EDF 111:

HISTORY
OF
EDUCATION
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Bukhala Elisha Ngaira

EDF 111: HISTORY OF EDUCATION
Define
i. History
ii. Education
iii. History of Education
HISTORY
It is a record of past events or what happens in the past or all past human experience.
How is it possible than to study history yet it is of the past?
 Through records
 Artifacts, archaeological evidence.
 Eye witness accounts. Historians use two main sources of information.
Primary sources
 These are original records e.g eye witness
Secondary Sources
Accounts or information given by people who did not participate or witness.
EDUCATION:
 It is a process of acquiring knowledge, values attitudes and skills that enable one to live.
 Education is a lifelong process which is acquired from birth to death.
 Education is said to be a sub system of the other system such as.
i) Economy
 Economic State of a country influences the education of that country in terms of
resource.
 Economy will determine:
a. Who will get education
b. Types of education
c. Quality of education
ii) Politics
 They decide what kind of education to be offered, who gets the education and for how
howlong and what kind of education.
iii) Culture
 Calture is the total way of people life. how does culture influence education depending
onattitude, values etc.
iv) Global Forces/Influences
 Education is influenced by a wide range of global forces and factors that shape its
goals, practices, and outcomes. These global influences impact education at various levels,
fromlocal classrooms to national policies and international cooperation.
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
 History of education is the study of the past education systems, theories, ideas and
practicesthat influence political, scientific, economic, technical and cultural heritage.
IMPORTANCE/AIMS OF STUDYING HISTORY OF EDUCATION
1. Improving the quality of education and strengthening professional competence.
- Proper study of history of education affect the way in which teachers conduct their
personaland professional activities.
- The subject contributes to strengthening both teachers and students by encouraging
them to examine, evaluate accept or modify the cultural heritage in order to become a educational
critique.
2. Understand our education system better
- History of education not only teaches what education is but also where it came from
andwhat it is bound to become in future
- History of education outlines the origin, growth and development of educational
institutions, methods of instructions and concepts applied in education.
- It helps us to appreciate education through the achievement obtained.
3. Making comparison with historical perspective.
- History of education helps an individual to draw comparisons of origins and
development of different ideas practices and theories of education.
4. Exposing an individual to knowledge in other disciplines
- An individual is able to acquire knowledge in other disciplines related to history
ofeducation such as sociology, psychology, philosophy and comparative education.
- The study of history of education also exposes an individual to other social sciences
whichhave activities related to human affair.
5. Developing powers of thinking.
- History of education enables an individual to exercise the aspect of intellectual
activities that satisfies ones curiosity aimed at helping individuals to cultivate knowledge which
leads to positive critism and logical reasoning. An individual is able to evaluate and analyse
information using history of education.
6. Acquisition of knowledge on policy formation and decision making.
- History of education involves policies that are related to education in terms of
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evaluation,supervision and monitoring which enables an individual to acquire knowledge and
skills.
- Trough history of education one is able to acquire knowledge on the aims of
educationnature of learners and method of learning.
Scope of History of Education
 Historical Evolution of Educational Systems: This includes examining how educational
systems have evolved throughout history, from ancient civilizations to modern times.
 Historical Figures in Education: This area focuses on the lives and contributions of
influential educators, reformers, and thinkers throughout history. For example, the works of
figures like John Dewey, Maria Montessori, and Paulo Freire have had a lasting impact on
educational practices
 The scope includes the description and analysis of both the formal and informal aspects of
education.
 The informal aspects include the total cultural context in which persons are born, grow
and come to maturity. Through enculturation (the passing on of culture from one
generation to another) persons acquire the symbolic, linguistic and value patterns of their
culture.
 The informal educational agencies of the family, church or mosque, media, state and peer
group, introduce the learner to the roles that are accepted in the society. That includes
philosophical, intellectual patterns that constitute the cultural experiences of a given
people.
 The scope also includes: definitions, descriptions and interpretations of the formal aspects of
education as found in instructional form in school.
 Cultural and Social Context: This involves examining the influence of social, political,
economic, and cultural factors on educational practices and policies.
 Pedagogical Approaches: The history of education examines different pedagogical methods
and approaches employed in different historical periods and their effectiveness in achieving
educational goals.

CHAPTER 2: EDUCATION AND EARLY MAN CIVILIZATION

Education in early human civilizations was quite different from the formal educational systemswe
have today. Early human societies did not have schools or structured institutions of
education like we do today. Instead, education was a more informal and experiential process,
primarily focused on survival and the transmission of essential skills and knowledge from one
generation to the next. Here are some key aspects of education in early human civilizations:
Oral Tradition: In the absence of written language, early humans relied heavily on oral
tradition to pass down knowledge and stories from one generation to the next. Elders and
experienced members of the community played a vital role in orally transmitting information,
including hunting techniques, gathering practices, and the stories of their ancestors.
Learning through Observation and Participation: Early humans learned by observing their
surroundings and participating in everyday activities. Children learned essential skills by
watching and imitating their parents and other community members. For example, they learned
how to make tools, hunt, gather food, and create shelter by actively participating in these
activities.
Cultural and Spiritual Education: In many early civilizations, education also encompassed
cultural and spiritual aspects. This included passing down religious beliefs, rituals, and
traditions, which were often intertwined with the daily life and survival of the community.
Socialization: Education in early civilizations was closely linked to socialization. Children
learned not only practical skills but also social norms, values, and customs within their
community. This socialization process was critical for maintaining group cohesion and ensuring
the survival of the community.
Trial and Error: Early humans learned through trial and error. They experimented with
different techniques and approaches to solve problems and adapt to changing environments.
Successful methods were retained and passed on, while unsuccessful ones were abandoned.
Mentorship and Apprenticeship: In some cases, older, more experienced members of the
community served as mentors or teachers to younger individuals. For example, a skilled hunter
might take on an apprentice and teach them the art of hunting over an extended period.
Storytelling and Myths: Early civilizations often used storytelling and myths to convey
important lessons, morals, and historical events. These narratives helped pass down cultural
knowledge and values.
ASPECTS OF EDUCATION OF EARLY MAN
♫ Education was utilitarian–useful – it included theoretical and practical aspects of today.
Theoretically there was the idea of religion and supernatural phenomenon. Practically education
was work oriented. There was apprenticeship as a way of learning.
♫ Education for the young was simple and direct and accompanied by religious dimension
to help the young deal with.. Methods of teaching were related to existing environmental
circumstances e.g. a lot of imitation.
♫ Play was used – no idle play but participation in daily activities e.g. economic activities
like agriculture, fishing.
♫ Ideas and inventions were gradually refined and improved by incoming generations through
experimentation, apprenticeship imitation and active participation eventually there arose a
priestly class that was associated with education.
♫ The main aim was to prepare the youth for communal intergratedness way in the society–
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what roles were expected in the society e.g. hunting fighting e.g. for boys, making clothes,
cooking, looking after babies for girls.
♫ Any education was to ensure that the basic needs were met. Education was transmitted by
the older members of the society.
♫ Emergence of the priestly class led to store of knowledge which eventually could be
translated to curriculum and therefore there were the teachers. In this early man’s education
generally speaking, education was given at random. There was no class/formal teaching.
MAIN OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION OF EARLY MAN
 Survival Skills: The primary aim of early human education was to impart the practical skills
and knowledge needed for survival in their specific environment. This included hunting,
gathering, fishing, tool-making, fire-starting, and shelter-building.
 Cultural Transmission: Education aimed to pass down the cultural values, traditions, and
customs of the community from one generation to the next. Storytelling and rituals were used to
convey this cultural knowledge.
 Socialization: Early humans used education as a means of socialization. Young individuals
learned the social norms, values, and behaviors of their community. This socialization was
essential for maintaining group cohesion and cooperation.
 Oral Tradition: In the absence of a written language, oral tradition played a vital role in
early human education. Elders and experienced members of the community orally transmitted
knowledge about survival techniques, animal behavior, plant properties, and the history and
stories of their people.
 Practical Experience: Education was highly experiential and hands-on. Young individuals
learned by actively participating in the daily activities of their community, where they acquired
skills through practical experience and trial-and-error learning.
 Adaptation to Environments: Early human education was localized and adapted to specific
environments. Different groups of early humans developed unique knowledge and techniques
suited to their particular ecosystems, climate, and available resources.
 Preparation for Gender Roles: Education also involved preparing individuals for their
gender-specific roles within the community. Boys and girls learned skills and tasks relevant to
their expected roles as adults.
 Problem-Solving and Innovation: Early human education emphasized problem-solving and
innovation. Through practical experience, individuals developed innovative solutions to
challenges in their environment.
 Communication Skills: Effective communication was crucial for cooperation within the
group. Early humans developed language and communication skills to convey information,
share experiences, and coordinate collective activities.
 Passing on Survival Wisdom: Education aimed to pass on the accumulated wisdom and
knowledge about the natural world, including animal behavior, plant properties, and seasonal
patterns, which were essential for survival.
CHAPTER 3: THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN EDUCATION
Egypt is the oldest civilization in history. It boasts of being the earliest with recorded history.
The following contributed to Egypt’s civilization.
 Geographic Location: Egypt's location along the Nile River, with its predictable annual
flooding, provided fertile soil for agriculture. The Nile also served as a natural transportation
and communication route.
 Nile River: The Nile River was the lifeblood of Egypt, providing water for irrigation and
fertile land for agriculture. The regular flooding deposited nutrient-rich silt, making the land
ideal for farming.
 Natural Barriers: Egypt's isolation by deserts to the east and west and the Mediterranean
Sea to the north provided protection from external invasions and allowed for stable
development.
 Healthcare and Medicine: Early Egyptians developed medical knowledge and practices,
which contributed to the health and longevity of their population.
 Predictable Climate: Egypt's climate, characterized by little rainfall and consistent
sunshine, allowed for year-round agricultural productivity, reducing the risk of foodshortages.
 Cultural Continuity: The ancient Egyptians had a strong sense of cultural continuity and
identity. They preserved their traditions, religious beliefs, and practices over millennia,
contributing to the stability of their civilization.
 Religious Beliefs: Religion played a central role in Egyptian life, influencing governance,
daily rituals, and the construction of monumental structures. Religious unity and shared beliefs
helped unify the population.
 Hieroglyphic Writing: The development of hieroglyphic writing enabled record-keeping,
communication, and the preservation of knowledge, contributing to the organization of society.
 Trade: Egypt's location at the crossroads of trade routes connecting Africa, the
Mediterranean, and the Middle East facilitated the exchange of goods and ideas with
neighboring regions.
 Innovations in Agriculture: Egyptians developed advanced techniques for irrigation, crop
rotation, and the use of plows and sickles, enhancing agricultural productivity.
THE EGYPTIANS CIVILIZATION
The Egyptians civilization is one of the oldest civilizations in the world history, almost as old as
the civilization founded in Mesopotamia during the 4th millennium B.C. It was characterized by
stability and serenity as compared to the turmoil and tension of Mesopotamia. Egyptians were
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also helped by the important environmental factors. Egypt by nature (harsh, surroundings, desert,
and red-sea) was free from threat of foreign invasion.
The ancient history of Egypt is usually divided into a number of phases, some which were
remarkable for the growth and development of their civilization. They include;
a) Religion
Ancient Egyptians practiced polytheism, worshiping a pantheon of gods and goddesses. Each
deity had specific attributes and domains, and many were associated with natural elements and
phenomena.
b) Art
Egyptian pyramids are the most famous of all Egyptian visual monuments. They were built to
serve as tombs of Pharaohs.
Temples, featured intricate relief carvings and paintings that told stories of the gods, the
afterlife, and religious ceremonies.
Art was a means of recording historical events, such as military campaigns, royal
achievements, and the reigns of pharaohs.
c) Social and Economic Life
i. Social life
Ancient Egyptian society was a class society. The population of ancient Egypt was divided into
five classes:
 Pharaoh: At the top was the pharaoh, considered divine, with absolute power.
 Nobility and Officials: Included high-ranking officials and priests.
 Scribes and Middle Class: Scribes, skilled workers, and artisans formed the
middleclass.
 Farmers and Laborers: The majority were farmers and laborers.
 Slaves: Slavery existed, primarily prisoners of war.
The positions of various ranks of society shifted from time to time. The gaps between classes
were wider than in today’s industrialized countries. The wealthy lived in Villas and their food
had all the richness and variety. They ate from vessels of alabaster, gold, silver and adorned
themselves with expensive fabrics and costly jewels. The life of the poor on the contrary was
wretched. Labourers lived in congested town quarters. The peasants on the estates enjoyed less
crowded setting but didn’t have abundant life.
ii. Economic life
Egyptian economic system rested primarily on agrarian basis. Agriculture was diversified and
highly developed, and the soil yielded excellent crops such as wheat, barley, millet, vegetables,
fruits, flax and cotton. Land theoretically belonged to Pharaohs. Commerce grew steadily after
about 2000 BC. Egyptians knew the elements of accounting and book keeping. The merchants
issued orders and receipts for goods. They invented deeds for property, written contracts, and
Wills. Egyptians had the oldest known currency in the history of civilizations – rings of copperor
gold of set weight circulated as exchange.
d) Intellectual Achievements
The Egyptians’ greatest intellectual accomplishments lay in their system of writing and in
practical sciences. The Egyptians’ hieroglyphic writing emerged after the appearance of
Cuneiform writing in Mesopotamia. As early as the time of the old Kingdom, the Egyptian
hieroglyphic was based on 3 types of characters:
♫ The Pictographic
♫ The Syllabic
♫ The Alphabetic
The Egyptians possessed a cheap material on which to write (the papyrus reed/plant for
writing). Papyrus rolls were less cumbersome (compared to Clay tablets) and vastly lighter.
The Egyptians of the Middle Kingdom were considered to be fathers of the Shortstories.
In science, Egyptians were interested in those branches that aimed particularly atpractical
ends –astronomy, medicine and mathematics.
Egyptians produced the best calendar in antiquity before the one devised by JuliusCaesar
which was anchored on the Egyptians’ precedent.
Their medical practice was distinguished by view that diseases came from natural ratherthan
supernatural – hence it was important to do right diagnosis and reliable treatment
– eg listening to the heartbeat and taking of pulse.
 In mathematics, Egyptians were the first to mark off 3600 to a circle and the first to notice
that the ratio of the circumference of a circle and its diameter is the same for all circles.
e) Education
Egyptian education was embodied in the religious, artistic and architectural, social andeconomic
and intellectual aspects covered earlier.
Educational Aims
Egyptian Education aimed at:
 Perpetuating social stability and status quo – enhanced socially hierarchical
society. Egyptian education aimed at perpetuating social stability and the status quo. Through
the educational process the societal classes were slotted into their social, political, and
economic life stations. Education enhanced a socially hierarchy.
 To produce professionals and work oriented people. It was practical, technical
andprofessional and sought to produce professionals and work oriented personnel.
 To foster development of a complex agricultural science that created
irrigation and flood control networks –Egyptian education was to be utilitarian in theory and
practice. It fostered the development of a complex agricultural science, creating irrigation and

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flood control network which made Egypt the granary of the world.
 To promote and enhance a religious view of the world. Through education
Egyptian were helped towards achieving their polytheistic religious ideas. They developed
religions. Egyptian education also preferred a religious view of the world by seeking to
enhance the people's religious and moral development and devotion to the gods.
Education was considered both a preparation for life and a vehicle for life after death.
Education thus contained religious and philosophical studies to achieve the society's
polytheist ideals.
Organisation of education
 Education system was organised in three levels.
a) Elementary education
b) Secondary education
c) Higher and Professional Schools

a) Elementary Education
 Elementary schools were first established between 3,000 B.C. and 2,000 B.C: in response
to the basic needs of Egyptian society.
 They were established to offer training in various vocations rather than literacy. The latter
was initially restricted to the clergy, with only their sons being exposed to reading and writing
under priests in temple schools.
 Schooling for the few lucky boys began at four years of age and lasted up to the time they
were 14 years, when they were considered ready for the world of work.
 The curriculum included mastering the symbols and signs of writing unique to the respective
social classes, professions or vocations; elementary science, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy,
music and dancing. The last two were taught for recreational, moral and religious training.
 The dominant methods of teaching were dictation, memorization, copying of texts,
imitation, repetition, participation and observation, the last particularly in physical
education. These methods did not encourage higher-level thinking, problem solving, or the
spirit of inquiry, with teachers hardly explaining their lessons.
 School discipline was severe and ruthless. Laziness was highly discouraged and severely
punishable. Good manners, physical fitness through swimming and archery, cleanliness and
moral uprightness were highly valued.
 To Egyptians bodily hygiene was of religious significance, and may well have originated
the adage that cleanliness is next to godliness.
 Those boys who did not go to elementary school were trained informally by their fathers in
skills other than the 3Rs - reading, writing and arithmetic.
b) Secondary Education
 Secondary education was conducted in the same premises as elementary education.
 It was mainly a continuation of improvement and consolidation of the elementary
school learning, with particular attention being given to refining the style and composition of
the art of writing and craftsmanship.
 Boys of the upper class informally participated in learning activities that enhanced
their etiquette and code of behaviour.
c) Higher and Professional Education
 This education took place in temples, colleges or universities.
 Higher education was mainly for the instruction of priests and professionals.
 This education was guardedly, secretly and informally passed on to immediate relatives,
colleagues and social equals.
 It was thus restricted to those recognized as heirs by virtue of birth, particularly in regard to
priesthood and medicine.
 Among professionals were teachers who used their homes, offices, business premises and
temples to impart knowledge of literature, history, science and skills to the selected Egyptian
boys.
 Other professionals were the scribes who were highly valued and respected in Egypt. to
become a scribe one had to undergo a rigorous training in order to master the skills of
scriveners. Scribes were graded and served as secretaries, bookkeepers, as judges, advocates,
and advisors to the Pharaohs.
Contributions of Egyptians Education To Modern Civilization
The Egyptian education achievements and contributions to human civilization are many;
 In art, modern painting and sculpture borrowed much from Egyptian models. In
architecture, Egyptians were the first to successfully use mass with stone in copying the
massive desert cliffs and mountains to build the pyramids, are of the enduring wonders of
the world.
 In literature, the Egyptians used proverbs, similes, aphorisms, etc, to teach moral
conduct, methods that are in extensive use in today’s teaching.
 In mathematics, the Egyptian method of multiplication was until recently used in
Eastern Europe and Asia.
 In medicine, the Egyptians had knowledge of physiology, surgery and blood
circulation, and are the originators of the Hippocratic Oath.
 In writing, the Egyptians developed hieroglyphics and invented the earliest known
writing material. ’Paper’: is an abbreviation of ‘papyrus’, which was a plant cultivated in
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Egypt and used for writing.
 It formed the foundations of modem western world developments in science and
technology.

CHAPTER 4: THE ANCIENT GREECE EDUCATION

Greek education fell in two Eras: the Old Era and the New Era.
The old Era was discipline-oriented and was represented by Spartan education. The content of
education in the old era were Gymnastics, music and letters were prominent
New era was represented by Athens: the content of education included Mathematics, Geometry,
astronomy and philosophy. Mathematics was regarded as an introduction to philosophy;.
In today system of education, these are aspects given a lot of consideration.
i. Education in Sparta (old type)
 The city-state of Sparta was situated in the middle of a hostile conquered people
whogreatly outnumbered the Spartans.
 Due to this, the main objective of Spartan education was to produce warriors for the
survivalof society.
 It was designed to instil and develop obedience and loyalty in Spartan youth and was
highlypaternalistic.
Aims Of Spartan Education
 To promote total subordination and obedience to the stale.
 To promote total discipline, courage, physical fitness and perseverance.
 To produce warriors soldiers for defence of the city.
 Maintaining the social stability.
 To restrain individualism and any ideas that were inconsistence with what the
stateprescribed as the interest of the country.
The Content
 Gymnastics and Paramilitary constituted most of the education that was offered to the
youth. Music was taught and it was geared towards inculcating Moral Values as well as war
oriented attitudes in the learners.
 Dancing was also part of curriculum and it was meant to develop body strength and
Vigourrather than entertainment.
 Very little attention was given to reading and writing.
Methods of Learning Observation and Participation.
Organisation of the Education
 Spartan education sacrificed the family for the state of defence.
 Children were selected at birth exposed to hard conditions such as snow and Ice
themaintains so their only the strong ones could survive.
 At home both girls and slaves were taught domestic activities.
 At the age of 7 years boys were subject to harsh conditions e.g they wold be left
alone in the dark of the night in the way of remain fear. They would be exposed to hostile
climate and the weak ones will definitely die.
 At the age of 8 years, they were taken to barracks where they were expected to sleep
onhard beds, bath in cold water and were beaten by elders.
 They were taught regular military skills, Swimming, Military Music running
andWrestling.
 Both boys and girls were instructed on gymnastics in different places. This was
aimedat making the girls strong and be able to bare to strong and brave children.
 At the age of 18 years boys became Cadet (Ephebi) and they were trained in
professional studies related in warfare.
 At the age of 25 years the Spartans boys were allowed to join the citizen class.
 At the age 30 years they were referred to as warriors or full citizens.
 Children belong to the state and education was under state control. The state
holdabsolute power and control over the type method and Venus for provision of education.
Influence / Impact of the Spatan Education to Modern Education
 Sparta education contributes virtually nothing to the development of art literature and
philosophy. It excelled in development of the mind and Saul, and so it contributed little to the
cause of civilization.
 Their type of education tried to produce physical strength stamina, strength of character
endurance and loyalty of states.
 Education was not offered to weaklings and little emphasis was given to the education for the
female.
Their main contributions to the world civilization is mainly Military affairs.
Education put emphasis on state security at the expense of individual fulfilment.
Education in athens (athens education)
 This is typical of the New Greek education. Education was under states but allowed roomfor
individual fulfilment.
 The new education in Greece was scientific rather than theological. It sought a shift from
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convention (of subjectivity) to science, a universal activity.
 It sought to bring individual freedom, free reflection and democracy. Although the state
supervised education, every citizen was free to arrange for his son’s education.
 They advocated for the training of the body and the mind in order to achieve both physicaland
intellectual excellence.
Aims of Education in Athens
 It aimed at promoting the concept of good life through the teaching of moral
valuesemphasis on good life
 It aimed at preparing the youth for both peace and war.
 It advocated for the development of democratic individuals.
 To produce an all-round individual (physical, spiritual, mental and intellectual person).
Ahealth mind in an healthy body.
 It aimed at producing a liberal controlled and intelligent society.
Organisation of the Education
 The elementary schools were private so people had to pay to study there.
 Children joined school at the age of 7 years.
 The children stay in school depended on ability of parents to pay.
Curricula Content
Reading, writing, Arithmetic, physical training and Music.
They were taught by three different teachers who were not at the same place.
School of reading
School of MUSIC-Played instrument, included poetry, loved beauty.
School of Physical training-Human body remained beautifully if it was exercised (men
only)
Method of Teaching
 Simple memorization-recitation-singing
 Discipline was harsh-Corporal punishment was there as the order of the day.
 Teacher did not have any training status of elementary teacher.
 It was low status job. He was very poor.
CHAPTER 5: EDUCATION IN ANCIENT EUROPE
Medieval Education and Universities
 The ancient world may fairly be said to have had their universities, institutions in which
al1 the learning of the time was imparted.
 Such institutions existed in Alexandria, Athens, Constantinople and later Beirut,
Bordeaux, Lyons and Odessa. But the growth of Christian supernaturalism and mysticism,
as well as barbarian inroads from the north and south bad put an end to most of these by
A.D. 800.
 After A.D. 800 eastern Moslemsth founded university in Baghdad, Cairo and Basra, all
these came to an end early in the 12 century.
 Then there arose in Spain at Cordova, Toledo and Seville, the universities of western
Moslem, lasting to the end of the thirteenth century, when they were suppressed by
orthodox fanatism.
 The Moslem universities may therefore be said to be parents of the Christian
universities.
Medieval education and the Rise of Universities
 The middle ages are also referred to as the 'Dark ages'.
 In the resulting quest for universal knowledge, the need arose for higher education, for
dialectic discussions and for intellectual interests.
 Therefore a number of upper cathedral and monastic schools came into prominence.
 The essential elements of early universities were students and teachers. They foundtheir
models in the universities of Spain.
The Forces behind the Rise of Universities
Among the forces or influences that produced universities were;
(a) The Mos1em Influence
 The Moslem religious conquests, 'jihads' or 'holy wars' played a crucial role.
 The Moslem had come into contact with Greek civilization and learning in Syria,
 They had also mathematical and astronomical knowledge from Hindu sources and
brought them to Spain.
 Spain thus reflected ancient Rome at this time. In the Moslem established
universities of Cordoba, Toledo and Seville. Physics, chemistry, astronomy,
mathematics, medicine, physiology and Greek philosophy were taught.
 The Moslem translated Greek classics into Arabic, cultivated high standards of
learning and was tolerant when it came to new ideas.
(b) The Development of Scholasticism
 Scholasticism was a feature of educational developments in Europe from
the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries.
 Scholasticism was a systemization of speculation and faith by the rigid
application of Aristotelian logic to philosophical and theological questions of the
middle ages.
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 Scholasticism was necessary to correct the mystical tendencies of the orient, the
mere contemplation…
(c) The Growth of Cities and Wealth
 The development of commercial enterprise and municipal government stimulated secular
interests and learning more than ever before, and the new intellectual interests hasten the
development of universities.
 The growth of secular interests prompted educational specialization and in time European
universities began to offer studies in four faculties, arts, consisting of seven liberal arts
grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music, law, medicine and
theology.
 Not all medieval universities offered studies in all four faculties.
(d) Kings and Universities
 The founding of universities was encouraged by definite privileges in the form of charters;
these were written documents from the Pope or Emperor giving the university full recognition
as a distinct body.
 The first charter was given by Emperor Fredrick 1 to Bologna in 1158 BC.
 University privileges and exemptions included:
 the right of internal jurisdiction based on their inbuilt sense of maturity
 the right to confer a degree license to teach; exemption from taxation
andcontribution
 exemptions partly or wholly from military service;
 clerical status for their scholars who wore clerical dress, as in orders,
though they might not be ordained and the right to strike, or move the university, consisting as
it die students and teachers only, if its privileges were infringed.
 The scholars Oxford therefore migrated from Paris and those who founded Cambridge
moved there from Oxford.

Types of Universities in Europe

Theseforces thus combined in various proportions. Each university had its own
characteristics.
In France and England universities were outgrowths of the Church. Thus, the
University of Paris came to be known for its dialectic and scholastic pursuits.
In southern Italy, universities came into, being or were influenced by contacts with
the Saracens, Normans and Greeks, leading to the study and practice of medicine by
the University of Salerno.
In northern Italy a struggle with the German Emperor for its right led to great interest
in Roman and Canon Law at Bologna, the first organized university.

Organization and management of medieval universities

 Medieval universities were organized around teachings faculties and student
population.
 They were organized like guilds, for no individual then were sure of his rights,
even of life and. property, unless these were protected by specific guarantees secured
from some organization.
 The same therefore applied to groups of students, or teachers, which recognized as
distinct bodies. Thus the term university meant a corporate body of persons.
 Being heterogeneous masses of students, drawn from all over Europe, language and
kinship constituted the most natural division in the universities.
 Students and masters were therefore organized in groups according to their
national affiliations. It was to these nations that charters containing privileges were
granted.
 The masters were organized into faculties, (faculty means a kind of
'knowledge'). These were to regulate studies and methods.
 In time the name 'faculty' applied to a department of study, like the faculty of
law, theology or arts.
 Later, 'faculty' came to refer to a body of men in control of a Department of
Study. This body of men later gained control of granting degrees.
 Medieval universities used methods of teaching based on the formal lesson,
which would be memorized by the students. Lessons involved reading and explaining
the required texts.
 Students then debated the relevant points with each other, and sometimes the
students and masters held public disputations. Latin was the language used forLessons.
 The examinations for the award of degree were strict.
 After three to seven years at university, the student had to defend a thesis
before the members of the faculty.
 For the doctor's degree, the examination frequently lasted a week or more.
 The examinations were oral and tested the ability to defend and dispute. If the
candidates passed, they would become masters, doctors or professors, since these
were synonymous in the early university period.
 All these signified that a student was able to defend, dispute and determine a
case, and so was authorized to teach publicly; all such students were admitted to a guild
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of masters or teachers, or faculty, a level of parity with its other members.
 The preliminary degree, the baccalaureate or bachelors was a term signifying a
beginner in any field or organization, and was formal admission as s candidate for the
license.
 Initially it was not a degree by itself, but in the fifteenth century it became a
distinct stage in the educational process, defined as a minor degree.
 The masters of doctorate merely indicated two aspects of the final conferment of
the privilege: the master was a more private and professional test and the doctorate
were public and ceremonial. In due course 'master' was preferred in England and
'doctorate' on the continent.
 The development of three successive degrees was therefore a result of slow
historical growth and not a feature of the medieval university.
Influence of Medieval University Training
 Universities like Paris, Bologna, Salerno and Salamanca (1230) provided
moreadvanced instructions than ever previously offered Europe.
 Culturally and socially their effects were considerable, helping to accelerate
the pace of social progress and hastening the end of medieval epoch.
(a) Political Influence
 Universities were usually located in centres of population rather than in remote spots.
 They were democratic in nature, so that politically, ecclesiastically and
theologically they bulwark of freedom, given their legal privileges.
 They preserved freedom of opinion and expression, the monarchs respected the
scholars' opposing views and there were rare instances of violation of student
privilege.
(b) Intellectual Influence
 Their greatest influence was in crystallizing intellectual interests and makinglibraries
and teachers more accessible than the religious institutions did.
 They provided a retreat for the rare geniuses
CHAPTER 6: AFRICAN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
 African indigenous education is a coherent system of education developed by indigenous
African societies that transmitted culture, traditions, customs and civilizations from one
generation to the succeeding generations…a process by which people are prepared to
live effectively in their environment…Thus this kind of traditional education in Africa
was effective ever since the elevation of the Africa race; it was tangible, definite and
intelligible.
♫ Long before the Arabs and Europeans came to A frica, the Africa peoples had no
literacy and formal schooling. However z African people had developed their own
coherent systems of education.
♫ African indigenous education is a whole process by which one generation transmits its
culture to the succeeding generation or still better as a process by which people are
prepared to live effectively in their environment. Or of the basis of this definition then,
it is easy to see that before the coming the Arabs and Europeans there was an effective
systems of education each African clan, chiefdom or kingdom.
♫ Thus this kind of tradition education in Africa was effective ever since the elevation of
the Africa race; it was tangible, definite and intelligible.
Aspects of Comparative Indigenous Education in Africa
 There was, and still is, no single indigenous form of education Africa. Societies
differing from each other (as they do) developed different systems of education to
transmit their own particular knowledge and skills.
 Africans had systems of education that bore basic similarities. But each of many ethnic
groups led its own distinctive feature reflecting its particular life and culture.
 The basic similarities in indigenous education are that it was strongly adapted to the
environment. Its aims were to conserve the cultural heritage of the family, clan and
ethnic group; to adapt children to their physical environment and teach them how to
use it; and to explain to them that their own future and that of their community
depended on the continuation and understanding of their ethnic institutions of laws,
language and values they inherited from the past.
Aims of education in indigenous education
 Indigenous systems of education in Africa varied from one society to another.
However, the goals of these systems were often similar.
 Indigenous education was essentially an education for living. Its main purpose was
to train the youth for adulthood within the society.
 Emphasis was placed on normative and expressive goals. Normative goals
were concerned with instilling the accepted standards and beliefs governing the correct
behaviour. Expensive goals were concerned with creating unity and consensus.
 Indigenous education was intertwined with social life. What was taught was
relatedto the social content in which people were called to live.
 It was concerned with the systematic socialization of the younger generation
into norms, religious and cultural beliefs and collective opinion of the wider society. It
placed emphasis on learning practical skills and acquisition of knowledge which was
useful to the individual and the society as a whole.
Contents

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 Content of indigenous education in Africa grew out of the immediate
environment, real or imagined. – i.e.
 Physical environment;
 Economic environment;
 Social environment;
 Customs and traditions
 Religions – system of worship; morals, laws, conduct and
personalprinciples for desirable character
 From the physical environment children had to learn about the weather, the
types of landscapes as well as their associated numerous and insect life.
 Children had to learn to cope with the environment. Certain emotional
attitudesand sentiments were developed around aspects of their environment.
 Children had to have knowledge of the important aspects of the environment
aswell as the attitudes the people had towards them.
Content of Indigenous Education in Africa
 Content of indigenous education in Africa grew out of the immediate environment, real
or imagined.
(i) Physical environment- Children had to make proper adjustments to the
physical environment by means of using equipn1ent such as axe, the hoe, the spear and
other tools. They were taught how to cope with the environment: how to farm, how to
hunt, how to fish or prepare food or build a house. The physical environment also
demanded close-knit societies under a strong form governn1ent, to foster a strong
communal sense. Individualistic tendencies were allowed only to grow within the
umbrella of the society. Through his relations with other members of the society the
child was made to imitate the actions of others and to assimilate the moods, feelings and
ideas of those around him and thus acquire the community identity.
(ii) Economic environment - Among economic activities dictated by the
physical environments were agriculture, pastoralism, fishing, hunting and collecting.
Within the homestead and its environs, parents and older relatives were responsible for
the training in economic responsibilities Lean1ing by imitation played a big part as
smaller children followed the example of the older members in building, herding and
hunting in case of boys or sweeping, carrying wood and water and cooking in case of
girls.
(iii) Religion - Indigenous education included religious attitude of life Religion
was concerned with morality. It gave support to the laws and customs of the
community. It had much to do with moral principles such as conduct of one individual
towards another.
(iv) Social environment- this also shaped the content of indigenous education
in Africa. The children learnt manners, laws, history of the clan or customs and
beliefs. The child also learnt many things through ceremonies such as initiation, birth,
death, war, harvest, religion and magic. Another important area of knowledge was
through riddles, proverbs, poems and lullabies.
Pedagogy in African indigenous education/teaching/instructional Methods
Indigenous education in Africa had a curriculum and methods of instruction that were
determined by society and the environment. They were both formal informal methods of
instruction.
 Informal methods of instructing children were involved in productive works and it made
them capable husbands and wives in the society. A child was to learn by observation and
imitation; apprenticeship; dances; fork songs; music in rites of passage; play activities and
wrestling;
 Formal methods of instruction involved theoretical and practical inculcation of skills.
Learning through apprenticeship was formal and direct. Parents sent their children to work with
crafts men e.g. potter, blacksmiths, basket makers who would teach them formally. Proverbs
were used as condensed wisdom of the great ancestors in a given proverb one or more moral
ideas were contained in a single sentence. These were proverbs dealing with cooperation and
personal human qualities.
 Examinations involved practical performance in activities in real life where children
participated in doing whatever they were taught…
Philosophical Foundations
 A number of principles underlying indigenous education are identified-communalism,
preparationism, functionalism, perennialism and holistic.
 Communalism - The philosophy of communalism or group cohesion was a good way
parentssought brings up their children. It was to strengthen the unity of a clan.
 Preparationism - Children were brought up or prepared to become useful members of
thehousehold village, clan and tribe. Girls were to be good future wives.
 Functionalism - Children were to learn by doing and were to be useful to the society.
 Perennialism - Traditional education had strong elements focused on the transmission
of aheritage from one generation to another.
 Holisticism - This principle expected an individual especially a framer to farm and build
theirown granaries and houses, the farmer could be also a hunter as well as a fisherman.
Features of indigenous system of education in Africa
 It serves a preparatory purpose. Children were brought up to become useful
members of the household, village and community hence the ethnic group. The girls, for
example, were brought up as future housewives and mothers. The boys too, were brought up as
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future fathers.
 Education provided was strictly functional. Education was generally for the
immediate induction into society as opposed to a theoretical approach to preparing
children for
adulthood. For a greater part of their lives, children were engaged in participatory education
through play, work, ceremonies, rituals and initiation. The children learnt by helping adults,
engaging in productive work and generally being useful.
 Indigenous education therefore emphasized economic participation through job
orientation and the application of what was learnt to the needs of the community. What they
learnt was not only functional to the community but also valuable to the individual. For this
purpose, unlike western education, the learner did not require much motivation inorder to learn;
since he knew what he learnt was a preparation for him to play his rightful role in the society.
Motivation was also unnecessary, since learning was largely practical and enabled the learner
to live productively.
 Indigenous education enabled its learners to be adaptable. 'While some clans
specialized in specific trades such as manufacture of tools, generally speaking learners were
encouraged to acquire a variety of skills. Children learnt the skills of fanning, hunting, house
building and cookery and the principles required for the well being of the home, clan and
ethnic group. They learnt about trees, shrubs, birds, animals, the heavens and their role in the
community.
 The curriculum of indigenous education had to grow out of the immediate
environment. The children had to be taught knowledge in important aspects and problems of
the environment so as to equip themselves with appropriate skills for exploiting resources. In
this way they were taught to cope with the environment. Since this environment was often hash,
the children were taught to live and work with other members of the family.
 There was strong communal cohesion and individualistic tendencies were allowed to
grow only within the sphere of society. An individual was to live and serve other people in
accordance with the accepted norms and customs and a vigorous code of morality. Decency of
speech and behaviour, respect for elders and superiors, obedience to authorityand co-operation
with other members of the community were inculcated for the survival of society.
CHAPTER 7: RENAISSANCE & EDUCATION
 Renaissance is the conventional term employed to denote the rise of worldliness
ushering in the modern period of Renaissance (rebirth).
 The era of Renaissance covers the period between 1320 and 1600. The Renaissance
represents a new period in man's history and culture.
 It was, however a gradual break with medieval times.
 Whereas the middle Ages - advocated mortification of the body, the Renaissance
strongly asserted that life was to be enjoyed to the utmost.
Causes of the Renaissance
The causes of the Renaissance include the following:
(a) The spirit of discussion of medieval universities
 Scholasticism led to the speculative spirit which culminated in a struggle between
Naturalism and the Hellenic in nature, seen then to be progressive; and Supernaturalism,
seen in the authoritarian, stable and suspicious Catholic Church.
(b) The Crusade of 1095 -1270
 The crusaders who flocked to the east in the seven crusades following 1095
came into contact with eastern civilization.
 This created a craving for new products and commodities; trade prospered
andcommerce and manufacturing were reactivated in the free cities.
 Middle class or burghers rose in importance, pointing the way to a new
mannerof living.
 The crusades also brought European contact with Byzantine and Arabic
learning, both being in direct line with the Hellenic tradition. This tradition was more
thoughtful and inquiring.
(c) The Age of Discoveries
 The work of explorers and scientific discoverers quickened the spirit of
inquiry and investigation.
 Expanding commerce sought new trade routes.
 Free cities could not handle their trade alone, so other cities combined with
them to form the nuclei of nations.
(d) The New Spirit of Nationality
 The new spirit moving in Western Europe also found expression in the
evolution of the modern European states based on the emergent national
consciousness.
 This spirit stimulated the European mind, which came to believe in its own
natural powers, as opposed to the static church mentality.
 Many previously settled questions were raised again by the universities,
the supreme agent of belief in man's natural powers.
 New national languages were also coming into existence, and people's national
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epics were recorded in writing.
 Thus, new native literatures were being produced throughout Europe.
(e) The Invention of Printing
 Towards the close of the thirteenth century, the process of making paper was introduced into
Europe from the East.
 By 1450 paper was in common use, with the way being opened for the invention of printing.
 The discovery of the art of printing spread the new learning all over Europe. It meant that
manuscripts were replaced by books, and great numbers could be 'printed, so that information
and learning spread to more people.
 Printing therefore made learning and education widespread, though grammar was still the
despot and rote memory the slave.

f) The Order of Chivalry

The order of chivalry, a secular ideal adopted by the rich, emphasized prowess and
character.
This led to greater faith in human capacities and possibilities in opposition to thedogmatic
religious bondage.
Contribution to the Spread of the Renaissance Ideals
 Of all countries in Europe, Italy was the most important in the spread of theRenaissance
ideals.
 The Renaissance extended through the second half of the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries.
 Italy was influenced by the already developed secular spirit, which encouraged a progressive
approach to religion, art, literature and philosophy.
 The exodus of Byzantine scholars, after the fall of Constantinople (1453), and their decision
to take refuge in Italian city-states contributed to this.
 Add to this the originality of Renaissance scholarship, with the recovery and editing of
Latin and Greek manuscripts by European Scholars.
 By the mid-fifteen century, Italian humanism had reached the north of Europe. In the
north the interest was more in social humanism than in the southern state of individualism.
 Northern humanism was both classically and Biblically oriented. It endeavored to eliminate
mass ignorance, and unlike Southern humanism was essentially democratic rather than
autocratic.
 Prominent among the Northern humanists was Erasmus of Rotterdam (1467-1536) who
aimed to remove the common ignorance that was basically the root of the gross evils imputed
to the Church and the state.
 He opposed dogmatism and appealed for tolerance, freedom and the ideals and interests of a
contemplative life.
 Education for him was not so much a form of self-culture, but the most important factor in
the much needed moral, religious, educational and social reform of the time.
 His work was primarily educational, and aimed to eradicate those abuses in society that
were the result of ignorance.
He used satire as a tool to bring about reform.
 He also discussed educational subjects, advocating a study of the child and personal care
in directing its studies.
 He emphasized the importance of the mother, of play and keeping education in touch
with the times.
Martin Luther
Main ideas of Martin Luther on education;
 He resolved on the organization of new schools, on the cost of their
maintenance and then he made a change on the public treasury
 He improved methods of instruction
 He renewed the education spirit in accordance with the principle of protestants
 He stressed on education equality thus gender was to be looked into Education forboth
boys and girls was encouraged.
 He gave first place to the teaching of religion.
 He gave excellent advice for the study of languages.
 He recommended the study of mathematics and nature.
 He also recommended physical exercises.
 He stressed that music is a means of discipline that make men more
indulgent and more mild
 He wished schools to be a place of liberty and joy for all learners.
 Lutherism became the state church in many states of northern Germany and
Scandinavian Kingdom of Norway, Sweden and Denmark.
 In these areas education developed according to the ideas expressed by Luther and
his associates, the dual system of elementary vernacular schools and secondary classical
humanist schools and colleges organized under the supervision of state officials.
Calvinism and Education:
 Calvinism was started in the French-speaking Swiss city of Geneva by an exiled
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Lawyer, John Calvin.
 Calvinism rejected medieval catholic hierarchal traditions and the sacramental
system.
Calvin’s ideas on education:
 He required a literate and educated laity.
 Formal schooling was conceived of as a means of disciplining the child and curbing
his inclination to evil.
 Calvinists educators rejected play as idleness and justified corporal punishment.
 Calvinists like Lutherans favoured a dual track system of schools.
 The common people attended vernacular schools whose curriculum consisted of
catechism, psalms, religious materials, reading, writing, arithmetic and history.
 Classical Latin grammar schools were maintained for upper class children who were
going on to higher studies.
 Schools sought to prepare future ministers, lawyers and leaders of higher education by
emphasizing Latin, Greek and Hebrew.
Educational Significance of the Renaissance
 Denote the rise of worldliness ushering in the modern period of Renaissance
(rebirth).
 The era of Renaissance covers the period between 1320 and 1600. The Renaissance
represents a new period in man's history and culture. It was, however a gradual break
with medieval times.
The spirit of renaissance was an emphasis on man. Renaissance humanist culture
was filled with a sense of opening vistas, a broader social and cultural outlook, and the
possibilities of actualization, freed from old bonds. Thus the spirit of humanism can
be seen as a belief in man, a passion for learning and, stress on scholarly exactness.
Reasons were more important than faith, an emphasis which led to classical learning
and modern liberalism.
 The rebirth of knowledge revived the ancient Greek and Roman heritage, adding to
it a new appreciation of the humanities. In fact Renaissance has correctly been
referred to as a 'Humanistic' revival with 'humanistic' being interpreted broadly rather
than confining it to the revived interest in study of classics.
 The Renaissance was to a greater extent an age of optimism: the feeling then was
that no discovery and no scientific advance lay beyond human achievement.
 TheRenaissance was characterized by two educational features:
Liberal Education
 Renaissance education encouraged the development of freedom and individualism,
moving away from the medievalism and supernaturalism of the Romans towards the
free Germanic spirit.
 Educationally, the Renaissance influenced language and also developed a broader
and more liberal kind of education which aimed to develop the whole man in mind,
body, taste, knowledge, heart and will.
 This education encouraged the development of the free man, possessing his own
individuality and the power to participate effectively in everyday life, based on a wide
knowledge of life in the past and an appreciation of the opportunities inthe present.
 Thus from the fifteenth century onwards there were four growing tendencies in
European education:
 An endeavour to make it natural and practical instead of abstract and theoretical,
including an aesthetic element unknown in medieval education;
 The education of care for the body, which had been greatly neglected and dispersed
in previous cultures;
 A move to extend education to all classes of people, and not merely to the clerics as
was formally the case;
 An endeavour to adopt gentle and attractive methods of teaching, instead of the
harsh and repulsive methods formerly used.
Humanistic Education
 Humanistic education emphasized the language of Greece and Rome i.e. the
humanities. The spirit of humanism was not confined to scholars, but was spread to
other parts of society, aiding in generally tolerant way of life, and in scholarly circles
contributing toward moderation in intellectual altercations.
 Nevertheless, in due course humanistic education was narrowed down to linguistic
education only. It was becoming pointless and profitless to concentrate on humanistic
education by the seventeenth century.
Reformation
 The term reformation refers to a series of revolts against the Catholic Church which had
resisted all efforts at internal reforms of its ecclesiastical doctrines or mode of religious worship
or methods of worship...
 Reformation can simply be defined as the application of Renaissance reason to matters of
religion and education…
Forces behind the Reformation movement
There were several inter-related causes of the Reformation Movement. They include:
 The renaissance era- application reason and spirit of humanism
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 The rise of humanist philosophy of education that opposed the scholasticism
philosophy of the medieval era/period
 The rise of nationalism in Europe
 The rise of protestant reformers led by Martin Luther
 The refusal by the Catholic Church to internal reforms by its ecclesiastical
doctrines/way of worship.
Impact of Reformation on Education
A) Changes in Aims and Content of Education
 With the reformation the religious and theological aims of education became
very prominent, for both Catholics and Protestants in universities this was noticeable in
the development of training in dialectic rhetoric and theology for heading off ecclesiastical
opponents.
(b) Development of Public Support of Elementary Schools
 Protestants, believing on a close union of Church and state thought, it wise
tohave educational works supported and administratively controlled by the state.
 They sought universal free and compulsory education, with the exception of
theAnglicans.
 Luther advocated universal state control of public schools.
 By contrast the Catholics left educational works in the hands of their
variousreligious orders.
(c) Influence on Secondary Schools and Universities.
The move towards a state system of education at the elementary level was soon to be
extended to secondary schools.
 Princes and states began to control such schools. In the case of universities, manyremained
loyal to Catholicism, the champion of authority.
 All adhered to the principle of submission to ecclesiastical authority.
 In Germany the universities gradually threw off their allegiance to temporal princes.
 The English universities, especially oxford and Cambridge, went over to Protestantism,
under the Church of England.
 Despite these educational changes during the reformation, education remained largely what
it had been before, in the hands of clerics, teaching old subjects, with science being suspect as
magic or a black art.
 Education therefore remained a struggle between supernaturalism and authority, on the one
hand and nature and science on the other.
The influence of Reformation on the development of modern theory and practice in
education
 The provision of education by states through construction of schools and establishment of
Ministries of Education.
 Advocating for well trained teachers to teach in schools irrespective of their gender.
 Encouraging the parents to provide education of their children.
 The counties to support education through funding
 Improvement of the methods of teaching which the modern education system has laid
great emphasis on.
 Provision of education for the masses which is prevalent in modern day theory of
education for all.
 Changes of the aims and content of education in respect to the needs of the societies. This
can be traced from before reformation when education aims and content were more theological
but this has gone changing after the reformation.
 There was the development of secondary and higher education. The move towards a state
system of education at the elementary level was soon extended to secondary.
 Education was extended to all classes of people instead of the clergy and the nobility.
 Emphasis was laid on physical education and this is prevalent in extra curricula activities
in the modern education.
 More modest methods of punishment have been encouraged and their origin can be traced
with advocates of reformation such as Martin Luther, John Calvin and Ignatius Loyola.
 Campaign for elementary education for everybody to promote mass literacy
 Development of public/state support for elementary schools/education
 Influence on Secondary schools – the move towards a state system of education at
elementary schools was soon to be extended to the secondary level.
 At university level, the Reformation Movement’s impact was noticeable in the
development of training in dialectic, rhetoric and theology for heading off ecclesiastical
opponents.
 Protestant Reformation led to the emergence of Counter – Reformation that sought to
reform the Catholic Church from within. In terms of education, the Society of Jesus or Jesuit
Priest spearheaded the development of Catholic Schools that offered attractive and quality
education. This Jesuit Priest developed some of the best institutions in Europe andlater established
similar education institutions in Latin America and Africa during colonialism.
 broadening curriculum from ecclesiastical to secular subjects
 discipline methods and teaching pedagogies changed
 open a bigger catchment area and education for all
The influence of reformation to development of modern theory and practice in education
- Capture major educational contributions of reformation in theory and practice in the
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following aspects;
- Curriculum content
- Aims and goals
- Discipline of educators and learners
- Training of educators
- Teacher remunerations
- Enrolment and catchment
- General planning and organization of learning
- Examinations
- General management and administration of education system
- Pedagogies and philosophies
- Scholarly contributions
- Career prospects
- Financing of schools
Factors that contributed to the Reformation and Counter Reformation… Reformation
It can correctly be asserted that come the end of the 14 th century the unity stability of the
medieval world was breaking up due to:
 economic reasons; the world of economics which was subject to moral law during the
Middle Ages was giving way to commercialism; profit making was gaining ground; the old idea
of the community was being replaced by an emphasis on the individual;
 the influence of the renaissance; the thought-world of the renaissance laid the ground
for critical thinking; shifting interest from heaven to earth, from emphasis on matters of the
world to come to matters of the here-and-now, the present;
 the results of voyages of exploration; these voyages enlarged the horizons of Europeans
besides expanding trade with other peoples;
 the rise of nationalism, especially German nationalism was deeply averse to the Italian
papal court which was seen as impoverishing other nation state;
 the corruption in the Roman Catholic Church; the abuses in Church seen in the
superstitions, frauds, and the offer of salvation for money’ all of which undermined the authority
of the Church;
 The revolt – for the so called Reformation was really a revolt – was led by a monk
named Martin Luther (1483-1546); a man of deep sincerity; a religious idealist. He protested
against corruption in the Church setting off a chain of reaction leading to the secession of much
of Northern Europe from the Catholic faith, abolishing many Catholic practices.
Counter Reformation
In order to halt the spread of Protestantism, especially after the failure of the Council of Trent
(1545-1563), the Church ensured that;
 the leading Counter – Reformation popes were collectively the most zealous crusaders for
reform; all led upright personal lives; their appointees set high standards for themselves, their
priests and monks;
 a censorship of books to prevent heretical ideas from corrupting those who still remained in
faith; also include; Inquisitions;
 the society of Jesus, commonly known as the Jesuit order, was founded by St. Ignatius Loyola
(1491-1556); its ultimate aim was to ‘use’ education to form groups of deeply committed
Christians; defenders of the faith;
 While the Jesuits concentrated on higher education, the Christian Brothers through Christian
Schools, founded by La-Salle (1651-1719), worked amongelementary/primary schools reaching
out to the poor, the lower classes.
CHAPTER 8: EDUCATION IN 17TH , 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES
How education in ancient Europe contributed to the foundation of modern education, science
and technology…
 The diminishing authority of the church and the increasing power of science.
 The beginning of the industrial revolution, with its accompanying inventions which made
scientific observation more exact and extensive.
 The 1689 Bill or Rights in England and the 1989 French Revolution, which affected
European social stratification and education.
 The age of Reason and Progress, which changed the philosophical foundations of education,
resulting in new content methods and administration of education, as well as its goals.
 The advent of sense realism in education, which replaced the outdated methods of education
with modern methods that emphasized use of the scientific method to discover natural laws
through carefully, constructed scientific experiments and accurate compilation of data, or
empiricism.
 Emphasis on provision of education to all citizens with discrimination.
 The educational ideas of scholars such as John Locke, John Dewey, Jean Rousseau,
Pestalozzi, etc. the originator of the new modern ideas in education during the two centuries.
Landmarks in the development of formal Western education in Africa between 1900 and
1945…these were…
 Early beginnings along the East and West African coast, first try the Portuguese andlater
by the Dutch, English and Italians traders and proselytes
 The scramble for Africa and missionary activities, leading to the establishment of thefirst
schools beyond the coast lines
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 African resistance to the establishment of formal western education, and the reasons fortheir
resistance
 The First World War and its effects on development of education
 African contribution to the guarded acceptance, and finally to acceptance
 The Phelps-stokes commission and its contribution to the development of education of
education in Africa
 The racial stratification of the education provided
 The different approaches adopted by the different colonial powers- adaptation by theBritish,
assimilation by the rest
 The effects of WW as a catalyst for further development of education in Africa
International Donor Agencies influence on Access and quality of primary Education in
Africa.
 Era of economic optimism and economic growth 1960 and 1970s
 Era of economic crisis/decline due to oil shocks as a result of high expenditure on the
purchase of petroleum products (OPEC and the Kappur war between Israel and Arab countries
of September, 1973)
 Imposition of structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) and reduction in government
expenditure on the social sector including education
 Non-aligned movement of countries and the introduction of the New International Economic
Order (NIEO) through the UN
 Reaction of industrialized countries and the introduction of the World Order (WO)
 Increase economic decline/crisis in Africa due to natural disasters, corruption bad
governance, mismanagement of resources coup d’états, and endemic undemocratic practices
 Government reduction in budgetary support to education and other social sectors and the
introduction cost sharing/user fees which seriously affected most of the vulnerable groups.
 Sharp decline in gross enrolment rates (GREs) and yet enrolment the quality of education in
most African countries
 Industrialized countries withdrawal from funding of UNESCO and the elevation of the World
Bank as a key educational funding agency and the promotion of the neo-liberal ideology of free
enterprise
 World conference on Education for all (EFA) held in Jomtien, Thailand in 1990, sponsored
by the world bank, UNDP, UNICEF and UNESCO to address the issue of declining enrolments
and quality of primary education.
 Setting targets to achieve UPE by 1995 and resistance by industries countries to address the
issue of the contribution of SAPs on declining enrolments and quality of primary education
 The world education forum of 2000 in Dakar, Senegal and the Millennium development goals
(MDGs) and the setting of targets to achieve UPE by 2015
 Political decisions to provide free primary education in many countries, which increased
enrolments, but has serious impact on the quality of education
The response of Africans to formal Western education in Africa between the periods:
prior to 1920 and 1920-1945
Background
 Prior to 1920 no foreign systems of education were established. However, Africans had
developed their own thways of training their young generation.
 From mid 19 century there were intense European political and economic activities in
Africa. These led to the partition of the African continent at the Berlin Conference in 1884.
This partition led to:
 Introduction of formal western education in Africa.
 Influence on the pattern of education similar to that of the colonial powers
Formal Western education in Africa.
 Three groups took an active part in the development of education in Africa.
 European Christian missionaries
 Colonial government officials
 Africans
Response of Africans to formal western education prior to 1920
Characterized by:
 Indifference
 Hostility
 Apathy
 Curiosity
Education by Christian missionaries
♫ Social outcasts and victims of famine attracted to mission stations.
♫ Later groups of curious people gathered around the mission stations. When their
curiosity was satisfied they returned to their villages.
♫ For a longer time village life and mission stations remained things apart
Opposition to missionary influence
 Education aimed at children and adolescents – the back bone of economic life in
thevillages.
 Missionary education interfered with tribal rites and instruction. It tore away
childrenfrom their tribal ways of life.
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 Parents did not see immediate benefits to be gained by sending their children to
school.
Response of Africans to formal western education 1920-1945
During this period Africans understood what benefits they would get from this education alongthe
following aspects:
 Economic status
 Social status
 Political participation
 Personal development etc
The new close relationship created between this education and economic status.
o Only those with this education to get employment and improve this socio-economic status.
Hence the demand for more and more of formal western education
 Establishment of independent schools
 Setting of local native council schools etc.
Education in Africa: 1945 - 1960
The development of education in Africa in the years 1945-1960
Factors that influenced the development of higher education in Africa, 1945-1960 were:
 The 2nd World war
 Rise of African nationalism after 2nd World war
 Formation of UNESCO and declaration of education as a human right.
In the 2nd section, higher education in francophone Africa, the following issues were important:
 Higher education institutions in francophone Africa were constituted by decrees
of French ministry of national education creating French universities oversees.
 The universities established were identical to those in metropolitan France.
 Academic members of staff were treated and enjoyed similar rights and privileges
withtheir counterparts in France.
 Admission, regulations, etc standards were identical to those in France.
Development of higher education in English speaking countries – Anglophone
 The development of such school as Makerere, Gordon Memorial College, Yaba college.
Achimota as institutions of higher learning.
 The Asquith commission report and development of higher education in Britishcolonies
after 2nd World war.
 Emphasis after the war to produce elite of good quality leaders.
 Recommendations that the institutions should become centers of learning and
promotion of research.
 The colleges were in special relationships with British universities.
 They were wholly residential emphasizing liberal arts and sciences above professional
/ vocational studies.
The contribution of Africans to the development of their own education during the
colonial period
Africans made various contributions to the development of their education. Notable among
these was that:
 Africans contributed / donated land for the building of schools.
 Africans provided labour for the construction of schools.
 African took up teaching jobs and other types of employment that were important in
running of educational institutions.
 The rejected religious type of education and hence contributed in reform of school
curriculum.
 Africans fought against racism in education.
 Africa setup independent schools to supplement government and missions efforts in
provisions of education.
 They fought for universal primary education, secular education and equal opportunities
for all. These were not achievement till attainment of development.
 In this discussion candidates are expected to emphasize that Africans were not passive
recipients of Western type education.

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Reach on 0711191594: [email protected]