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4931_Grace College of Engineering, Thoothukudi

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

BE- Electronics & Communication

Course/Programme :
Engineering

Regulation : 2021
CEC345 – Optical Communication
Sub. Code & Name :
& Networks
Year/Sem : III Year/V Sem

Content Name : 2 Marks & QB

Unit- II Transmission Characteristics of

Optical Fibers

Prepared By,

Mr. KRISHNA KUMAR M, AP/ECE

CEC345_OCN

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4931_Grace College of Engineering, Thoothukudi

SYLLABUS

 Attenuation - Material absorption losses in

silica glass fibers: Intrinsic absorption,

Extrinsic absorption

 Linear scattering losses: Rayleigh Scattering,

Mie Scattering

 Nonlinear scattering losses: Stimulated

Brillouin Scattering, Stimulated Raman

Scattering – Fiber Bend Loss

 Dispersion- Chromatic dispersion: Material

dispersion

 Waveguide dispersion

 Intermodal dispersion: Multimode step index

fiber, Multimode graded index fiber.

CEC345_OCN

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4931_Grace College of Engineering, Thoothukudi

UNIT- II - TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF
OPTICAL FIBERS

1. Mention the losses responsible for attenuation in optical fibers.

Absorption losses, scattering losses and radiative losses

2. Define fiber loss or signal attenuation.

Attenuation is a measure of decay of signal strength or loss of light power that occurs as
light pulses propagate through the length of the fiber. It helps to determine the maximum
transmission distance between a transmitter and a receiver.

3. What are the three different mechanisms which cause absorption?

1. Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition
2. Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material
3. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material.

4. What do you mean by extrinsic absorption?

Absorption phenomena due to impurity atoms present in the fiber.

5. Mention the factors that cause Scattering losses.

Scattering losses in glasses arise from
1. Microscopic variations in the material density
2. Compositional fluctuations
3. Structural inhomogeneities (or) defects occurring during fiber manufacture.

6. What are the types of scattering losses?

a) Linear scattering loss 1. Rayleigh scattering 2. Mie scattering
b) Non-Linear scattering 1. Stimulated Brillouin scattering
1. Stimulated Raman scattering

7. What is Rayleigh scattering?

Due to Microscopic variations in the material density and compositional fluctuations, there
will be refractive index variations within the glass. This index variation causes a Rayleigh type of
scattering of light. Rayleigh scattering in glass is the same phenomenon that scatters light from
sun in the atmosphere, giving rise to a blue sky.
The expression for Rayleigh scattering loss is given by
αscat=(8π3/3λ2)(n2-1)2kBTfβT λ=operative wavelength
n=refractive index kB= Boltzmann’s constant
βT= isothermal compressibility Tf=fictive temperature

8. Define macroscopic bending losses.

Macroscopic bending occurs when the radius of curvature of bend is greater than the fiber
diameter. As the radius of curvature of bend decreases, the loss increases exponentially until at a
CEC345_OCN

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certain critical radius, the curvature loss becomes observable.
Page 4 of 8

4931_Grace College of Engineering, Thoothukudi

9. Define microscopic bending.

Micro bends are repetitive small- scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the fiber
axis. They are caused either by non-uniformities in the manufacturing of the fiber or by non-
uniform lateral pressures created during the cabling of the fiber.

10. Define cutoff wavelength of the fiber.

The cutoff wavelength is defined as the minimum value of wavelength that can be
transmitted through the fiber. i.e. The light with wavelengths greater than the cutoff wavelengths
can be transmitted. λcutoff = 2πa (N.A) / V

11. What is Mode Coupling?

The waveguide non uniformities such as deviations of the fiber axis from straightness,
variations in the core diameter, irregularities at the core-cladding interface and refractive index
variations may change the propagation characteristics of the fiber. This produces the effect of
coupling energy from one mode to another which is called as mode coupling.

12. What is effective cut-off wavelength?

It is defined as the largest wavelength at which the higher order LP11 mode power
relative to the fundamental LP01 mode power is reduced to 0.1db.

13. Define dispersion in optical fibers.

Dispersion of the transmitted signal causes distortion of both analog and digital
transmission along optical fibers. It causes broadening of the transmitted light pulses as they travel
along the channel.

14. What is pulse broadening?

Dispersion induced signal distortion is that a light pulse will broaden as it travels along the
fiber. This pulse broadening causes a pulse to overlap with neighboring pulses. After certain time,
the adjacent pulses can no longer be individually distinguished at the receiver and error will occur.
15. What is Intra Modal Dispersion or group velocity dispersion (GVD)?
Intra Modal dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode. The spreading
arises from finite spectral emission width of an optical source. This phenomenon is also called as
group velocity dispersion (GVD).

16. What are the types of dispersion?

a) Intra modal dispersion.
1. Material dispersion
2. Wave guide dispersion
3. Group velocity dispersion (GVD) or modal dispersion
b) Intermodal dispersion

17. What is material dispersion or chromatic dispersion?

CEC345_OCN
Material dispersion arises due to the variation of the refractive index of the core material as
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a function of wavelength. Material dispersion is also referred to as chromatic dispersion. This
4931_Grace College of Engineering, Thoothukudi
causes a wavelength dependence of group velocity of any given mode; i.e. pulse spreading occurs
even when different wavelengths follow the same path.

18. What is waveguide dispersion?

Wave guide dispersion occurs because a single mode fiber confines only about 80% of
optical power to the core and the remaining 20% of light which propagates in cladding travels
faster than the light confined to the core since the refractive index is lower in the cladding.
Amount of wave-guide dispersion depends on fiber design.

19. What is polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)?

The light signal energy at a given wavelength in a single-mode fiber actually occupies two
orthogonal polarization states or modes. Due to non-uniformity of the fiber, each polarization
mode will encounter different refractive index. Hence each mode will travel at different velocity.
The difference in propagation times between the two orthogonal polarization modes will result in
pulse spreading. This is called as polarization Mode Dispersion.

20. What is intermodal dispersion or modal delay?

Intermodal dispersion or modal delay is the result of each mode having a different value of
the group velocity at a single frequency in a multimode fiber. The pulse width at the output is
dependent upon the transmission times of the slowest and fastest mode.

21. What is group delay?

The multimode fiber contains number of modes. The optical input, which is propagated
along the fiber, will travel in various modes. As the signal propagates along the fiber, each spectral
component travels independently and undergoes a time delay. This is called as the ‘Group Delay’.

22. Define dispersion flattening.

Dispersion flattening is a method to reduce the fiber dispersion by distributing the
dispersion minimum over a wide spectral range.
23. Define dispersion shifted fiber.
By creating a fiber with larger negative waveguide dispersion and assuming the same
values for material dispersion as in a standard single mode fiber, the addition of waveguide and
material dispersion can then shift the zero dispersion point to longer wavelengths. The resulting
optical fiber is known as dispersion shifted fiber.
24. What are the major fiber joints?
a) Fiber splices: These are semipermanent or permanent joints
b) Demountable fiber connectors or simple connectors: These are removable joints
25. What is Fresnel reflection?
Even when the two jointed fiber ends are smooth and perpendicular to the fiber axes, and
the two fiber axes are perfectly aligned, a small portion of the light may be reflected back into the
transmitting fiber causing attenuation at the joint. This is known as Fresnel reflection.
26. What are the types of misalignment?
a) Longitudinal misalignment
CEC345_OCN b) Lateral/radial/axial misalignment
c) Angular misalignment
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4931_Grace College of Engineering, Thoothukudi

27. List the factors that cause intrinsic joint losses in a fiber. (Nov 14)
a) different core and/or cladding diameters
b) different numerical apertures and /or relative refractive Index differences
c) different refractive index profiles
d) fiber faults (core ellipticity, core concentricity, etc.,)
e) Fresnel reflection

28. What are splices? What are the requirements of splices?

The splices are generally permanent fiber joints, whereas connectors are temporary fiber
joints. Splicing is a sort of soldering. The requirements of splices are:
• Should cause low attenuation
• Should be strong & light in weight
• Should have minimum power loss
• Should be easy to install

29. What are the techniques used in splicing?

a) Fusion splicing
b) V-groove mechanical splicing
c) Elastic tube or elastomeric splicing
d) The Springroove splicing

30. Define fiber coupler.

An optical fiber coupler is a device that distributes light from a main fiber into one or more
branch fibers.
31. Mention the three types of fiber couplers.
a) Three and four port couplers
b) Star couplers
c) Wavelength division multiplexing devices

32. What are the loss parameters associated with four port couplers?
a) Excess loss
b) Insertion loss
c) Crosstalk
d) Split ratio

33. What are the requirements of a good connector?

The requirements of a good connector are as follows:
• Low loss
• Repeatability
• Predictability
• Ease of assembly and use
• Low cost & reliability
CEC345_OCN • compatibility

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4931_Grace College of Engineering, Thoothukudi

34. Distinguish between intramodal and intermodal dispersion. (Nov 2014)

Sl.No Intramodal dispersion Intermodal dispersion

1 It occurs within a single mode fiber It occurs in a multimode fiber
It is also known as chromatic It is also known as modal dispersion
2
dispersion
3 Less pulse broadening More pulse broadening
It arises due to the finite spectral It arises as each mode in a multimode fiber
4 emission width of an optical source travels with a different velocity and they
reach the fiber end at different times

35. What is meant by mechanical splice?

Mechanical splicing is one of the permanent joint techniques in which the fibers
are held in alignment by some mechanical means.
Some of the methods are
a). The use of tubes around the fiber ends (tube splices)
b). V-grooves into which the butted fibers are placed (groove splices)

36. Define normalized propagation constant. (AU Nov/Dec 2005)

The number of modes that can exist in a waveguide as a function
of V may be represented in terms of a normalized propagation constant
defined by
b = a2 w2 / v 2 = (β /k) – n2 2/ n1 2 – n2

UNIT II

PART- B

1. a. What is meant by material dispersion ?

b. Derive the expression of material dispersion.
c. Derive the expression for wave guide dispersion ( Apr 2005 )
2. Discuss the pulse broadening in graded index fiber (April 2005,Nov 08 )
3. Discuss the various kinds of losses that an optical signal might suffer while
propagating through a fiber. Which is most important one ? What is the effect of
these losses on light power and pulse shape ? ( June 2007,April 08,May 09
)
4. What is ode coupling ? Discuss pulse broadening in GI fiber ? (June2007 )
5. a. What is meant by waveguide dispersion ? Derive the expression for the same.
( Nov 2004 )
b. Derive the expression for pulse broadening due to material dispersion.
6. What is meant by waveguide dispersion ? Derive the expression for the same
( Nov 2006 )
7. Discuss the signal distortion in single mode fiber. ( Nov 2006 )

CEC345_OCN

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4931_Grace College of Engineering, Thoothukudi

8. Explain the attenuation mechanisms in Optical fibers. (Dec 2007)

9. A 6 km optical link consisting of multimode step index fibre, with a core refractive
index of 1.5 and the relative refractive index difference of 1%. Estimate the delay
difference between the slowest and fastest modes at the fibre output, and the RMS
pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion on the link. Also derive the
expression involved in it. [Apr 2008]
10. Explain briefly the three key principles involved in the Laser Action. Describe for
a fabry-perot resonator laser diode, modes, and threshold condition. Obtain its
rate equation for steady state output. [Apr
2008]
11. Explain bending losses and type of dispersion (Nov 2010)
12. What is meant by fiber splicing,Explain fusion splicing of optical fibers
13. Explain expanded beam connectors with neat diagram (Nov 2011)
14. Explain nonlinear scattering ,fiber bend loss and material dispersion in optical fiber
15. Explain mechanical splices with neat diagram (May 2012)
16. Write brief note on fiber alignment and joint loss (May 2012)
17. Describe the linear and non-linear scattering losses in optical fibers (Nov 2012)
18. An LED operating at 850nm has a spectral width of 45mm. What is the pulse
spreading in ns/km due to material dispersion? What is the pulse spreading when
a laser diode having a 2nm spectral width is used?
19. Write notes on fiber splices and connectors (Nov 2012)
20. (i)Discuss the attenuation encountered in optical fiber communication due to:
1. Bending 2. Scattering 3. Absorption.
(ii) Calculate the maximum transmission distance for a fiber link with an
attenuation of 0.2 dB/km if the power launched in 1 mw and the receiver
sensitivity is 50 µW. Calculate the attenuation for another link with same
parameters and the distance of 26 Kms. (Nov 2013)
21. (i) Clearly bringout the difference between intra and inter modal dispersion.
(ii) Find the maximum bit rate for the fiber link of 5 Kms.The numerical aperture is
0.25 and the refractive index is 1.48 (Nov 2013)
22. Explain the attenuation and losses in fiber.
23. With diagram, explain intra and inter modal dispersion.

CEC345_OCN

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Processes Differential Equations Engineering
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Programming and Data Structures and Engineering
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Management
Professional Ethics in Engineering Mathematics I Engineering Mathematics
Engineering II