UNIT 1

Block Diagram of Radar

Duplexer:

 The duplexer protects the receiver from high transmission power.

 consist of two gas-discharge devices, one known as a TR (transmit-
receive) and the other an ATR (anti-transmit-receive).
 The TR protects the receiver during transmission and the ATR directs the
echo signal to the receiver during reception.
 Solid-state ferrite circulators and receiver protectors with gas-plasma
 TR devices or diode limiters are also employed as duplexers

Receiver:

 The receiver is usually of the superheterodyne type.



 Mixer and LO: convert the RF signal to an intermediate frequency(IF).

o LO produces signal having stable frequency
o Mixer can produce sum and difference frequency where difference
freq is IF
 IF amplifier: The IF amplifier should be designed as a matched filter
o It improves signal to noise ratio at output
o frequency-response function - maximize the signal-to-noise-power
ratio
o This occurs when the
 magnitude of the frequency-response function = the
magnitude of the echo signal spectrum
 the phase spectrum of the matched filter = negative of the
phase spectrum of the echo signal

 Display: The most common form of cathode-ray tube display is the plan
 position indicator, or PPI which maps in polar coordinates the location of
the target in azimuth and range.

RADAR EQUATION
PROBABILITY OF FALSE ALARM & PROBABILITY OF
DETECTION
MINIMUM DETECTABLE SIGNAL

Problems of threshold detection

 false alarm: if the threshold is set as low then the noise may be detected
as target
 Missed detection: If the threshold is set high
INTEGRATION OF PULSES
RADAR CROSS SECTION OF TARGETS
TRANSMITTER POWER

RANGE AMBIGUITIES
  The pulse repetition frequency (prf) is determined primarily by the
maximum range at which targets are expected.

 If the prf is made too high, the likelihood of obtaining target echoes
from the wrong pulse transmission is increased.

 Echo signals received after an interval exceeding the pulse-repetition

period are called multiple time around echoes.

 Consider the three targets labeled A, B, and C in the figure(a) below.

o Target A is located within the maximum unambiguous range

Runamb [= C.TP /2] of the radar
o target B is at a distance greater than Runamb but less than
2Runamb
o the target C is greater than 2Runamb but less than 3Runamb.

 Only the range measured for target A is correct; those for B and C are

not.
Solution

 One method of distinguishing multiple-time-around echoes from

unambiguous echoes is to operate with a varying pulse repetition
frequency.
 The echo signal from an unambiguous range target will appear at the
same place on the A-scope on each sweep no matter whether the prf is
modulated or not.
 However, echoes from multiple-time-around targets will be spread over
a finite range
SYSTEM LOSS

 The losses in a radar system reduce the signal-to-noise ratio at the

receiver output.
 They may be of two kinds, Depending upon whether or not they can be
predicted
 The antenna beam-shape loss, collapsing loss, and losses in the
microwave plumbing are examples of losses which can be calculated.
 Less predictable include 'those due to field degradation and to operator
fatigue or lack of operator motivation

Plumbing Loss

1. Transmission Loss
o For low frequency the losses is less
o For high frequency the losses is high

o additional losses occurs at each connection or bend in the line and at the
antenna rotary joint if used.

oSo keep the distance between antenna and receiver short as

possible
o The loss is taken twice as the signal is transmitted and received
2. Duplexer Loss
o It is a gas filled section used to protect the receiver form the
transmitter.
o The transmitter uses very high power and receiver we get only a
small from from the reflected
o So we use a waveguide shutter which produces loss it can be upto
2dB

Antenna Loss

1. Beam Shape Loss: Happens when the radar antenna does not radiate
the signal in an ideal shape. If the antenna's radiation pattern is not
optimized, it can cause a loss in signal strength.

2. Scanning Loss: Occurs when an antenna is scanning, and some energy

is lost due to imperfect tracking or misalignment during the scanning
process.

3. Radome Loss: Radomes (protective covers for antennas) can cause

signal attenuation due to the material’s absorption and reflection
properties, leading to signal degradation.
 4. Phase Array Loss: For phased array antennas, losses occur due to
imperfections in the array elements or the phase shifters, reducing the
system's overall efficiency.

Signal Processing Loss:

This occurs when signal processing techniques, such as filtering, amplification,

or digital conversion, result in some degradation of the received signal or
reduced detection accuracy due to noise or distortion.

Collapsing Loss:

Can occur when the radar system loses the ability to maintain effective
coverage or performance due to poor design or operational factors, causing a
drop in signal quality or range.

Operator Loss:

Refers to the human factor, where operator errors or inefficiencies in operating

the radar system can lead to suboptimal performance, such as incorrect
settings or misinterpretation of data.

Equipment Degradation:

Over time, the radar system's components (antennas, amplifiers, etc.) may
degrade due to wear and tear, environmental factors, or aging, leading to a
loss in performance.

Atmosphere Propagation Loss:

Signal loss due to environmental factors like atmospheric conditions, including

rain, snow, fog, or humidity. The radar signal can scatter or be absorbed by
particles in the atmosphere, leading to attenuation or weakening of the signal.
UNIT 2
CW RADAR

CW radar is a type of radar system that transmits a continuous,

unmodulated wave at a single frequency, f0, and is primarily used to
measure the relative velocity of a target using the Doppler effect

Transmitter: The radar transmitter continuously radiates a signal with

frequency f0

 When this signal encounters a target, a portion of the energy is reflected

back toward the radar. The reflected signal is collected by the radar's
receiving antenna.

 If the target is moving with a velocity Vr relative to the radar, the

reflected signal's frequency is shifted by the Doppler frequency, fd.

 This shift is given by: fd=2Vr/λ

 o Vr: Radial velocity of the target (positive for approaching and
negative for receding targets).

o λ: Wavelength of the transmitted signal (λ=cf0\lambda = \frac{c}

{f_0}).

o c: Speed of light.

o f0: Transmitted frequency.

 Significance of Doppler Frequency (fd):

o +fd: The frequency of the reflected signal is higher than f0 when

the target is approaching.

o −fd: The frequency of the reflected signal is lower than f0 when

the target is receding.

The received signal, f0±fd enters the radar system through the receiving
antenna and undergoes the following steps:

Mixer (Heterodyning):

 The received signal is mixed with a portion of the transmitted signal f0in
a detector

 The mixing process generates a Doppler beat frequency, fd,

 The sign of fd (i.e., whether the target is approaching or receding) is

lost during this process, meaning CW radar can only measure the
magnitude of the relative velocity, not its direction.

Beat Frequency Amplifier:

 The Doppler amplifier processes the beat frequency fd by:

o Amplifying the Doppler signal to a detectable level.

o Eliminating signals from stationary objects (DC components or

near-zero fd).

Frequency Response

 Low-Frequency Cutoff:

o The low-frequency cutoff must be high enough to reject the DC

component caused by stationary targets, which would otherwise
clutter the radar display.

o However, it must also be low enough to pass the smallest

expected Doppler frequency from slow-moving targets.

o Compromise: Sometimes, achieving both conditions

 simultaneously requires balancing trade-offs.

 High-Frequency Cutoff:

o The high-frequency cutoff must be sufficient to pass the largest

Doppler frequency expected, corresponding to the fastest target
velocity.

Isolation Between Transmitter and Receiver in CW Radar

1. Purpose of Isolation

o Prevents transmitted power leakage from damaging the receiver

or reducing sensitivity.

o Ensures clean detection of Doppler-shifted signals by minimizing

noise.

2. Transmitter Leakage

o A small amount of leakage is useful as a reference for detecting

Doppler shift.

o Excessive leakage can cause:

 Receiver burnout (physical damage).

 Degraded sensitivity due to transmitter noise.

3. Required Isolation

o Depends on transmitter power and receiver sensitivity.

o Example: For a 1 kW transmitter and a 10 mW receiver threshold,

50 dB isolation is needed.

4. Isolation Techniques
 o Single Antenna:

 Hybrid Junctions: Limited isolation (20–30 dB) with 6 dB

power loss.

 Circulators/Turnstile Junctions: Better isolation (20–60

dB) without power loss.

o Dual Antennas: Achieves high isolation (>80 dB) with physical

separation and directional beams.

o Controlled Signal Cancellation: Adjusts phase and amplitude to

"cancel" leakage, adding ~10 dB isolation.

Limitations of zero-IF receiver

A zero-IF receiver in a CW radar is a simpler design where the transmitter's
leakage signal replaces the local oscillator, eliminating the need for
intermediate frequency (IF) amplifiers or oscillators. However, this simplicity
comes with a drawback: reduced sensitivity due to increased flicker noise.
Flicker noise, prominent at low frequencies like those used in Doppler
detection, is caused by imperfections in semiconductor devices like diodes or
vacuum tubes. Unlike shot or thermal noise, which remain constant across
frequencies, flicker noise grows significantly as frequency decreases, leading
to poor performance in detecting weak signals. While this reduced sensitivity
might be acceptable for short-range, low-power applications by compensating
with larger antennas or more transmitter power, it cannot meet the efficiency
and performance requirements of long-range or high-precision CW radar
systems.

Non-Zero IF CW Radar
A nonzero-IF receiver in CW radar addresses the issue of flicker noise by
introducing an intermediate frequency (IF) that is high enough to minimize
flicker noise compared to normal receiver noise. Flicker noise decreases as
frequency increases, so operating at a higher IF effectively overcomes this
limitation.
In this setup, the receiver includes a locally generated signal at the chosen IF.
A portion of the transmitted signal is mixed with this local signal, creating
sidebands (frequencies above and below the carrier). A narrowband filter is
then used to select one of these sidebands as the reference signal for
processing.
Receiver Bandwidth Requirements in CW Radar Systems

o Doppler-frequency amplifiers need to be wide enough to pass the

range of expected Doppler frequencies.

o A wider bandwidth increases noise, reducing the radar's

sensitivity.

o If the Doppler shift is predictable, a narrowband filter can reduce

noise without losing signal energy.

o A matched filter can also be used if the signal's waveform and

frequency are known.

Filter Bank for Doppler Frequencies

o Filter Bank: A series of narrowband filters tuned to different

Doppler frequencies can improve the signal-to-noise ratio and
measure Doppler shifts.

o IF vs. Video Filters: Filters at the intermediate frequency (IF)

provide better results than video filters but are more complex.

 Video filters lose the Doppler shift's sign

(approaching/receding) due to fold-over but require fewer
filters.

o Tunable Filters: In some systems, a single tunable filter scans

the Doppler frequency range instead of using multiple filters.
FMCW RADAR
If there is no Doppler frequency shift, the beat note (difference frequency) is a
measure of the target's range and fb= fr where fr, is the beat frequency only
due to the target's range.

If the rate of change of the carrier frequency is f0(dot) then the beat

frequency is given by

If a frequency change of Δf is modulated at a rate fm , then the beat

frequency is
FMCW altimeter
UNIT 3
 The delay-line canceller acts as a filter to eliminate the dc component of
fixed targets and to pass the a c components of moving targets.
 The video portion of the receiver is divided into two channels.
 One is a normal video channel.
 In the other, the video signal experiences a time delay equal to one
pulse-repetition period (equal to the reciprocal of the pulse repetition
frequency).
 The outputs from the two channels are subtracted from one another.
 The fixed targets with unchanging amplitudes from pulse to pulse are
canceled on subtraction. • However, the amplitudes of the moving-
target echoes are not constant from pulse to pulse and subtraction
results in an un canceled residue.
 The output of the subtraction circuit is a bipolar video just as was the
input.
 Before bipolar video can intensity-modulate a PPI display it is converted
into uni potential voltages (unipolar video) by a full-wave rectifier.
MTI POWER AMPLIFIER TRANSMITTER
MTI POWER OSCILLATOR TRANSMITTER
SAQ
Function of delay canceller

A delay canceller in radar removes clutter and stationary targets by

subtracting delayed signals from the current received signal, enhancing the
detection of moving targets.

Why is it that radar using single DLC cannot be able to cancel clutter
totally?

A single Delay Line Canceller (DLC) cannot cancel clutter completely because
it only removes signals with a constant phase, like stationary targets, but
cannot handle varying clutter caused by moving objects or changes in the
environment.
what is STALO and COHO

 STALO (Stable Local Oscillator): Generates a stable frequency for

mixing and creating the transmitted radar signal and intermediate
frequency (IF).

 COHO (Coherent Oscillator): Maintains a fixed phase relationship with

the transmitted pulse for detecting Doppler shifts in coherent radar
systems.

What are blind speeds

Blind speeds are specific target velocities at which the Doppler frequency shift
aligns with the radar's Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF), causing the target to
become undetectable due to phase ambiguities.

How does a double DLC provide better CA as compared to that of

single DLC
A double Delay Line Canceller (DLC) provides better clutter attenuation (CA)
than a single DLC by using two delayed signals, enabling it to cancel both
stationary and low-velocity clutter more effectively.

Why does blind speed cancel desirable moving targets

Blind speed cancels desirable moving targets because the Doppler frequency
of the target matches a multiple of the radar's Pulse Repetition Frequency
(PRF), making the target's phase shift appear static, similar to clutter.

Applications of MTI (Moving Target Indicator) include

1. Air traffic control.

2. Surveillance radar.

3. Weather radar to detect moving storms.

4. Maritime radar for ship detection.

5. Military radar for tracking aircraft and missiles.

Applications of CW (Continuous Wave) radar include:

1. Speed measurement (e.g., traffic speed guns).

2. Altimeters in aircraft.

3. Proximity sensors.

4. Intrusion detection systems.

5. Weather monitoring.

6. Doppler radar for velocity measurement.

Applications of FMCW (Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave) radar

include:
 1. Automotive radar (adaptive cruise control and collision avoidance).

2. Altimeters in aircraft.

3. Terrain mapping.

4. Level measurement in industrial tanks.

5. Proximity sensors.

6. Surveillance and security systems.

Applications of radar include:

1. Air traffic control.

2. Weather monitoring and forecasting.

3. Military surveillance and target tracking.

4. Automotive radar for collision avoidance.

5. Marine navigation.

6. Search and rescue operations.

7. Ground mapping and terrain analysis.

Advantages of CW radar:

1. Simple design and low cost.

2. High accuracy in velocity measurement.

3. Continuous operation without pulse timing issues.

Disadvantages of CW radar:

1. Cannot measure range directly.

2. Limited to detecting moving targets.

3. Requires additional components for range detection (e.g., FMCW).

Advantages of MTI (Moving Target Indicator):

1. Effectively filters out stationary clutter.

2. Enhances detection of moving targets.

3. Improves target tracking in cluttered environments.

Disadvantages of MTI:

1. Cannot detect stationary targets.

2. Prone to errors with moving clutter.

 3. Limited performance in low-velocity targets.

Define Doppler effect

The Doppler effect is the change in frequency or wavelength of a wave

observed when the source and observer are in relative motion.

How can simple CW radar used for range detection

Simple CW radar can be used for range detection by implementing

Frequency Modulation (FMCW). By varying the frequency of the
transmitted signal, the range is determined from the frequency difference
between the transmitted and received signals.

How is radar isolation of Tx and Rx achieved in simple CW

 Directional couplers or circulators: To separate transmitted and
received signals.
 Antenna isolation: Using separate antennas for Tx and Rx.
 Polarization techniques: Employing orthogonal polarization for Tx
and Rx signals.

How is doppler freq obtained when transmitter is moving and target

is stationery

When the transmitter is moving and the target is stationary, the Doppler
frequency is obtained from the relative motion between the radar and the
target. It is calculated as:

fd=2v/λ

what is homodyne receiver

A homodyne receiver is a type of radar receiver that mixes the received signal
with a local oscillator (LO) signal of the same frequency, resulting in zero
intermediate frequency (IF), which simplifies signal processing and reduces
system complexity.

The principles of the Doppler effect are:

1. Relative Motion: The change in frequency occurs when the source and
observer are in motion relative to each other.

2. Approaching Source: If the source moves toward the observer, the

frequency increases (blue shift).

3. Receding Source: If the source moves away, the frequency decreases

(red shift).

4. Wave Compression/Stretching: The wavelength of the emitted waves

 is compressed when the source approaches and stretched when it
recedes.

Fundamental concept involved in CW radar

The fundamental concept of CW radar is the continuous transmission of

electromagnetic waves, which are reflected by a target. The frequency shift
(Doppler shift) between the transmitted and received signals is used to
determine the velocity of the target.

What are clutter echoes

Clutter echoes are unwanted reflections from stationary or slow-moving

objects, such as buildings, terrain, or weather conditions, that interfere with
the detection of desired moving targets in radar systems.

Define multiple time around echo and what are causes of it

A multiple time-around echo occurs when a radar signal is reflected

multiple times, causing the receiver to detect the same target at multiple,
incorrect distances.

Causes:

1. Long-range targets: When the radar's maximum range is exceeded,

signals can reflect back after multiple cycles.

2. High Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF): When PRF is too high, the
radar may misinterpret delayed signals as separate targets.

Define Unambiguous range

Unambiguous range is the maximum distance at which a radar can accurately

measure the range of a target without confusion from overlapping or multiple
echoes due to pulse repetition frequency (PRF) limitations.

Define Duty cycle

Duty cycle is the ratio of the time a radar system transmits a signal (pulse
duration) to the total period of the transmission cycle, expressed as a
percentage. It indicates how much time the radar is actively transmitting
versus being idle.

Define PRF

PRF (Pulse Repetition Frequency) is the number of pulses transmitted by a

radar system per second. It determines the radar's ability to measure range
and affects its unambiguous range and maximum detectable velocity.

Define radar cross section of an object

Radar Cross Section (RCS) of an object is a measure of how much power is

reflected back to the radar by the object, indicating its size, shape, and
material properties. It quantifies the object's detectability by radar.

Define range ambiguity

Range ambiguity occurs when the radar cannot correctly determine the
distance to a target due to overlapping echoes from multiple pulses, often
caused by insufficient Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) or long-range targets.

On what parameters does radar range depend on

 Transmitter power: Higher power increases range.

 Antenna gain: Better gain extends the range.
 Radar Cross Section (RCS): Larger RCS results in a greater return
signal.
 Frequency: Lower frequencies generally offer better range.
 Environmental factors: Weather, terrain, and atmospheric conditions
can reduce range.
 Receiver sensitivity: A more sensitive receiver can detect weaker
signals at longer ranges.

On what factors minimum detectable signal depends on

 Receiver sensitivity: A more sensitive receiver detects weaker signals.

 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR): Higher SNR improves signal detection.
 Pulse duration: Longer pulses allow for better signal detection.
 Antenna gain: Higher gain improves signal strength.
 Noise level: Lower noise improves the ability to detect weaker signals.

Define Receiver Noise

Receiver noise refers to unwanted electrical signals or fluctuations within the

radar receiver that distort the received signal, reducing the signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) and affecting target detection.

Why is mixer used in front end of radar receiver

A mixer is used in the front end of a radar receiver to convert the received
signal to an intermediate frequency (IF), which simplifies signal processing by
reducing the frequency and allowing easier filtering and amplification.

Why is phase detector used instead of envelope detector

A phase detector is used instead of an envelope detector in radar systems

because it can detect phase shifts (such as Doppler shifts) accurately, which is
essential for measuring target velocity, while an envelope detector is more
suited for detecting signal amplitude variations.

Define plumbing loss and collapsing loss

 Plumbing loss refers to losses in the radar system due to inefficiencies

in the transmission line, connectors, and waveguides, often caused by
resistance or imperfect connections.

 Collapsing loss occurs when the radar signal is absorbed or scattered

 by the medium it travels through (e.g., atmosphere), reducing the signal
strength before it reaches the target or returns to the receiver.

What does CFAR and PPI stand for

 CFAR (Constant False Alarm Rate): A radar signal processing

technique that adjusts the detection threshold to maintain a constant
probability of false alarms, regardless of the clutter level.

 PPI (Plan Position Indicator): A type of radar display that shows the
radar's output in a polar coordinate system, displaying targets relative
to the radar's position.

Define Noise figure

Noise figure is a measure of how much noise a component (like a radar

receiver) adds to the signal, relative to an ideal, noiseless system. It quantifies
the degradation of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) caused by the component.

List factors affecting PRF and range of radar

Factors affecting PRF:

1. Pulse duration: Longer pulses reduce the maximum PRF.

2. Receiver processing capability: Limits how fast pulses can be

transmitted.

3. Radar system design: Determines the optimal PRF for the application.

Factors affecting range:

1. Transmitter power: Higher power increases range.

2. Antenna gain: Better gain extends the detection range.

3. Radar cross section (RCS): Larger RCS improves target detection

range.

4. Frequency: Lower frequencies generally provide better range.

5. Atmospheric conditions: Weather, terrain, and environmental factors

can reduce range.

What is range of radar

The range of a radar is the maximum distance at which it can detect and track
a target, determined by factors such as transmitter power, antenna gain,
target radar cross section (RCS), frequency, and environmental conditions.

The range of radar is probabilistic in nature justify

The range of radar is probabilistic in nature because the detection of a target

depends on various factors like signal strength, noise levels, target RCS, and
environmental conditions. These variables introduce uncertainty, making the
likelihood of detecting a target at a given range a probability rather than a
certainty.