Republic of the Philippines

Far Eastern University

Alabang Campus
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Introduction to Hydrology

II. LESSON TITLE

Introduction to Hydrology

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

1. Introduction to Hydrology
2. Hydrologic Cycle and its phases
3. Watersheds in the Philippines

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

• To discuss the definition of Hydrology and the Hydrologic cycle

• To discuss the importance and different applications of Hydrology to the field of Civil Engineering

V. LESSON CONTENT

Hydrology

Hydrology is the study of the distribution and movement of water both on and below the Earth’s surface,
as well as the impact of human activity on water availability and conditions.

It is the study of the circulation of water and its constituents through the hydrologic cycle or the
quantification of flows that are ultimately produced by precipitation. It deals with precipitation (rain, snow,
sleet, hail, etc.), evaporation, infiltration, groundwater flow, surface runoff, streamflow, and the transport
of substances dissolved or suspended in flowing water. In the field of stormwater engineering, hydrology
typically refers to the rate of precipitation, the quantity of water, the rate of surface runoff, and the timing
of its arrival at a point of interest.

The study of hydrology also includes quantifying the effects of such human interventions on the natural
system at watershed, river basin, regional, country, continental, and global scales. The process of water
circulating from precipitation in the atmosphere falling to the ground, traveling through a river basin (or
through the entire earth system), and then evaporating back to the atmosphere is known as the hydrologic
cycle.

Hydrologists apply scientific knowledge and mathematical principles to solve water-related problems in
society: problems of quantity, quality and availability. They may be concerned with finding water supplies
for cities or irrigated farms, or controlling river flooding or soil erosion. Or, they may work in environmental
protection: preventing or cleaning up pollution or locating sites for safe disposal of hazardous wastes.

Persons trained in hydrology may have a wide variety of job titles. Some specialize in the study of water
in just one part of the hydrologic cycle: hydrometeorologists (atmosphere); glaciologists (glaciers);
geomorphologists (landforms); geochemists (groundwater quality); and hydrogeologists (groundwater).
Engineers who study hydrology include those in agricultural, civil, environmental, hydraulic, irrigation and
sanitary engineering.

Scientists and engineers in hydrology may be involved in both field investigations and office work. In the
field, they may collect basic data, oversee testing of water quality, direct field crews and work with
equipment. Many jobs require travel, some abroad. A hydrologist may spend considerable time doing
field work in remote and rugged terrain.

In the office, hydrologists do many things such as interpreting hydrologic data and performing analyses
for determining possible water supplies. Much of their work relies on computers for organizing,
summarizing and analyzing masses of data. Computers are also used for modeling studies such as the

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prediction of flooding and the consequences of reservoir releases or the effect of leaking underground oil
storage tanks.
The work of hydrologists is as varied as the uses of water and may range from planning water projects
to advising homeowners about backyard drainage problems.

Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-Atmosphere system. At its
core, the water cycle is the motion of the water from the ground to the atmosphere and back again. The
global water cycle can be described with nine major physical processes which form a continuum of water
movement. Complex pathways include the passage of water from the gaseous envelope around the
planet called the atmosphere, through the bodies of water on the surface of earth such as the oceans,
glaciers and lakes, and at the same time (or more slowly) passing through the soil and rock layers
underground. Later, the water is returned to the atmosphere.

A fundamental characteristic of the hydrologic cycle is that it has no beginning and it has no end. It can
be studied by starting at any of the following processes: evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
interception, infiltration, percolation, transpiration, runoff, and storage.

Phases of the Hydrological Cycle

1. Evaporation

Evaporation occurs when the physical state of water is

changed from a liquid state to a gaseous state. A
considerable amount of heat, about 600 calories of energy
for each gram of water, is exchanged during the change of
state. Typically, solar radiation and other factors such as air
temperature, vapor pressure, wind, and atmospheric
pressure affect the amount of natural evaporation that takes
place in any geographic area. Evaporation can occur on
raindrops, and on free water surfaces such as seas and
lakes. It can even occur from water settled on vegetation, soil, rocks and snow. There is also
evaporation caused by human activities. Heated buildings experience evaporation of water
settled on its surfaces. Evaporated moisture is lifted into the atmosphere from the ocean, land
surfaces, and water bodies as water vapor. Some vapor always exists in the atmosphere.

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2. Condensation

Condensation is the process by which water vapor changes its physical

state from a vapor, most commonly, to a liquid. Water vapor condenses
onto small airborne particles to form dew, fog, or clouds. The most active
particles that form clouds are sea salts, atmospheric ions caused by
lightning, and combustion products containing sulfurous and nitrous
acids. Condensation is brought about by cooling of the air or by
increasing the amount of vapor in the air to its saturation point. When
water vapor condenses back into a liquid state, the same large amount
of heat (600 calories of energy per gram) that was needed to make it a
vapor is released to the environment.

3. Precipitation

Precipitation is the process that occurs when any and all

forms of water particles fall from the atmosphere and
reach the ground. There are two sub-processes that
cause clouds to release precipitation, the coalescence
process and the ice-crystal process. As water drops
reach a critical size, the drop is exposed to gravity and
frictional drag. A falling drop leaves a turbulent wake
behind which allows smaller drops to fall faster and to be
overtaken to join and combine with the lead drop. The
other sub-process that can occur is the ice-crystal
formation process. It occurs when ice develops in cold
clouds or in cloud formations high in the atmosphere
where freezing temperatures occur. When nearby water
droplets approach the crystals, some droplets evaporate
and condense on the crystals. The crystals grow to a critical size and drop as snow or ice
pellets. Sometimes, as the pellets fall through lower elevation air, they melt and change into
raindrops.

Precipitated water may fall into a waterbody or it may fall onto land. It is then dispersed several
ways. The water can adhere to objects on or near the planet surface or it can be carried over
and through the land into stream channels, or it may penetrate into the soil, or it may be
intercepted by plants.

When rainfall is small and infrequent, a high percentage of precipitation is returned to the
atmosphere by evaporation.

4. Interception
Interception is the process of interrupting the movement of water
in the chain of transportation events leading to streams. The
interception can take place by vegetal cover or depression
storage in puddles and in land formations such as rills and
furrows.

When rain first begins, the water striking leaves and other organic
materials spreads over the surfaces in a thin layer or it collects at
points or edges. When the maximum surface storage capability on
the surface of the material is exceeded, the material stores
additional water in growing drops along its edges. Eventually the
weight of the drops exceeds the surface tension and water falls to
the ground. Wind and the impact of rain drops can also release
the water from the organic material. The water layer on organic
surfaces and the drops of water along the edges are also freely exposed to evaporation.

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Additionally, interception of water on the ground surface during freezing and sub-freezing
conditions can be substantial. The interception of falling snow and ice on vegetation also
occurs. The highest level of interception occurs when it snows on conifer forests and hardwood
forests that have not yet lost their leaves.

5. Infiltration

Infiltration is the physical process involving movement of

water through the boundary area where the atmosphere
interfaces with the soil. The surface phenomenon is
governed by soil surface conditions. Water transfer is
related to the porosity of the soil and the permeability of
the soil profile. Typically, the infiltration rate depends on
the puddling of the water at the soil surface by the impact
of raindrops, the texture and structure of the soil, the initial
soil moisture content, the decreasing water concentration
as the water moves deeper into the soil filling of the pores
in the soil matrices, changes in the soil composition, and to
the swelling of the wetted soils that in turn close cracks in
the soil.

6. Percolation

Percolation is the movement of water though the soil, and its

layers, by gravity and capillary forces. The prime moving
force of groundwater is gravity. Water that is in the zone of
aeration where air exists is called vadose water. Water that is
in the zone of saturation is called groundwater. For all
practical purposes, all groundwater originates as surface
water. Once underground, the water is moved by gravity. The
boundary that separates the vadose and the saturation zones
is called the water table. Usually, the direction of water
movement is changed from downward and a horizontal
component to the movement is added that is based on the
geologic boundary conditions.

Geologic formations in the earth's crust serve as natural subterranean reservoirs for storing
water. Others can also serve as conduits for the movement of water. Essentially, all
groundwater is in motion. Some of it, however, moves extremely slowly. A geologic formation
which transmits water from one location to another in sufficient quantity for economic
development is called an aquifer. The movement of water is possible because of the voids or
pores in the geologic formations. Some formations conduct water back to the ground surface. A
spring is a place where the water table reaches the ground surface. Stream channels can be in
contact with an unconfined aquifer that approach the ground surface. Water may move from the
ground into the stream, or vice versa, depending on the relative water level. Groundwater
discharges into a stream forms the base flow of the stream during dry periods, especially during
droughts. An influent stream supplies water to an aquifer while and effluent stream receives
water from the aquifer.

7. Transpiration

Transpiration is the biological process that occurs mostly in the

day. Water inside of plants is transferred from the plant to the
atmosphere as water vapor through numerous individual leave
openings. Plants transpire to move nutrients to the upper portion
of the plants and to cool the leaves exposed to the sun. Leaves
undergoing rapid transpiration can be significantly cooler than
the surrounding air.

Transpiration is greatly affected by the species of plants that are

in the soil and it is strongly affected by the amount of light to
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which the plants are exposed. Water can be transpired freely by plants until a water deficit
develops in the plant and it water-releasing cells (stomata) begin to close. Transpiration then
continues at a must slower rate. Only a small portion of the water that plants absorb are
retained in the plants.

Vegetation generally retards evaporation from the soil. Vegetation that is shading the soil,
reduces the wind velocity. Also, releasing water vapor to the atmosphere reduces the amount of
direct evaporation from the soil or from snow or ice cover. The absorption of water into plant
roots, along with interception that occurs on plant surfaces offsets the general effects that
vegetation has in retarding evaporation from the soil. The forest vegetation tends to have more
moisture than the soil beneath the trees.

8. Runoff

Runoff is flow from a drainage basin or watershed that appears in surface streams. It generally
consists of the flow that is unaffected by artificial diversions, storages or other works that society
might have on or in a stream channel. The flow is made up partly of precipitation that falls
directly on the stream, surface runoff that flows over the land surface and through channels,
subsurface runoff that infiltrates the surface soils and moves laterally towards the stream, and
groundwater runoff from deep percolation through the soil horizons. Part of the subsurface flow
enters the stream quickly, while the remaining portion may
take a longer period before joining the water in the stream.

The portion of precipitation that appears in surface streams

is called runoff. Runoff may consist of component
contributions from such sources as surface runoff,
subsurface runoff, or ground water runoff. Surface runoff
travels over the ground surface and through surface
channels to leave a catchment area called a drainage basin
or watershed. The portion of the surface runoff that flows
over the land surface towards the stream channels is called
overland flow. The total runoff confined in the stream
channels is called the streamflow.

When each of the component flows enter the stream, they form the total runoff. The total runoff
in the stream channels is called streamflow and it is generally regarded as direct runoff or base
flow. Runoff occurs when there is excessive precipitation and the ground is saturated (cannot
absorb any more water). Rivers and lakes are results of runoff. Some runoff evaporates into the
atmosphere, but most water in rivers and lakes returns to the oceans.

If runoff water flows into a lake only with no outlet for water to flow out, then evaporation is the
only means for water to return to the atmosphere. As water evaporates, impurities or salts are left
behind.

9. Storage

There are three basic locations of water storage that occur in the planetary water cycle. Water is
stored in the atmosphere; water is stored on the surface of the earth, and water stored in the
ground.

Water stored in the atmosphere can be moved relatively quickly from one part of the planet to
another part of the planet. The type of storage that occurs on the land surface and under the
ground largely depend on the geologic features related to the types of soil and the types of rocks
present at the storage locations. Storage occurs as surface storage in oceans, lakes, reservoirs,
and glaciers; underground storage occurs in the soil, in aquifers, and in the crevices of rock
formations.

The movement of water through the eight other major physical processes of the water cycle can

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be erratic. On average, water the atmosphere is renewed every 16 days. Soil moisture is replaced
about every year. Globally, waters in wetlands are replaced about every 5 years while the
residence time of lake water is about 17 years. In areas of low development by society,
groundwater renewal can exceed 1,400 years. The uneven distribution and movement of water
over time, and the spatial distribution of water in both geographic and geologic areas, can cause
extreme phenomena such as floods and droughts to occur.

Importance of the Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle is one of the four major biogeochemical cycles, which constantly recycles the
pathogens, elements, minerals and nutrients along with the water in the ecosystem.

Listed below are a few reasons why the Hydrologic Cycle Processes are important:
• It is also involved in maintaining aquatic ecosystems.
• The hydrologic cycle is an essential biogeochemical cycle on the earth for the maintenance of life.
• The hydrologic cycle plays an important role in ensuring the availability of water for all living
organisms, including plants, animals, humans and other living species.
• The hydrologic cycle is the greatest natural process which plays a significant role in the continuous
movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth.

Importance of the Hydrologic Cycle in Civil Engineering

It is an important field where the people who study hydrology use their knowledge and expertise to combat
water pollution, protect the earth’s water resources, and provide engineering hydrology – which is an
engineering specialty focusing on water resources.

Hydrology plays a crucial role in civil engineering for several reasons:

• Determining Maximum Probable Flood: Hydrology is necessary for determining the maximum
probable flood at a proposed construction site. This is crucial for designing structures like dams
and bridges that need to withstand specific flood levels.

• Establishing Water Relationships: Hydrology facilitates engineers and hydrologists in establishing

the relation between surface water of a catchment and underground water resources. This is
important for managing water resources and planning water supply systems.

• Analyzing Water Flow: Hydrology enables engineers to determine the flow over various hydraulic
structures such as spillways, highway culverts, urban storm drainage systems, etc. This helps in
the design and management of these structures.

• Studying Drainage and Seepage Conditions: Hydrology is important for studying the on-site
drainage and seepage condition before the commencement of any engineering construction. This
can influence the design and placement of structures.

• Understanding Water Variations: The nature of variations of water flow, rainfall pattern, etc., can
be obtained from engineering hydrology applications. This is crucial for planning and managing
water-related projects.

• Assessing Water Availability: Engineering hydrology is essential for assessing water availability
and designing water supply systems. It involves estimating water demand, analyzing rainfall-
runoff relationships, and determining the capacity of water sources such as rivers, lakes, and
groundwater aquifers.

Watersheds

Watershed is an area of land that drains all the streams and rainfall to a common outlet such as the
outflow of a reservoir, mouth of a bay, or any point along a stream channel. Healthy and sustainably
managed watersheds provide environmental services and economically viable natural resources (i.e.
wood/non-wood products) and serve as water sources for domestic, agricultural and industrial uses. They
could also serve as habitats to various plant and animal species and play ecological functions.
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Watersheds also prevent or reduce costly climate change and flooding impacts, manage drought,
contribute to tourism and fisheries, forestry, agriculture and mining industries.

Some of the Major Watersheds in the Philippines

1. Cagayan River Watershed – The Cagayan River is the largest river in the Philippines with a
drainage area of 27,280 square kilometers at its mouth in Aparri. The basin encompasses parts
of Cagayan, Isabela, Mountain Province, Nueva Vizcaya, Quirino and Quezon Provinces. The
basin is roughly elliptical in shape with its major axis oriented in a north-south direction. The
Cagayan Valley is relatively flat but
mountains with elevations up to 2,000m
surround the east, south and west of the
drainage basin.

The Cagayan River, which is the main

drainage channel of the basin, flows in a
northerly direction from its head waters in
Nueva Vizcaya to its mouth in the
Babuyan Channel near Aparri. Its
principal tributaries include the Siffu-
Malling, Chico, Ilagan and Magat Rivers.
The estimated annual discharge is
53,943 million cubic meters. The Magat River is the largest tributary with an estimated annual
discharge of 9,808 million cubic meters. It lies in the southwestern portion of the basin, stretching
approximately 150 kilometers from Nueva Vizcaya down to its confluence with Cagayan River
about 55 kilometers from the river mouth. Both the Magat and the Chico Rivers have extensive
drainage areas which comprise about 1/3 of the whole basin. The Ilagan River originates from the
western slopes of the Sierra Madre and drains the eastern central portion of the Cagayan River
basin with an estimated annual discharge of 9,455 million cubic meters. It flows westward and
joins the Cagayan River at Ilagan, Isabela, 200 kilometers from the mouth.

The Siffu-Malling River lies on the slope of the Central Cordillera ranges flowing almost parallel
to the Magat River. Marshes and swamps are found in some parts of its lower reaches. The
average annual rainfall in 1,000mm in the northern part and 3,000mm in the southern mountains.
Floods caused by this river flow down very slowly because of surface retention over the extensive
flood plain, extremely gentle slope, retardation of flood by several gorges and river meander. The
target areas for the flood forecasting and warning system of the Cagayan River Basin area) The
areas along the lower reaches, from Tuguegarao to Aparrib) The alluvial plain along the river
course from Ilagan to Tumauini, Isabela.

2. Laguna de Bay Watershed

Laguna de Bay, with a total surface area of 900

square kilometres, is the biggest lake and one of the
most important inland bodies of water in the
Philippines. This almost heart-shaped lake, located
13 degrees 55’ to 14 degrees 50’ N latitude and 20
degrees 50’ to 121 degrees 45’ E longitude at 15
kilometers southeast of Manila, has three (3) distinct
bays, namely: West Bay, Central Bay and East
Bay. Its southernmost portion is called the South
Bay. Although shallow with an average depth of only
2.5 meters, the lake’s water holding capacity is
estimated at 2.19 billion cubic meters. The lake’s
watershed area of 3,820 square kilometers straddles
the whole provinces of Rizal and Laguna, and some
towns in Batangas, Cavite, Quezon and cities in
Metro Manila.
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The lake’s only outlet is the Napindan Channel which is connected to Manila Bay via the Pasig
River. Seawater backflow has been a natural phenomenon in the lake and it took place in some
years in the past. This happens in the lake not every year but occasionally in summer months
whenever the lake level is lower than in Manila Bay. As the Pasig River reverses its flow during
the entry of saltwater due to the effect of tidal fluctuation in Manila Bay, the salinity of the water
in the lake increases.

3. Pampanga River Watershed

The 4th largest basin in the Philippines and covers an approximate aggregate area of 10,540
sq. km. (includes the allied basin of Guagua River). The basin extends over the southern slopes
of the Caraballo Mountains, the western slopes of the Sierra Madre range and the major
portions of the Central Plain of Luzon. It encompasses the provinces of Nueva Ecija; part of
Bulacan, Tarlac and Quezon; and almost whole of Pampanga. The total length of the main river,
the Pampanga River, is about 260 kilometers.

The basin is drained through

the Pampanga River and via
the Labangan Channel into
the Manila Bay. The main
river is supported by several
tributaries, the principal ones
of which are the Penaranda
and the Coronel-Santor Rivers
on the eastern side of the
basin and the Rio Chico River
from the northwest side. The
Angat River joins the
Pampanga River at Calumpit
in Bulacan via the Bagbag
River. The Labangan channel, on the other hand, acts as a cut-off channel for the Angat River
into Manila Bay. Somewhere between the middle and lower portion of the basin stands Mount
Arayat, about 1,026 meters in elevation. Adjacent to Mount Arayat, across Pampanga River, just
on the eastern side is the Candaba swamp, covering an area of some 250 sq. km. absorbing
most of the flood flows coming from the eastern sections of the basin (western slopes of a
portion of the Sierra Madre Mountain range) and the overflowing of the Pampanga River via the
Cabiao Floodway.

This area is submerged during the rainy season but is relatively dry during summer. At the lower
sections of the basin, where the Pampanga delta lies, the Pampanga River system divide into
relatively small branches, crisscrossed with fishponds to form a network of sluggish, tidal flats
and canals, which eventually find their way to Manila Bay. The main river has a relatively low-
gradient channel particularly at the middle and lower sections. With the anticipated completion
of the Pampanga Delta Project (DPWH), it is expected that floodflows at the lower section of the
Pampanga River will recede at a much faster rate than before.

The basin experiences, on an average, at least one flooding in a year. The dry season generally
occurs from December to May, and wet
the rest of the year. The wettest months
are from July to September. The
frequency of tropical cyclone passage
over the basin is about 5 in 3 years.

4. Agusan River Watershed

The Agusan River Basin is located in the

eastern part of Mindanao and covers the
provinces of Agusan Oriental,
Compostela Valley, Agusan del Sur,
Agusan del Norte and Surigao del Norte.
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It is the third largest river system in the Philippines in terms of basin size, with an estimated
basin area of 10,921 square kilometers.

The headwaters of the river come from the mountains of Compostela Valley, draining the
northern portion of the island and traverses through Butuan City and the town of Magallanes in
Agusan del Norte. One prominent feature of the Agusan River Basin is the presence of the
Agusan Marsh, as it serves as a flood retention basin for the Agusan River, alleviating the flash
floods occurring in the lower reaches of the river.

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. As a civil engineer, how can you protect and maintain the ecological importance of watersheds.
2. What should be the mitigating factors in constructing in watersheds? Why do you say so?

VII. ASSIGNMENT
Deadline of this assignment will be discussed on your class.

1. What are the different forms and types of precipitation?

2. What are the different rainfall characteristics?
3. How do you measure precipitation?
4. What are the instruments used on measuring precipitation?
5. How do you conduct and analyze rainfall data?

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I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Precipitation

II. LESSON TITLE

Precipitation

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

1. Types of Precipitation
2. Formation of Precipitation
3. Rainfall Characteristics
4. Rainfall Measurements
5. Analysis of Rainfall Data

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

• To discuss the formation of precipitation

• To discuss the rainfall characteristics and analyze rainfall data

V. LESSON CONTENT

Precipitation is a meteorological phenomenon defined as any form of water, liquid or solid, that falls from
the atmosphere to the Earth's surface. It is a critical component of the hydrological cycle and includes
various forms such as rain, snow, sleet, hail, and drizzle.

Forms of Precipitation

1. Drizzle

Drizzle is a fine sprinkle of tiny water droplets of size less than 0.5mm and intensity greater
than 1mm/h. The tiny drops forming a drizzle appear to float in the air. Drizzle often creates a
misty atmosphere and can lead to low visibility.

2. Rain

This is the most common form of precipitation, occurring when water droplets in clouds
coalesce and grow heavy enough to fall. Rain can vary in intensity, from light drizzles to
torrential downpours, and can significantly affect weather patterns and ecosystems.

Drop size is between 0.5 to 6 mm in dia. Drops bigger than 6 mm tend to break up as they fell.
It is formed by condensation and coalescence of cloud droplets at temperatures above the
freezing point.

The mean annual rainfall of the Philippines varies from 965 to 4,064 millimeters annually.
Baguio City, eastern Samar, and eastern Surigao receive the greatest amount of rainfall while
the southern portion of Cotabato receives the least amount of rain. At General Santos City in
Cotabato, the average annual rainfall is only 978 millimeters.

3. Snow

Snow forms when temperatures are low enough that water vapor in the atmosphere crystallizes
into ice particles, creating snowflakes. Each flake is unique, with intricate patterns formed as it
falls through different temperature layers, leading to beautiful winter landscapes.

4. Glaze

It is the ice coating formed when drizzle or rain freezes as it comes in contact with cold objects
on the ground.
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5. Sleet

It is frozen raindrops cooled to ice stage while falling through air at sub-freezing temperature.

6. Hail

It is precipitation in the form of balls or lumps of ice over 5 mm diameter formed by alternate
freezing and melting as they are carried up and down in highly turbulent air currents. Usually
occurs in violent thunderstorms.

Types of Precipitation

Precipitation begins with the process of condensation, where water vapor in the air cools and
transitions into tiny water droplets or ice crystals. These droplets cluster around microscopic particles in
the atmosphere, known as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), such as dust or salt. As more vapor
condenses and droplets grow, they eventually become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and
fall to the Earth due to gravity.

1. Cyclonic Precipitation

A cyclone is a region in the atmosphere with large low pressure having circular wind motion.
The cyclonic precipitation is caused by the movement of moist air mass to this region due to the
difference in pressure. These systems typically have counterclockwise rotation in the Northern
Hemisphere (clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere). As warm, moist air is drawn into the
cyclone and rises, it cools and condenses, leading to cloud formation and precipitation.

Cyclonic precipitation can last for an extended period, often spanning several days, as cyclones
typically move relatively slowly. The intensity of precipitation can vary, ranging from light to
moderate rainfall over a broad area to heavy rainfall associated with the cyclone's center.
Cyclonic precipitation is widespread and covers a large area, extending well beyond the center
of the cyclone. The highest rainfall amounts are often found in the cyclone's vicinity, particularly
in the forward quadrant in the direction of its
movement.

A warm front is the result of a warm air mass

overriding a cold air mass, causing extensive
areas of cloudiness and precipitation. As the
warm front approaches a given area, the
precipitation becomes more continuous and
intense. Warm fronts move at a speed of 15-50
km/h (10-30 mph).

A cold front results from a strong push of a cold air

mass against and beneath a warm air mass. At the
front towering clouds develop together with intense
short duration precipitation. Cold fronts move at a
speed of 30-80 km/h (20-50 mph).

An occluded front occurs when a cold front

overtakes a warm front. The precipitation pattern
is a combination of both warm and cold frontal
distribution. Occluded fronts move at a speed of
from 8-50 km/h (5-30 mph).

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2. Convective Precipitation

Convective precipitation occurs when warm, moist air rises rapidly in unstable atmospheric
conditions. As the air rises, it cools, causing water vapor to condense and form clouds.
Eventually, the condensed water droplets or ice crystals grow larger and fall as precipitation,
such as rain or hail, due to gravity. It is due to the upward movement of warm air. Generally,
this type of precipitation occurs in tropical regions, where on hot days, the ground surface is
heated unequally, causing the warmer air to lift up as the colder air comes to take its place. The
vertical air currents develop tremendous velocities and are dangerous for aircraft.

Convective precipitation occurs when

warm, moist air rises rapidly in unstable
atmospheric conditions. As the air rises, it
cools, leading to condensation and the
formation of clouds. Eventually, the
condensed water droplets or ice crystals
grow larger and fall as precipitation due to
gravity. Convective precipitation events are
often short-lived but can be intense. They
can result in heavy rainfall, thunderstorms,
and even severe weather phenomena such
as lightning, strong winds, and hail.

Convective precipitation is typically localized and sporadic, occurring in isolated cells or

clusters. It can exhibit high spatial and temporal variability, with rainfall rates varying
significantly within a small area.

3. Orographic Precipitation

Orographic precipitation is associated with the

lifting of moist air as it encounters a barrier, such
as a mountain range. As the air is forced to rise
over the mountain, it cools and releases
moisture, leading to cloud formation and
precipitation on the windward side of the
mountain. The leeward side may experience a
rain shadow effect, resulting in drier conditions.
This type of precipitation is caused by air
masses striking some natural topographic
barriers like mountains. As it cannot move
forward it rises up causing condensation and
precipitation.

Orographic precipitation is typically localized and concentrated on the windward side of the
mountain or hill. The leeward side may experience a rain shadow effect, resulting in drier
conditions. Orographic precipitation can be intense, particularly if the air mass is moist and the
mountain range is significant. The intensity and duration of orographic precipitation depend on
factors such as the height and orientation of the mountains, the prevailing wind direction, and
the characteristics of the air mass.

Climate of the Philippines

The Climate of the Philippines is tropical and maritime. It is characterized by relatively high
temperature, high humidity and abundant rainfall. It is similar in many respects to the climate of the
countries of Central America. Temperature, humidity, and rainfall, which are discussed hereunder, are
the most important elements of the country's weather and climate.

Based on the average of all weather stations in the Philippines, excluding Baguio, the mean annual
temperature is 26.6o C. The coolest months fall in January with a mean temperature of 25.5C while the
warmest month occurs in May with a mean temperature of 28.3C. Latitude is an insignificant factor in
the variation of temperature while altitude shows greater contrast in temperature. Thus, the mean
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE

annual temperature of Baguio with an

elevation of 1,500 meters is 18.3C. This
makes the temperature of Baguio comparable
with those in the temperate climate and
because of this, it is known as the summer
capital of the Philippines.

The difference between the mean annual

temperature of the southernmost station in
Zamboanga and that of the northernmost
station in Laoag is insignificant. In other
words, there is essentially no difference in the
mean annual temperature of places in Luzon,
Visayas or Mindanao measured at or near
sea level.

Humidity refers to the moisture content of the

atmosphere. Due to high temperature and the
surrounding bodies of water, the Philippines
has a high relative humidity. The average
monthly relative humidity varies between 71
percent in March and 85 percent in
September. The combination of warm
temperature and high relative and absolute
humidities give rise to high sensible
temperature throughout the archipelago. It is
especially uncomfortable during March to
May, when temperature and humidity attain
their maximum levels.

Based on the distribution of rainfall, four

climate types are recognized, which are described as follows:
Typhoons have a great influence on the climate and weather conditions of the Philippines. A great
portion of the rainfall, humidity and cloudiness are due to the influence of typhoons. They generally
originate in the region of the Marianas and Caroline Islands of the Pacific Ocean which have the same
latitudinal location as Mindanao. Their movements follow a northwesterly direction, sparing Mindanao
from being directly hit by majority of the typhoons that cross the country. This makes the southern
Philippines very desirable for agriculture and industrial development.

PAG-ASA (Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration)

PAG-ASA is the government agency responsible for providing weather forecasts, monitoring
meteorological phenomena, and conducting research related to atmospheric, geophysical, and
astronomical events in the Philippines. It plays a crucial role in disaster preparedness and response,
helping to mitigate the impacts of natural disasters like typhoons and floods. PAG-ASA also engages in
public education about weather-related issues and climate change.

Functions of PAG-ASA

1. Maintains a nationwide network pertaining to observation and forecasting of weather and flood and
other conditions affecting national safety, welfare and economy;
2. Undertake activities relative to observation, collection, assessment and processing of atmospheric
and allied data for the benefit of agriculture, commerce and industry;
3. Engage in studies of geophysical and astronomical phenomena essential to the safety and welfare
of the people;
4. Undertake researches on the structure, development and motion of typhoons and formulate
measures for their moderation; and
5. Maintain effective linkages with scientific organizations here and abroad and promote exchange of
scientific information and cooperation among personnel engaged in atmospheric, geophysical,
astronomical and space studies.

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Rainfall Characteristics

1. Amount

The amount is of course important to the overall hydrologic cycle and replenishment of the soil
water, and the amount is an accumulation or product of the intensity times the duration. For
example, the amount may be the same for a high intensity short duration rainfall as it is for a
low intensity long duration rainfall.

2. Intensity

Intensity refers to the size of raindrops of the rainfall. higher rainfall intensity produces larger
size raindrops which have more impact energy, and thus higher intensity storms can damage
delicate vegetation and bare soil. High intensity storms can literally displace soil particles,
causing soil crusting or starting the soil erosion process. High intensity storms may also
overwhelm the soils’ ability to infiltrate the rainfall at the same rate, causing infiltration-excess
runoff.

3. Duration

The duration refers to the length of time rainfall occurs. A high intensity rainfall for a short
duration may affect tender seedlings, but it will not likely have much effect on soil erosion and
runoff. Rainfall of longer duration can significantly affect infiltration, runoff, and soil erosion
processes.

4. Frequency or Return Period

The frequency, or more specifically, the return period refers to how often rainfall occurs at a
particular amount or intensity and duration. For example, rainfall return periods are referred to
as 100 year-1 hour rainfall or 100 year-24-hour rainfall to define the probability that a given
amount will fall within a given time period.

5. Seasonal Distribution

The seasonal distribution of rainfall refers to the time of year when various rainfall amounts
occur. The seasonal distribution determines when surface runoff or deep percolation are most
likely to occur or if irrigation is needed. Since the seasonal distribution of rainfall varies in
different parts of the country, practices used or recommended in one part of the country may
not necessarily be appropriate in another.

Rainfall Measurement Devices

1. Rain gauge - A rain gauge also known as an udometer or pluviometer or hyetometer measures
the depth of liquid precipitation in mm / inches over a set period of time in a particular place.
There are several main types of rain gauges: graduated cylinders, weighing gauges, tipping
bucket gauges, optical rain gauge, and others.

2. Snow Gauge - A snow gauge is almost the same weather instrument as a rain gauge, but for
measuring solid precipitation. Like the latter, it looks like a small device with a bowl to
collect rain or snow, respectively. It is important to know that the correct data collection and
measurement of precipitation is greatly affected by wind, which can carry water or snow out of
the bowl. Unlike rain, which is measured in millimeters, snow is commonly measured in
centimeters and inches.

3. Disdrometer - Disdrometer or optical disdrometer is used to determine the drop size distribution
(distribution of the number of raindrops according to their diameter) and velocity of falling
hydrometeors (any particulates of liquid or solid water in the atmosphere). Some disdrometers
can measure types of precipitation such as snowdrops, and hail. For this purpose, optical
disdrometers use a laser and various light-sensitive elements. The measurement units are the
same.
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Far Eastern University
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE

Rainfall Analysis

Rainfall analysis involves the systematic examination of precipitation data to uncover patterns, trends,
and anomalies over time. This analysis plays a vital role in various fields, including agriculture,
hydrology, and climate science. By evaluating historical rainfall records, researchers can identify
seasonal variations, assess drought and flood risks, and understand the impacts of climate change on
local ecosystems. Through advanced statistical methods and modeling techniques, rainfall analysis
helps inform water resource management, agricultural practices, and urban planning, ultimately
contributing to more resilient communities and sustainable development.

Here are the different methods to compute rainfall data:

1. Arithmetic Mean - This technique calculates areal precipitation using the arithmetic mean of all
the point or areal measurements considered in the analysis.
2.
3. Isohyetal Analysis - This is a graphical technique which involves drawing estimated lines of
equal rainfall over an area based on point measurements. The magnitude and extent of the
resultant rainfall areas of coverage are then considered versus the area in question in order to
estimate the areal precipitation value.

An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall magnitude. In this method, station’s locations
and amounts are plotted on a suitable map and contours of equal precipitation are then drawn.
The average precipitation for an area is computed by weighting the average precipitations
between successive isohyets by the area between the isohyets, total these products, and
dividing by the total area.

𝑝 +𝑝 𝑝 +𝑝 𝑝 +𝑝
𝐴1 ( 1 2 2 ) + 𝐴2 ( 2 2 3 ) … + 𝐴𝑛 ( 𝑛 2 𝑛+1 )
𝑃̅ =
𝐴𝑇
Pn - Precipitation over the area
A – Area between isohyets
At – total area
𝑃̅ – Average Precipitation over the area.

4. Thiessen Polygon - This is another graphical technique which calculates station weights based
on the relative areas of each measurement station in the Thiessen polygon network. The
individual weights are multiplied by the station observation and the values are summed to
obtain the areal average precipitation.
𝐴1 𝑝1 + 𝐴2 𝑝2 + 𝐴3 𝑝3 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 𝑝𝑛
𝑃̅ =
𝐴𝑇
5. Distance Weighing - This is another station weighting technique. A grid of point estimates is
made based on a distance weighting scheme. Each observed point value is given a unique
weight for each grid point based on the distance from the grid point in question. The grid point
precipitation value is calculated based on the sum of the individual station weight multiplied by
observed station value. Once the grid points have all been estimated they are summed and the
sum is divided by the number of grid points to obtain the areal average precipitation.

6. Hyetograph - A hyetograph is a plot of the average intensity of rainfall against the time interval.
The hyetograph is derived from the mass curve and is usually represented as a bar chart. The
area under a hyetograph represents the total precipitation received in the period.

Sample Problem 1:
The following stations have the following areal rainfall data:
Compute using the arithmetic mean

Station Rainfall (in) Arithmetic Mean Analysis

A 0.55 Average Rainfall = ((0.55 + 0.87 + 2.33 + 5.40 + 1.89)/5)
B 0.87 Average Rainfall = 2.21”
C 2.33
D 5.40
E 1.89
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE

Sample Problem 2:
Using Isohyetal method, find the average rainfall over a catchment area. The data is as follows:

Isohyets
12 13 14 15 16 17
(cm)
Area bet.
Isohytes 22 80 110 89 70
(sq. km)
Average
Precipitation 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5
(cm)

𝑝 + 𝑝2 𝑝 + 𝑝3 𝑝 + 𝑝𝑛+1
𝐴1 ( 1 ) + 𝐴2 ( 2 ) … + 𝐴𝑛 ( 𝑛 )
𝑃̅ = 2 2 2
𝐴𝑇
22(12.5) + 80(13.5) + 110(14.5) + 89(15.5) + 70(16.5)
𝑃̅ =
22 + 80 + 110 + 89 + 70
𝑃̅ = 14.78 𝑐𝑚

Sample Problem 3:
Using Theissen Polygon, compute for the average rainfall

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Far Eastern University
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE

Sample Problem 4:
Using Distance Weighing Method:

Weight = (1/D^2)/Total (1/D^2)

Weight at A = 0.826/8.624 = 0.096

Computation of Missing Rainfall Data

1. Arithmetic Mean Method – This method can be used to calculate monthly as well as annual missing
rainfall values. This method should be used only when normal annual precipitation at each of the
selected stations is within 10% of that station for which records are missing. The stations should
however be evenly spaced around the station with missing records. A simple arithmetic average of
the rainfall of the three selected stations gives the estimate of the missing value.

1
𝑃𝑥 = (𝑝 + 𝑝2 + 𝑝3 + 𝑝4 + ⋯ 𝑝𝑛−1 + 𝑝𝑛 )
𝑁 1
Px – Precipitation at the missing location, n – number of gauges, P – Precipitation

2. Normal Ratio Method (NRM) - When the normal annual rainfall of any of the selected stations is
more than 10% of that station with missing records simple average method cannot be used, then
the method to be adopted consists of weighting the rainfall value by the ratios of the normal annual
rainfall values.
𝑛
1 𝑁𝑥
𝑃𝑥 = ∑ ( 𝑃𝑖 )
𝑛 𝑁𝑖
𝑖=1
Nx – Normal Annual Precipitation value at “x” station

If the normal annual precipitation of the index stations lies within ±10% of normal annual precipitation of
interpolation station then we apply arithmetic mean method to determine the missing precipitation
record otherwise the normal ratio method is used for this purpose.
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Far Eastern University
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE

Sample Problem 5:

Find the precipitation at Station C with the given data below:

Station A B C D E
Storm Precipitation (cm) 9.7 8.3 X 11.7 8.0
Normal Annual precipitation (cm) 100.3 109.5 93.5 125.7 117.5

In this example the storm precipitation and normal annual precipitations at stations A, B, D and E are
given and missing precipitation at station 'C' is to be calculated whose normal annual precipitation is
known. We will determine first that whether arithmetic mean or normal ratio method is to be applied.

10% of Nc = 93.5 x 10/100 = 9.35

After the addition of 10% of Nc in Nc, we get 93.5 + 9.35 = 102.85

And by subtracting 10% we get a value of 84.15

So Na, Nb, Nd or Ne values are to be checked for the range 102.85 to 84.15.

1 93.5 93.5 93.5 93.5

𝑃𝑐 = ( (9.7) + (8.3) + (11.7) + (8.0))
4 100.3 109.5 125.7 117.5
𝑃𝑐 = 7.8 𝑐𝑚

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Research about the Hyetograph method and give 2 sample problems on the method given.
2. Research about the Double Mass Analysis .

VII. ASSIGNMENT
Deadline of this assignment will be discussed on your class.

1. Find the average rainfall by using Arithmetic Mean, Isohyetal method, distance weight and Thiessen
Polygon Method for a square catchment area, bounded at the corners by four gage stations. The
coordinates of the station and rainfall values are given below

2. The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B, C, and D in a given catchment basin are 80.97 cm, 67.59
cm, 76.28 cm, and 92.01 cm respectively. In the year 2023, station D was inoperative and stations A,
B, and C recorded precipitations of 91.11 cm, 72.23 cm, and 79.89 cm respectively. Estimate the
rainfall at station D.

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