m e n t o f th e
m e n is cu s is m u ch h ig h e r in m o v in g air th a n still air.
T h is m e a n s th a t th e s h o o t w a s ta k in g up w a te r fa ste r
in th e m o v in g air. T h e ra te at w h ic h it ta k e s up w a te r is
d e te rm in e d b y th e ra te a t w h ic h tra n s p ira tio n is ta k in g
p la ce w ith in th e leaves.

e It is like ly th a t th e te m p e ra tu re w a s n o t c o n tro lle d - it

c o u ld h a ve b e en w a rm e r o r c o ld e r in th e m o v in g air th a n
in th e still air. It is p o ssib le th a t light in te n s ity w a s n o t
c o n tro lle d . T h e s tu d e n t w a s a c tu a lly m e a s u rin g th e ra te at
w h ic h w a te r w a s ta ke n up, ra th e r th a n th e ra te at w h ic h it b h u m a n {acceptany m am m al o r bird)
w a s lo st - b u t w e can a ss u m e th a t th e y a re v e r y sim ila r to
e a ch o th er, if n o t id en tica l. c fish (accept any nam ed fish)

d In a d o u b le c irc u la to ry s ys te m , b lo o d is re tu rn e d to th e
h e a rt after it has b e c o m e o xy g e n a te d . T h e h e a rt th e n
p u m p s it at high p re ss u re to th e re st o f th e b o d y. In a single
c irc u la to ry s ys te m , th e b lo o d m o v e s d ire c tly fro m th e
o x y g e n a tin g o rg a n (gills, lungs) to th e re st o f th e b o d y, at a
re la tiv e ly lo w p re ssu re. A d o u b le s ys te m is th e re fo re a b le to
s u p p ly o x y g e n m o re q u ic k ly to re sp irin g b o d y cells, w h ic h
a llo w s m e ta b o lic ra te to be faster.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

Exercise B7.02 The heart in a fetus • re fe re n c e to th e fall d u rin g th e p e rio d a t high a ltitu d e
• re fe re n c e to th e initial fall and th e n rise w h e n re tu rn in g
a 0 in the left atrium. to lo w a ltitu d e
• s o m e c o m p a ris o n o f tim e sca le s - fo r e xa m p le , th e
b OF in the right atrium. s lo w fall in p u lse rate o v e r th e a lm o s t tw o ye a rs a t high
a ltitu d e , c o m p a re d w ith th e v e ry ra p id fall in ju s t
c It allows oxygenated blood to flow directly from the right tw o w e e k s a t lo w a ltitu d e
atrium to the left atrium. This oxygenated blood then
• re fe re n c e to th e s lig h tly lo w e r p u lse rate at lo w a ltitu d e
leaves the heart in the aorta, to deliver oxygen to respiring
afte r h a vin g b een at high a ltitu d e , c o m p a re d w ith
tissues all over the fetus’s body.
b e fo re tra ve llin g to high a ltitu d e
d This prevents oxygenated blood in the left atrium mixing • a t least tw o s e ts o f fig u re s q u o te d , s ta tin g b o th tim e
with deoxygenated blood in the right atrium. If they mixed, a n d th e v a lu e fo r p ulse rate, in c lu d in g units.
then there would be less oxygen in the blood in the aorta,
so body tissues would not get as much oxygen delivered to b L o o k fo r s o m e o r all o f th e fo llo w in g ideas:
them and would not be able to respire as fast. The tissues • th e c o rre c t d ata b e in g d e s c rib e d - th a t is, th e d a rk g re y
might run short of energy. b a rs
• re fe re n c e to th e o ve ra ll tre n d - th a t is, red b lo o d cell
c o n c e n tra tio n in cre a se s at high a ltitu d e b u t falls w ith
Exercise B7.03 Risk of heart attack tim e, th e n d e cre a se s again w h e n a t lo w a ltitu d e

a She has a 13% (13 in 100) chance of having a heart attack in • re fe re n c e to th e s lig h tly lo w e r c o n c e n tra tio n six w e e k s
the next five years. afte r h a vin g re tu rn e d to lo w a ltitu d e , c o m p a re d w ith
b e fo re tra v e llin g to high a ltitu d e
b She should stop smoking. This will reduce the risk from • at least tw o s e ts o f fig u re s q u o te d , s ta tin g b o th
13% to 7%. She cannot do anything about her diabetes. If tim e and th e va lu e fo r red b lo o d cell c o n c e n tra tio n ,
she carries on smoking as she gets older, the risk of heart in clu d in g units.
attack will rise to 22% when she reaches her 60s. If she
stops smoking, it will only be 12%. c O x y g e n tra n s p o rt.

c Health records have been kept for large numbers of d T h e re is less o x y g e n a va ila b le in th e air a t high a ltitu d e , so
women over long periods of time. The records have been less d iffu se s into th e b lo o d . T h e p e rs o n a d a p te d to this
grouped into women in a particular age group, and into b y p ro d u c in g m o re red b lo o d cells, to h e lp to in cre a se th e
smokers and non-smokers, people with diabetes and a m o u n t o f o x y g e n th a t co u ld be a b s o rb e d into th e b lo o d
people without. The percentage of people in each group and tra n s p o rte d to b o d y cells fo r re sp ira tio n .
having heart attacks has been worked out.
e A p e rs o n w h o has tra in e d at high a ltitu d e w ill h a ve a fa s te r
p u lse rate and m o re red b lo o d cells. T h is w ill in cre a se th e
Exercise B7.04 Changes in the blood rate at w h ic h o x y g e n can be s u p p lie d to m u scles, m a k in g it
system at high altitude p o ssib le fo r th e m to w o rk fa s te r b e ca u se th e y can resp ire
faster.
a Look for some or all of the following ideas:
• the correct data being described - that is, the lighter
grey bars
• reference to the overall trend - that is, pulse rate
increases at high altitude
Chapter B8 Respiration and gas c R e sp ira tio n w o u ld c o n tin u e , b u t p h o to s y n th e s is w o u ld not.
T h e in d ic a to r w o u ld th e re fo re go y e llo w in tu b e s A, B and C,
exchange and re m a in u n c h a n g e d in D.

d D u rin g th e d a y, a q u a tic p la n ts take in c a rb o n d io xid e

Exercise B8.01 Effect of temperature on (and g ive o u t o xyg e n ) w h ic h help s th e a n im a ls in th e tank.
the rate of respiration A t n igh t, th e p la n ts use o xy g e n and g ive o u t c a rb o n d io xid e,
so th is co u ld m ea n less o xy g e n fo r a n im a ls fo r re sp ira tio n ,
L o o k fo r th e fo llo w in g p o in ts b e in g m a d e s o m e w h e re in th e and a h ig h e r c o n c e n tra tio n o f c a rb o n d io xid e in th e
plan: w ater.
• te m p e ra tu re va rie d , o v e r a s ta te d ra n g e (say, 0 -5 0 °C)
• h o w th e te m p e ra tu re is va rie d (e.g. p la cin g in fridge, Exercise B8.03 Gas exchange surfaces
w a rm in cu b a to r, o r s ta n d in g in a w a te r bath)
in rats
• im p o rta n t v a ria b le s c o n tro lle d - ty p e and age o f seed s,
m ass o r n u m b e r o f s ee d s, le n g th o f tim e s e e d s are soa k e d a L o o k for:
b e fo re p la cin g in a flask o r o th e r c o n ta in e r, size and
• ‘A g e / d a y s ’ o n th e x -a x is
in su la tio n o f flask
• ‘R atio o f a lve o la r s u rfa c e to b o d y m ass / c m 2 p e r g ra m ’
• d e ta ils o f h o w th e d e p e n d e n t va ria b le (e.g. c a rb o n d io xid e
o n y -a x is
c o n c e n tra tio n ) w ill be m ea su red
• b o th a xe s w ith su ita b le scales w ith e q ua l in te rv a ls (n o t
• o u tlin e re su lts c h a rt.
th e in te rv a ls in th e first c o lu m n o f th e re su lts ch a rt)
• p o in ts a c c u ra te ly p lo tte d as n e at c ro s s e s o r e n circ le d
Exercise B8.02 Effect of animals d o ts
and plants on the carbon dioxide • tw o s e p a ra te lines d ra w n
concentration in water • a k e y o r la b ellin g to s h o w w h ic h line is fo r fe m a le s and
w h ic h fo rm a te s .
a T h e re su lts c h a rt co u ld lo o k like T a b le A8.01:
b T h e in d ivid u a l rats m a y h a ve d iffered in size, so c o m p a rin g
Tube A B c D th e a lve o la r s u rfa c e area fo r a sm all ra t w ith th a t o f a b ig rat
w o u ld in tro d u c e a n o th e r va ria b le . T h e im p o rta n t fe a tu re
Contents a n im a l p la n t a n im a l no
is th e ra tio b e tw e e n s u rfa c e area a n d m ass o r vo lu m e , as
o n ly o n ly and a n im a l o r
th is g ive s in fo rm a tio n a b o u t h o w e ffe c tiv e ly th e b o d y cells
p la n t p la n t (m ass) ca n be p ro vid e d w ith o x y g e n b y th e gas e xc h a n g e
Colour of o ra n g e o ra n g e o ra n g e o ra n g e surfa ce .
indicator
at start c A t 21 d a ys, m ales h a ve a h ig h e r ra tio o f s u rfa c e area to
b o d y m ass th a n fem a les; th e d iffe re n c e is 1.5 c m 2 p e r
Colour of y e llo w deep o ra n g e o ra n g e
g ra m . H o w e ve r, fro m 33 d a ys o n w a rd s , fe m a le s a lw a ys
indicator red h a ve a h ig h e r ra tio th a n m ales. T h e g re a te s t d iffe re n c e is at
at end 95 d a ys, w h e n fe m a le s h a ve a ra tio th a t is 4.0 c m 2 p e r g ra m
h ig h e r th a n m ales.
Table A8.01
S tu d e n ts m ig h t a lso w a n t to in clu d e a ro w s ta tin g th e d W h e n p re g n a n t, th e fe m a le ’s a lve o la r s u rfa c e has to
c o n c lu s io n s th a t can be m ade. s u p p ly th e g ro w in g e m b ry o , as w e ll h e r o w n cells,
w ith o xy g e n . S he th e re fo re n e e d s a la rg e r s u rfa c e area in
b In tu b e A, th e a n im a l re sp ire d , g ivin g o u t c a rb o n dio xid e. o rd e r to o b ta in th is e xtra o xy g e n . T h is c o u ld e xp la in w h y
th e fe m a le ra ts ’ ra tio o f a lv e o la r s u rfa c e area to b o d y m ass
In tu b e B, th e p la n t p h o to s yn th e s is e d (fa ste r th a n it
is h ig h e r th a n th e m a le s’ ra tio a t 60 d a ys (w h e n p re g n a n c y
re sp ire d ), ta k in g in c a rb o n dio xid e.
can first o cc u r) and 95 d ays. (H o w e ve r, it d o e s not
In tu b e C, th e c a rb o n d io xid e g ive n o u t b y th e re sp irin g e xp la in w h y th e ra tio is a c tu a lly at its h ig h e st at age
a n im a l w a s used b y th e p h o to s yn th e s is in g pla nt, so th e re 21 d a ys, and th e n falls to age 45 d ays. T h is p a tte rn is th e
w a s n o c h a n g e in th e c a rb o n d io xid e c o n c e n tra tio n in th e s a m e fo r b o th m ales and fe m a le s, so p e rh a p s th is is related
w a ter. to th e rate o f g ro w th o f th e ra ts at th o s e s ta g e s in th e ir
In tu b e D, n e ith e r p h o to s yn th e s is n o r re s p ira tio n to o k d e ve lo p m e n t.)
place.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

c i A fast, a u to m a tic re s p o n s e to a stim u lu s.

C hapter B9 C o -o rd in a tio n and
hom eostasis ii A b lu rre d im ag e o n th e retina.
d T h e y a re less ab le to fo c u s o n o b je c ts at d iffe re n t
d ista n ces. T h e y m a y b e able to see c le a rly at a p a rtic u la r
Exercise B9.01 Caffeine and d ista n ce, b u t vis io n w ill b e b lu rre d at o th e r d ista n ces.
reaction time

L o o k fo r th e s e p o in ts b e in g m a d e s o m e w h e re in th e plan: Exercise B9.03 Auxin and tropism

• c a ffe in e in ta ke va rie d (e.g. d rin k in g co ffe e o r cola and
d rin k in g w a te r); s o m e s tu d e n ts m a y w is h to u se a ra n g e o f a A re s p o n s e in w h ic h p a rt o f a p la n t g ro w s a w a y fro m th e
c a ffe in e c o n c e n tra tio n s d ire c tio n in w h ic h it is p u lled b y g ra vity.

• im p o rta n t va ria b le s c o n tro lle d : v o lu m e and c o n c e n tra tio n

b i L o o k for:
o f c a ffe in e in th e liquid d ru n k ; tim e b e tw e e n d rin k in g and
• ‘T im e / m in u te s ’ o n th e x -a x is
d o in g th e re a ctio n tim e test; tim e o f d ay; age and s e x o f
p e rso n ; w h a t th e p e rs o n has d o n e ju s t b e fo re th e te st • ‘P e rc e n ta g e in cre a se in le n g th ’ o n th e y -a x is
is c a rrie d o u t; h o w m a n y tim e s th e p e rs o n has d o n e a • su ita b le scales o n b o th axes
re a c tio n tim e te s t b e fo re (in p ra ctic e , it is im p o s sib le to • a c c u ra te ly p lo tte d p o in ts u sin g sm a ll cro s s e s o r
c o n tro l all o f th e s e va ria b les) e n circ le d d o ts, n e a t b e st-fit lines
• re a c tio n tim e m e a s u re d , u sin g a sta te d m e th o d • a k e y o r labels to id e n tify th e tw o lines.
(e.g. u sin g a te st o n th e In te rn e t, o r c a tc h in g a
d ro p p e d ruler) ii T h e re w a s m o re a u xin o n th e lo w e r s u rfa c e th a n o n th e
• re p e a ts d o n e (p ro b a b ly u sin g d iffe re n t p e o p le , as a n y o n e u p p e r su rfa c e . T h is m a d e th e cells o n th e lo w e r s u rfa c e
p e rs o n w ill im p ro v e as th e y d o m o re te sts , up to a lim it) g e t lo n g e r th a n th o s e o n th e u p p e r su rfa c e , so th e
s h o o t c u rv e d u p w a rd s.
• o u tlin e re su lts c h a rt d ra w n , and ske tch g ra p h s h o w in g
p re d ic te d re su lts if th e h yp o th e s is is c o rre c t.
Exercise B9.04 Endotherms and
ectotherms
Exercise B9.02 Accommodation in
the eye a E n d o th e rm ic anim als: cat, ra b b it, b u rro w in g b e tto n g

a the fat lens bends

E c to th e rm ic anim als: alligator, g o p h e r snake,
the light a lot c y c lo d u s lizard

b T h e cat, ra b b it and b u rro w in g b e tto n g use re sp ira tio n

to p ro v id e h e a t to keep th e ir b o d ie s w a rm w h e n th e
e n v iro n m e n ta l te m p e ra tu re is b e lo w 37 °C. T h is re q u ire s
fuel, w h ic h is in th e fo rm o f c a rb o h y d ra te s , fa ts o r p ro tein s.
T h e o th e r th re e a n im a ls d o n ’t use fo o d to p ro d u c e heat
e n e rg y, so th e y n eed m u c h less.

c A t 5 °C, th e c a t has a c o re b o d y te m p e ra tu re o f a b o u t 38 °C,

so its m e ta b o lic re a c tio n s w ill b e ta k in g place q u ick ly, and
it w ill b e a ctive . T h e lizard has a b o d y te m p e ra tu re o f a b o u t
5 °C, so its re a c tio n s w ill b e ta k in g p la ce s lo w ly a n d it w ill
b T h e c ilia ry m u sc le s c o n tra c t, w h ic h n a rro w s th e d ia m e te r
b e in active .
o f th e circle o f m u scles. T h is lo o s e n s th e te n sio n o n th e
s u s p e n s o ry lig a m e n ts, w h ic h a llo w s th e lens to re v e rt to
d A s th e y h a ve a c o n s ta n t c o re te m p e ra tu re , ca ts a re able
its n a tu ral, ro u n d e d shape. T h e lens n o w re fra c ts light ra ys
to be a c tiv e in w in te r and su m m e r, at n ig h t and in th e
m o re s tro n g ly, b rin g in g th e d ive rg in g ra ys fro m th e n e a rb y
d a ytim e . T h is m e a n s th e y ca n h u n t in all s e a s o n s a n d at
o b je c t to a fo c u s o n th e retina.
all tim e s o f day. R ab b its, to o , can b e a c tiv e at all o f th e s e
tim e s , s o th e y a re able to fle e fro m p re d a to rs no m a tte r
w h a t th e e x te rn a l te m p e ra tu re .
 Answers

Exercise B9.05 Diabetes b e c a u s e th e s e p a rtic u la r b u tte rflie s h a p p e n to n eed fo re s t

ed ges. T h e re w ill b e m a n y m o re a n im a ls a n d p la n ts th a t
a W h e n b lo o d g lu c o se levels rise h ig h e r th a n n o rm a l. n e ed la rge a re as o f d e e p fo re s t to s u rv iv e , and th e y w ill
d o b e tte r in la rge p a tch e s, p re fe ra b ly c o n n e c te d . S o m e
b T h e s ta rc h is d ige ste d b y a m y la s e (in sa liva a n d p a n c re a tic a n im a ls n e ed large te rrito rie s in w h ic h to hunt. S o m e o n ly
ju ice ) to p ro d u c e m altose. M altose is d ig e s te d b y m a lta se n e ed sm all areas, b u t th e re n e e d s to b e a large p o p u la tio n
to p ro d u c e glu co se . G lu c o s e is a b s o rb e d into th e b lo o d to b e s u re th e y w ill n o t b e c o m e e xtin c t. S tu d e n ts m a y also
c a p illa rie s in th e villi in th e sm all intestine. re fe r to th e im p o rta n c e o f fo re s ts in th e c a rb o n c y c le and
in th e p ro d u c tio n o f o xy g e n .
c P e rso n A. T h e b lo o d g lu c o s e level ro se h ig h e r a fte r e a tin g
th e s ta rc h , and s ta ye d high fo r longer. In p e rso n B, insulin
w a s s e c re te d fro m th e p a n c re a s w h e n th e g lu c o se ro se
a b o v e n o rm a l. T h is c a u se d th e live r to ta k e s o m e o f th e Chapter B l l Reproduction in
g lu c o se o u t o f th e b lo o d and c h a n g e it into g lyc o g e n and
s to re it. T h is did n o t h a p p e n in p e rs o n A.
humans

d If b lo o d g lu c o se c o n c e n tra tio n is to o high, w a te r is

Exercise B ll.01 Gametes
d ra w n o u t o f th e b lo o d cells and b o d y cells b y osm o sis.
T h is m e a n s th a t m e ta b o lic re a c tio n s c a n n o t ta ke place
a B lack o r b lu e labels: cell m e m b ra n e , c y to p la s m , n u cleus.
n o rm a lly in th e ir c y to p la s m . If b lo o d g lu c o s e c o n c e n tra tio n
is to o low , cells d o n o t g e t e n o u g h g lu c o s e to b e a b le to b Red o r o th e r c o lo u r labels: lo o k fo r a b o u t five labels
c a rry o u t re sp ira tio n , w h ic h is e sse n tia l to s u p p ly th e m a lto ge th e r, each o f w h ic h in clu d e s an e xp la n a tio n o f th e
w ith e n e rg y fo r a c tiv e tra n s p o rt and o th e r p ro ce sse s. fu n c tio n o f th e feature. F o r e xa m p le :
e g g cell: h a p lo id n u c le u s th a t w ill b e c o m e a d ip loid
n u c le u s w h e n it fu ses w ith th e s p e rm n u cle u s

Chapter BIO Reproduction in s p e rm cell: lo n g tail to h e lp it to s w im to th e egg.

plants
Exercise B ll.02 Gas exchange in the
Exercise BIO.01 Pollination in forests of placenta and lungs
different shapes and sizes a T h e lungs a re m a d e up o f m illio n s o f tin y a lveoli. A lth o u g h
e a ch o f th e s e is v e r y sm all, th e re a re s o m a n y o f th e m th a t
a T h e m o s t fru its p e r flo w e r w e re p ro d u c e d in Area A, th e
th e ir to ta l s u rfa c e area is huge.
set o f p a tch e s o f fo re st th a t w e re c o n n e c te d to each o th e r
b y c o rrid o rs. H ere, th e re w a s an a ve ra g e o f 0.5 fru its p e r
b i From the air spaces inside the alveoli, to the interior of
flo w e r. T h e least fru its p e r flo w e r d e ve lo p e d in th e set o f the red blood cells in the capillaries.
u n c o n n e c te d fo re st p a tch e s (Area B) and th e s e t o f sm a lle r
p a tch e s o f fo re st c a m e in b e tw e e n (Area C). ii T h e re is a lo w e r c o n c e n tra tio n o f o x y g e n in th e red
b lo o d cells th a n in th e a lve o li, b e c a u se th e b lo o d has
b Fruits w ill o n ly d e ve lo p after a flo w e r has b een pollinated. tra ve lle d p ast re sp irin g cells th a t h a ve ta k e n o x y g e n
T h is is d o n e b y b u tte rflie s th a t p re fer th e ed ges o f forests. So fro m it and m a d e it d e o x yg e n a te d . T h e re is a high
flo w e rs near th e ed ges o f fo re sts w e re m o re likely to p ro d u c e c o n c e n tra tio n o f air in th e a lve o li b e c a u se fre sh air is
fru its th a n o n e s d e e p inside. T h e sm all p atches o f fo re sts had d ra w n in b y b re a th in g m o v e m e n ts . O x y g e n th e re fo re
a larger e d ge (surface) to v o lu m e ratio th a n th e large patches, m o v e s b y d iffu sio n , d o w n its d iffu sio n g ra d ie n t.
and th e p atches jo in e d b y c o rrid o rs had e ve n m o re edges.
c T h e lu n gs h a ve a s u rfa c e area th a t is m o re th a n th re e tim e s
c T h e re a re m a n y d iffe re n t s u g g e s tio n s s tu d e n ts co u ld p u t g re a te r th a n th e p la ce n ta, so m o re o x y g e n can d iffu se
fo rw a rd . F o r e xa m p le , th e re se a rc h e rs c o u ld m a k e d iffe re n t a cro ss at a n y o n e m o m e n t in tim e.
p a tch e s o f fo re s t th a t w e re all id en tic a l in v o lu m e b u t had
T h e lu n gs h a ve a th in n e r b a rrie r th a n th e p lacenta, so th e
d iffe re n t le n g th s o f ed ge s, and c o m p a re th e m ea n n u m b e r
d iffu sio n d ista n ce is m u ch sm aller, and d iffu sio n takes less
o f fru its p e r flo w e r in e a ch one.
tim e.
d T h e re a re m a n y p o ssib le a n s w e rs to th is q u e s tio n , and T h e ra te o f b lo o d flo w in th e lu n gs is 10 tim e s th a t in th e
s tu d e n ts are like ly to p u t fo rw a rd a ra n g e o f ideas. In this p la ce n ta, so th e o x y g e n is q u ic k ly ta k e n a w a y, m a in ta in in g
p a rtic u la r case, it d o e s a p p e a r th a t m a n y sm a ll p a tch e s o f a s te e p e r d iffu sio n g ra d ie n t d o w n w h ic h o x y g e n w ill d iffu se
fo re s t a re ‘b e tte r’ th a n a fe w b ig o n e s, b u t this is u n u su a l m o re rapidly.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

C hapter B12 Inheritance ii phenotypes of parents black c h e stn u t

genotypes of parents Ee ee
Exercise B12.01 Fruit fly inheritance gametes ( e ) and © all ©

a See T a b le A12.01
g a m e te s fro m c h e s tn u t m are
Genotype Phenotype

NN
n o rm a l ©
w in g s

Nn
n o rm a l
g a m e te s fro m
b lack stallio n
© Ee
black
w in g s

nn
v e s tig ia l © ee
c h e s tn u t
w in g s

Table A12.01 So th e re w a s a b o u t a 1 in 2 c h a n c e th a t th e foal w o u ld be

c h e s tn u t.
B phenotypes of parents n o rm a l w in g s ve stigia l
iii E x a c tly th e sam e: 1 in 2. Each tim e th e y h a ve a foal,
w in g s h a lf o f th e s ta llio n ’s s p e rm w ill be c a rry in g an E allele
and h a lf c a rry in g an e allele, so th e c h a n c e o f a s p e rm
genotypes of parents
c a rry in g an e allele fe rtilis in g th e e g g is 1 in 2.
gametes

Exercise B12.03 Pedigree

g a m e te s fro m ve s tig ia l­
w in g e d fly a N e ith e r o f th e p a ren ts o f th e tw o p e o p le w ith PKU has PKU.
If th e allele w a s d o m in a n t, th e n at least o n e o f th e p a re n ts
© w o u ld have it and w o u ld th e re fo re s h o w th e co n d itio n .
T h is situ a tio n can o n ly be e xp la in e d if b o th p a re n ts are
Nn
g a m e te s © n o rm a l w in g s
h e te ro zy g o u s , w ith o n e c o p y o f th e n o rm a l allele and o n e
o f th e re ce ssive PKU allele. T w o o f th e ir c h ild re n m u s t h a ve
fro m n o rm a l-
re ce ive d th e recessive allele fro m b o th parents.
w in g e d fly nn
© ve stigia l w in g s b B oth o f p e rso n 4 ’s cop ies o f this gene are th e recessive allele.
It is v irtu a lly im po ssib le fo r th e sam e m u ta tio n to have
c A b o u t half w o u ld h a ve e a ch p h e n o ty p e , so a b o u t 41 w ith o cc u rre d in b o th o f th e m , as m u ta tio n is a ra n d o m e ve n t.
n o rm a l w in g s and 41 w ith ve s tig ia l w in g s.
c P e rso n 1 c o u ld be e ith e r QQ o r Q q P e rso n 2 co u ld a lso be
e ith e r Q Qo r Qq P e rso n 3 m u s t be Qq, as th e y d o n ’t s h o w
Exercise B12.02 Black and chestnut th e c o n d itio n b u t d o pass o n a q allele to a child. P e rso n 4
horses is q q
P e rso n 5 c o u ld be QQ o r Qq, as b o th o f h e r p a re n ts h a ve
a i E th e g e n o ty p e s Qq.
ii Ee
iii c h e s tn u t d T h e o n ly w a y p e rs o n 5 c o u ld h a ve a child w ith PKU is if she
has th e g e n o ty p e Qq and h e r p a rtn e r has th is g e n o ty p e
b i Ee T h e foal m u s t h a ve had tw o e alleles, o n e fro m each as w ell. T h e re is a g o o d c h a n c e th a t she d o e s n o t h a ve th e
o f its p a ren ts. T h e m are w a s ee. T h e sta llio n w a s black, q allele (in o th e r w o rd s th a t s h e is QQ) a n d it is likely th a t
s o he m u st h a ve had o n e b la ck allele and o n e c h e s tn u t h e r p a rtn e r w ill a lso be QQ. H o w e ve r, if she d o e s h a ve th e
allele. g e n o ty p e Qq, and if s h e m a rrie s s o m e o n e fro m a fa m ily in
w h ic h s o m e m e m b e rs h a ve PKU, th e n th e re is a risk th a t he
c o u ld also be Q q, in w h ic h case th e re is a 1 in 4 risk o f
th e m h a vin g a child w ith PKU.
 Answers

Chapter B13 Variation and c i A s th e te m p e ra tu re rises, th e s w e a t g la n d s se c re te

m o re s w e a t o n to th e s u rfa c e o f th e skin. T h e w a te r in
selection th e s w e a t e va p o ra te s , ta k in g h e a t w ith it and c o o lin g
th e skin surface.

Exercise B13.01 Water hyacinth ii V a s o c o n s tric tio n is th e n a rro w in g o f th e a rte rio le s th a t

s u p p ly b lo o d to th e skin cap illa ries. T h is re d u ce s th e
experiment a m o u n t o f b lo o d flo w in g c lo se to th e skin s u rfa c e and
th e re fo re re d u ce s th e rate o f h e at loss fro m th e b lo o d
a 5 pm
to th e air (b y ra d iatio n ). Instead, th e b lo o d is d iv e rte d to
flo w th ro u g h d e e p e r ve sse ls, s e p a ra te d fro m th e air b y
b g u a rd cell m e a s u re s 12 m m in le n g th = 12 000 pm
a d ip o s e tissu e, w h ic h in su la tes th e b o d y and d e cre a se s
m a g n ific a tio n = le n g th in d ia g ra m + real le n g th h e at loss.
= 12 000 pm t 5 pm

= x 2400 Exercise B13.03 Goats on an island

If th e s tu d e n t has m ea su red a d iffe re n t g u a rd cell in th e
a i A c h a n g e in a g e n e o r c h ro m o s o m e .
d ia g ra m , and a rrive d at a s lig h tly d iffe re n t le n g th va lu e ,
th e m a g n ifica tio n va lu e o b ta in e d w ill o f c o u rs e v a r y fro m ii T h e lo n g -h a ir allele, a, is re ce ssive, so a g o a t n e e d s tw o
th a t o b ta in e d here. C h e ck th a t th e m e th o d o f c a lc u la tio n is c o p ie s (o n e fro m each p a ren t) in o rd e r to h a ve lo n g hair.
c o rre c t. O n ly g o a t P ca n p ass o n an allele fo r lo n g hair, n o t th e
fe m a le s, so n o n e o f its o ffs p rin g c o u ld h a ve lo n g hair.
c T h e le ave s h a ve m a n y s to m a ta o n th e u p p e r surfa ce. iii S o m e o f th e o ffs p rin g fro m g o a t P w o u ld h a ve in h e rite d
T h is is n o t u su a lly fo u n d in la n d -livin g p la nts, w h e re m o s t o n e c o p y o f th e a allele. If th e s e b re d w ith e a ch o th e r
s to m a ta are o n th e lo w e r s u rfa c e to re d u ce th e rate at (o r w ith g o a t P), th e n th e re w o u ld be a 1 in 4 ch a n c e
w h ic h w a te r v a p o u r is lo st th ro u g h th e m - th e lo w e r o f each o ffs p rin g h a vin g th e g e n o ty p e aa and h a vin g
s u rfa c e is o u t o f d ire c t s u n lig h t and th e re fo re cooler, lo n g hair.
re d u c in g th e ra te o f e va p o ra tio n and d iffu sio n . T h e w a te r
h ya c in th leaves a re at th e s u rfa c e o f th e w a te r, so th e y b i T h e lo n g -h a ire d g o a ts did n o t lose as m u ch h e at fro m
d o n ’t n e ed to c o n s e rv e w a te r and h a vin g s to m a ta o n th e th e ir w e ll-in s u la te d b o d ie s, and so n e e d e d to g e n e ra te
u p p e r s u rfa c e a llo w s th e m to a b so rb c a rb o n d io xid e easily less h e at th ro u g h re sp ira tio n . T h e y th e re fo re n e e d e d
fro m th e air. less g lu c o se (o r o th e r n u trie n ts ) to use as fu e l in
re sp ira tio n .
d T h e s to m a ta l p o re s o f th e p la n ts g ro w in g in p o llu te d w a te r ii T h e g o a ts w ith lo n g h a ir w o u ld h a ve b e en at a s e le c tiv e
a re 1 pm s m a lle r th a n th o s e in clean w a te r. T h e g u a rd cells
a d va n ta g e - th e y w o u ld b e m o re likely to s u rv iv e and
o f th e p la n ts g ro w in g in p o llu te d w a te r are 2 pm s h o rte r
b re ed th a n th e s h o rt-h a ire d go ats. In e a ch g e n e ra tio n ,
th a n th o s e in clean w a ter. T h e m ea n n u m b e r o f s to m a ta o n
th e re w o u ld th e re fo re be m o re c h a n c e o f th e alleles fo r
th e u p p e r s u rfa c e s o f th e le ave s is th e s a m e in clean and
lo n g h a ir b e in g p a sse d o n th a n th e alleles fo r s h o rt hair.
p o llu te d w a te r. T h e m ea n n u m b e r o f s to m a ta o n th e lo w e r
s u rfa c e s is a little h ig h e r in th e p la n ts g ro w in g in clean
w a te r th a n in th o s e g ro w in g in p o llu te d w a ter. Exercise B13.04 Selective breeding for
high milk yield
Exercise B13.02 Big-horn sheep
a i V a lu e in 1990 = 11.0, v a lu e in 1965 = 7.2, so th e c h a n g e is
an in cre a se o f 3.8 kg p e r cow .
a i n u cle u s
ii V a lu e in 1990 = 5.8, v a lu e in 1965 = 7.2, so th e c h a n g e is
ii All o f th e m . (All th e b o d y ceils h a ve a c o m p le te s e t
a d e c re a se o f 1.4 kg p e r cow .
o f g en e s, b u t each ty p e o f cell o n ly uses a p a rtic u la r
n u m b e r o fth e m .)
b O n ly th e c o w s th a t g a ve th e h ig h e st m ilk yie ld w o u ld h a ve
b e en a llo w e d to b re ed . T h e y w o u ld be b re d w ith bulls
b T h e re has b e en s e le c tio n a g a in st th e s h e e p w ith th e
w h o s e fe m a le fa m ily m e m b e rs a lso g a ve high m ilk yie ld s.
la rge st h o rn s . S h e e p w ith sm a lle r h o rn s are m o s t likely to
T h is w o u ld be d o n e o v e r s e ve ra l g e n e ra tio n s , each tim e
s u rv iv e and re p ro d u c e . T h e alleles fo r s m a lle r h o rn s are
o n ly c h o o s in g th e a n im a ls g iv in g th e h ig h e st m ilk yie ld to
th e re fo re p assed o n to th e n e x t g e n e ra tio n s m o re often
breed .
th a n th e alleles fo r la rg e r h o rn s. O v e rtim e , m o re and m o re
o f th e b ig -h o rn s h e e p p o p u la tio n h a ve sm a ll h o rn s , and
th e m e a n h o rn le n g th th e re fo re d e cre a se s.
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

c W e can o n ly g u e s s - th e re is n o e vid e n c e to tell us w h y b i T h e p o p u la tio n o f a lga e rises ra p id ly ju s t d o w n s tre a m

th e m ilk yie ld felt. In th is g ro u p o f c o w s, all th e c o w s w e re o f w h e re th e fe rtilis e r flo w e d into th e river. T h is is
e q u a lly like ly to b re ed , so p e rh a p s it is ju s t c h a n c e th a t th e b e c a u s e a lga e can u se th e n u trie n ts (n itra te s and
m e a n m ilk yie ld fell o v e r tim e. H o w e ve r, p e rh a p s th e re is a m m o n iu m ions) in th e fe rtilis e r fo r g ro w th . F u rth e r
a d is a d va n ta g e in h a vin g a high m ilk yie ld - fo r e xa m p le , d o w n s tre a m , th e re a re fe w e r n u trie n ts b e c a u s e th e y
p e rh a p s th e s e c o w s w e re less h e a lth y in o th e r re s p e c ts so h a ve b e e n u se d b y a lg a e u p stre a m . T h e p o p u la tio n size
th e y a re a c tu a lly less likely to h a ve o ffsp rin g . th e re fo re d e cre a se s w ith th e d ista n c e d o w n s tre a m ,
ii M any o f th e a lga e die. T h e p o p u la tio n o f b a cte ria rises
d i T h e s e le c te d line w e re th e c o w s w ith high m ilk yields. b e c a u s e th e y can feed o n th e in cre a se d q u a n tity o f
T h e la rge a m o u n ts o f m ilk in th e ir u d d e rs m a y h a ve d e a d algae. T h e s e b a cte ria use up th e d iss o lve d o x y g e n
in cre a se d th e in cid e n ce o f in fla m m a tio n , and th e h e a v y in th e w a te r in re sp ira tio n . T h is d e cre a se s th e q u a n tity
w e ig h t o f m ilk th e y h a ve to c a rry a ro u n d m a y h a ve o f o xy g e n . Fish n eed o x y g e n to re sp ire , so e ith e r th e y
in cre a se d th e d e g re e o f la m en ess, die in th e area w h e re o x y g e n levels a re lo w o r th e y
ii T h e y w o u ld n e ed m o re fo o d , to s u p p ly th e m ateria ls m o v e aw ay.
n e e d e d to p ro d u c e th e e x tra m ilk.

Exercise B14.03 Introduced species in

New Zealand
Chapter B14 Organisms and their
a T h e y h a ve w in g s , so th e y co u ld fly a cro s s th e o ce a n s
environment s e p a ra tin g N e w Ze a la n d fro m th e n e a re s t land.

b F lig h t a llo w s b ird s to e s c a p e p re d a to rs . P re d a to rs are

Exercise B14.01 Energy transfer in a th e re fo re a s e le c tio n p re ss u re w h ic h g ive s b irds th a t can
food chain fly a g re a te r c h a n c e o f s u rv iv a l and re p ro d u c tio n . H o w e ve r,
w h e re th e re a re n o p re d a to rs , th e re a re fe w e r a d va n ta g e s
a T h e p o sitio n in a fo o d cha in at w h ic h an o rg a n is m s feeds. in b e in g a b le to fly, and th e re m a y b e d isa d va n ta g e s . F o r
3
e xa m p le , b ird s th a t can fly u se m o re e n e rg y th a n b ird s th a t
b In se q u e n ce : p ro d u c e r, p rim a ry c o n s u m e r, s e c o n d a ry c a n n o t, th e y n e ed to g ro w s tro n g flig h t m u sc les, and th e y
c o n s u m e r, te rtia ry co n su m e r. m a y ne ed m o re fo o d . B irds th a t d o n o t h a ve w in g s d o n o t
h a ve th e s e e n e rg y c o s ts and m a y b e b e tte r a b le to s u rv iv e
c i — —— x 100 = 0.1% and re p ro d u c e , p a ssin g o n th e ir alleles fo r w in g le s s n e s s to
20810
th e ir o ffsp rin g . O v e r tim e , th is p ro ce s s o f n a tu ra l s e le c tio n
ii M uch o f it is lo st as h e a t to th e e n v iro n m e n t, th ro u g h w ill re su lt in th e w h o le p o p u la tio n h a vin g n o w in g s.
re sp ira tio n . S o m e g o e s to th e d e c o m p o s e r fo o d chain.
c In all th re e areas, th e n u m b e r o f s e e d lin g s in th e areas
d i T h e re is n o t e n o u g h e n e rg y a va ila b le at th e h ig h e r w h e re ra ts w e re tra p p e d w e re g re a te r th a n in th e a reas
tro p h ic le ve ls to s u p p o rt large p o p u la tio n s, w h e re th e y w e re n o t tra p p e d . (C red it re fe re n c e to
c o m p a ra tiv e n u m b e rs o f s e e d lin g s in a n y tra p p e d and
ii B y th e tim e y o u re a ch a fifth o r s ixth link, th e re is n o t
u n tra p p e d area.) R e m o v in g ra ts w o u ld th e re fo re be
e n o u g h e n e rg y to s u p p o rt a n y o rg a n is m s at all.
e xp e c te d to in cre a se th e p o p u la tio n , as m o re s e e d lin g s
w o u ld s u rv iv e and g ro w in to a d u lt palm s.
Exercise B14.02 Eutrophication
a P la n ts n e ed n itro g e n -c o n ta in in g ions (such as a m m o n iu m
o r nitrate) to m a k e p ro tein s. T h e y n eed p ro te in s to build
n e w cells, and th e re fo re fo r g ro w th . T h e soil in th e field
m a y be d e fic ie n t in n itro g e n -c o n ta in in g ions, w h ic h w o u ld
lim it th e g ro w th o f th e crop . T h e fa rm e r th e re fo re gets
h ig h e r yie ld s b y a d d in g th e s e io n s to th e soil.