Theorems

Alternate Exterior Angles Theorem (AEA thm)

If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate exterior angles are congruent.

Alternate Interior Angles Theorem (AIA thm)

If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate interior angles are congruent.

Converse of the Alternate Exterior Angles Theorem

If two lines cut by a transversal form congruent alternate exterior angles, then the lines are parallel.

Converse of the Alternate Interior Angles Theorem

If two lines cut by a transversal form congruent alternate interior angles, then the lines are parallel.

Converse of the Same Side Interior Angles Theorem

If two line cut by a transversal form supplementary same side interior angles, then the lines are parallel.

Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem

If the sum of the squares of two sides of a triangle is equal to the square of the longest side of the triangle, then the triangle is a
right triangle.

Distance Formula
The distance between two points with coordinates (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is

Midpoint Theorem

If B is the midpoint of segment , then = 1/2 .

Overlapping Segment Theorem

Suppose P, K, E and C are collinear and appear in that order on a line. If = then = and if =, then = .

Pythagorean Theorem
The sum of the squares of the legs of a right triangle is equal to the square of the hypotenuse.

Remote Interior Angle Theorem (also known as Exterior Angle Theorem)

The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of its remote interior angles.

Same Side Interior Angles Theorem (SSI thm)

If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the same side interior angles are supplementary.

Triangle Angle Sum Theorem

The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.

Vertical Angle Theorem

If two lines intersect to form vertical angles, then the angles have equal measures.

Other Theorems

If the same pair of opposite sides of a parallelogram are congruent and parallel, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

If opposite angles of a parallelogram are congruent parallel, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

If the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other parallel, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram

If two chords intersect inside a circle, then the product of the lengths of the segments of one chord equals the product of the lengths
of the segments of the other chord.

If two secants intersect in the exterior of a circle, the product of the lengths of one secant and its external secant segment is equal
to the product of the lengths of the other secant and its external secant segment.

The length of the tangent segment squared is equal to the product of the lengths of the secant and its external secant segment.
 Postulates
Angle Addition Postulate
If B is in the interior of angle AXD, then m , AXB + m BXD = m AXD.

Angle-Angle-Side (AAS)
If 2 angles and the NON-INCLUDED side of 1 triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts of another triangle, then the
triangles are congruent.

Angle-Side-Angle (ASA)
If 2 angles and the INCLUDED side of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts of another triangle, then the triangles
are congruent.

Congruence/Measurement Postulate
Two line segments have the same measure if and only if they are congruent. Two angles have the same measure if and only if they
are congruent.

Converse of the Corresponding Angles Postulate

If two lines cut by a transversal form congruent corresponding angles, then the lines are parallel.

Corresponding Angles Postulate

If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the corresponding angles are congruent.

Hypotenuse-Leg (HL)
If the hypotenuse and leg of one right triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts of another right triangle, then the triangles
are congruent.

Segment Addition Postulate

If A, Z and B are collinear and Z is between A and B, then AZ + ZB = AB.

Side-Angle-Side (SAS)
If 2 sides and the INCLUDED angle of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts of another triangle, then the triangles
are congruent.

Side-Side-Side (SSS)
If 3 sides of one triangles are congruent to the corresponding three sides of another triangle, then the triangles are congruent.

Other Postulates

If two points are on a plane, then the line containing them is also on the plane.

The intersection of two lines is a point.

The intersection of two planes is a line.

Three non-collinear points determine a unique plane. and Two points determine a unique line.
 Congruence Properties
● Addition Property of Equality
○ If a = b, then a + c = b + c
●
● Subtraction Property of Equality
○ If a = b, then a – c = b – c
●
● Multiplication Property of Equality
○ If a = b, then ac = bc
●
● Division Property of Equality
● If a = b, then
● =
● (where c ≠ 0)

● Reflexive Property
○ The reflexive property of congruence indicates that any geometric quantity is congruent to itself.
○ For any geometric quantity a, a ≅ a.
○ Example: For the geometric angle ∠45°, ∠45° ≅ ∠45°

● Symmetric Property
○ The symmetric property of congruence indicates that if one geometry quantity is congruent to a second
geometry quantity, then the second geometric quantity is also congruent to the first one.
○ For any geometric quantities a and b, if a ≅ b, then b ≅ a.
○ Example: For the line segments AB and CD, if AB ≅ CD, then CD ≅ AB.

● Transitive Property
○ The transitive property of congruence indicates that if one geometric quantity is congruent to a second
geometric quantity and the second geometric quantity is congruent to a third geometric quantity, then the first
and third geometric quantities are congruent.
○ For example, if Jenna is the same age as Dylan and Dylan is the same age as Pedro, then Jenna is the
same age as Pedro.
○ Geometry example: For the line segments AB, CD, and EF, if AB ≅ CD and CD ≅ EF,then AB ≅ EF.

● Substitution
○ The substitution property of congruence indicates that a geometric quantity may be substituted for any
equivalent geometric quantity in any geometric expression.
○ For any geometric quantities where a = b, then a may be replaced by b in any geometric expression.
○ Example: For the line segments AB, CD, and EF, where the measure of EF = 6 units, and AB = CD + EF,
then AB = CD + 6 where EF is replaced by 6.

Please notice:

● Substitution and the transitive property are similar.

● Substitution is used when one geometric object or number is replaced.
● The transitive property is used if the entire side of an equation is replaced by an equivalent expression.
● Transitivity is a special type of substitution (but substitution is NOT a type of transitivity).
 Polygons

A polygon is a closed plane figure formed by three or more line segments so that each segment intersects two other segments, but
only at their endpoints.

A polygon is regular if it is both equilateral and equiangular.

If a polygon is not regular, it is irregular.

A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment that connects vertices in a polygon that are non-adjacent. Diagonals can be on the inside
or outside of a polygon.
 Polygons
A polygon is convex if every interior angle is less than 180°, that is, none of the angles point inward. In a convex polygon, every
diagonal that can be drawn is on the interior of the polygon. Regular polygons are always convex.

A polygon is concave if any internal angle is more than 180°, that is, if any of the angles point inward. In a concave polygon, a
diagonal can be drawn on the exterior of the polygon.

In your journal, draw one convex polygon and one concave polygon and label them. Then, use a dotted line to draw a
diagonal for each figure.

Links to an external site.

Links to an external site.

So, if you have a number of sides in a polygon that does not have a special name, you will name it by its number of sides. For
example, a polygon with 18 sides would be called an 18-gon.

In your journal, complete this task to check your understanding.

Classify each polygon in three ways: based on number of sides, regular or irregular, and concave or convex.

1.

2.

3.
Interior and exterior Angles

Every figure has interior and exterior angles. The interior angle placement is somewhat obvious, but the exterior angles are not
always drawn in the figure. You can extend any side of a polygon to create an exterior angle.

You will explore how to find the interior and exterior angles for convex polygons.

Begin with what you know:

The interior angles of a triangle always add up to 180°.

Now, look at a quadrilateral with a diagonal. The diagonal has divided the quadrilateral into two triangles. Since we know the interior
angles have a sum of 180°, then two triangles would be 180° + 180° = 360°.

The interior angles of a quadrilateral add up to 360°.

Polygon Angle Sum Theorem

The sum of the interior angle measures of a convex polygon with n sides is (n – 2)180°.

This holds true for all convex polygons, whether they are regular or irregular. Regular polygons have congruent interior angle
measures, while irregular polygons will not have congruent interior angles.

Example 2. Find the measure of b.

Polygon Exterior Angle Sum Theorem

The sum of the exterior angle measures of a convex polygon is 360°.

This holds true for all convex polygons, whether they are regular or irregular. Regular polygons have congruent exterior angle
measures, while irregular polygons will not have congruent exterior angles.

Example 3. Find the measure of each exterior angle of a regular 15-gon.

Example 4. Find the measure of g.

check your answer

Common Quadrilaterals

Quadrilateral – four-sided polygon

Parallelogram – a quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel.

Rectangle – a quadrilateral with four congruent angles.

Rhombus – a quadrilateral with four congruent sides.

Square – a quadrilateral with four congruent angles and four congruent sides.

Trapezoid – a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel.

Isosceles Trapezoid – a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel and a line of symmetry that bisects the parallel sides.

Kite – a quadrilateral with two pairs of congruent, consecutive sides.

Everything About Parallelograms

Opposite sides of a parallelogram are parallel

Opposite sides are congruent.

Opposite angles are congruent.

Consecutive angles (2 angles in a row, example: A and B) are supplementary angles that add up to 180 degrees.

The sum of the measures of any parallelogram is 360 degrees, A+B+C+D = 360

The diagonal separates the parallelogram into 2 congruent triangles each of 180 degrees.

The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

Rectangles, rhombuses, and squares are special parallelograms

Sum of the angles of a polygon with n sides = (n-2)(180)

Trapezoids and Kites
Can the triangles shown be proven similar?

Yes by AA ≅

Because there are parallel lines, there are two sets of corresponding angles which are ≅. Also the two triangles share an angle.

Find the value of x.

Use segment addition before setting up your proportion,

4/10 = 8/𝑥

x = 20

Q) Stan is visiting the Shilin National Scenic Area (also known as the Stone Forest) in southwest China. The Stone Forest is made
up of massive stone formations jut from the earth much like stalagmites do in caves. Stan is curious how tall a particular formation
is, so he measures its shadow to be 56 feet long. At the same time, his little brother, who is 4 feet tall, has a shadow that is 7 feet
long. How tall is the rock formation?

7/56 = 4/x

x = 32
The tallest building in Maggie’s home town of Mule Shoe, Texas is three stories tall. She wants to know the actual height of the
building. Maggie, who is 5 feet tall, started walking away from the building until the tip of her shadow lined up exactly with the tip of
the building’s shadow. When the shadows lined up, Maggie was 36 feet from the building and her shadow was 6 feet long. How tall
is the building?

35ft

Firefighter Joe noticed a cat stuck high in a tree. He needs to know exactly how high the cat is in order to get the proper ladder for
the job. Joe has a mirror and he understands that when light reflects, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Joe sets
the mirror on the ground and backs up until he can see the reflection of the cat in the mirror. When Joe is lined up correctly, his
eyes are 5.5 feet above the ground, his is standing 3 feet from the mirror, and the mirror is 12 feet from the tree. How high is the cat
off of the ground?

3/12 = 5.5/x

x = 22
Find the measure of a.

a is the geometric mean between 4 and 25.

𝑎 = 10

Find the measure of b.

b is the geometric mean between 4 and 29.

b = 10.77
 Trigonometry/ law of cosines

ΔABC is a right triangle and ∠B is a right angle. If sin ∠A =

35, then what is the ratio for tan ∠C? Hint: It may help to draw a picture.

4/3
The people in the jobs listed above could tell you that they often have to calculate the area of irregular shapes. Formulas
are useful for basic shapes, but irregular shapes have no formula. In this case, it would be necessary to divide irregular
shapes into shapes that are familiar to you.

Copy the following shapes in your journal.

You already know the formulas for the area of circles,rectangles, and triangles. Draw dotted lines on each figure to split
each figure into a composite of shapes you know well– triangles, rectangles, and parts of circles!

In this lesson, you will investigate the formula for a regular polygon. Read the information below then watch the tutorial
video at the bottom of the page.

Let's start by considering a regular hexagon. If you divide the hexagon into familiar shapes, you could have any of the
following scenarios:

2 trapezoids or 2 triangles and a rectangle or 6 triangles.

Next, a pentagon. If you divide the pentagon into familiar shapes, you could have any of the following scenarios:

A triangle and a trapezoid or 3 triangles or 5 triangles.

If you notice the last diagram in each group is divided similarly by forming triangles from the center point. This will lead
us into a formula for regular polygons.

The last hexagon has 6 sides and it's divided into 6 congruent triangles. The last pentagon has 5 sides and is divided into
5 congruent triangles. This is a special relationship which well help us discover a useful formula for finding the area of
ANY regular polygon.
● The apothem of a regular polygon is the
perpendicular distance from the center to a
midpoint of one of the sides of the polygon.

(slide 21)

● The radius is the distance from the center to

a vertex of a regular polygon.

● To find the area of a regular polygon, find

the perimeter, multiply by the length of the
apothem, then divide the result by 2.

● This formula comes from drawing

congruent triangles by connecting the
center to each vertex and finding the area of
each of those triangles with

● 𝐴=12𝑏ℎ

● The "b" is a side of the polygon and the

● "h" is the apothem. (slide 41)

Finding the Area of Regular Polygons Tutorial

-inscribed triangle or circumscribed circle

-the radius of a regular polygon is the distance from a regular polygon’s center to any vertex

-the radius of the regular polygon is the same as the radius of the circumscribed circle
the number of triangles is equal to the number of sides of a polygon

3 triangles formed by the radii

During the explain portion of this lesson, you learned the area formula for regular polygons. This formula is very simple to use if you
are given a side length and the apothem – that is simply plugging in values and simplifying.

Then, in the Special Right Triangles and Regular Polygons Tutorial Video, you were able to use special right triangles with a select
few polygons to solve for the apothem or side length when only one of them is given.

In this portion of the lesson, we will extend the learning to allow you to find the area of any regular polygon when only one piece of
information is given even if the polygon does not form special right triangles.

This can be a bit challenging, mainly because it brings together several big skills you have learned in Geometry.

Example 1 : Find the area of a regular octagon with side length 10 cm.

Start with the formula for a regular polygon:

𝐴=12𝑎𝑃

If we substitute in what we are given we have:

𝐴=12𝑎(10⋅8)

There are 8 sides in an octagon so to find perimeter, we will multiply 10 and 8.

You can’t find the area without the apothem.

Now we have a right triangle that is not a special right triangle. We cannot use the special right ratios, so we must use a
trigonometric ratio.

Using the acute angle 67.5°, notice that the apothem is on the opposite side and the 5 is on the adjacent side.

The trig function that uses opposite and adjacent is tangent, so set up the ratio.

tan 67.5° =

𝑎5

a = 5(tan 67.5°) (Make sure your calculator is in degree mode.)

a ≈ 12.07

Now that you have the apothem, go back to the formula and find the area!

A=

12

(12.07)(10)(8)

A ≈ 482.8 cm squared

That was a lot of steps, but rest assured it will get easier with more practice, and not every problem on your exam will be this

challenging.
Ex 2: Find the area of a regular pentagon with apothem 7 feet.

Start with the formula for a regular polygon:

𝐴=12𝑎𝑃

If we substitute in what we are given we have:

𝐴=12(7)𝑃

You can’t find the area without the perimeter.

Draw and label a picture of the pentagon with a right triangle.

Now we have a right triangle that is not a special right triangle. We cannot use the special right ratios, so we must use a
trigonometric ratio.

Using the acute angle 54°, notice that the apothem is on the opposite side and the x is on the adjacent side.

The trig function that uses opposite and adjacent is tangent, so set up the ratio.

tan 54° =

7𝑥

x = 7/tan 54° (Make sure your calculator is in degree mode.)

x ≈ 5.09

Now that you have x, find the perimeter and substitute into the area formula.

x is half of a side length, so

5.09(2) = 10.18 which is one side length

P = 10.18(5) = 50.9

A=

12

(7)(50.9)

A ≈ 178.15 square feet

Use the following unlimited practice module to test yourself.

Sector area and arc length
Directions: Each pair of polygons below are similar. For this activity, assume the smaller polygon is the preimage and the larger
polygon is the image.
Explain: Radian Measure
Up to this point in your mathematics, you have measured circles and arcs with degrees. Degrees are specifically used to measure
angles and directionality.

A full rotation of a circle is 360°. If you face due North and turn around until you are facing North again you have made a full 360°
rotation.

A radian is another unit for measuring circles. A radian measures the distance around the circle and is measured in terms of

𝜋 You have found the circumference of a circle using the formula C = 2

𝜋r. If one unit is used for the radius, (in math it is common to use one unit for the basics - recall the special right triangles with one
unit as the smallest side of each triangle) then C = 2

𝜋(1) = 2𝜋. So, in terms of radians, a complete circle is 2𝜋.

Comparing degrees and radians:

2𝜋= 360°

𝜋 = 180°

Imagine you go to a high school football stadium to watch your friend run around the track. If you are sitting in the middle to watch
him, you can think of his distance two different ways. As your head moves to watch him rotate around the track, you are moving a
number of degrees to follow his movements. If you measure the amount of meters that he runs around the track, you are measuring
distance instead of degrees.

Degrees can be converted to radians and radians can be converted to degrees. Converting between degrees and radians will be an
important skill when you are in PreCalculus. Both types of measurement have their place in mathematics, so it is useful to be able
to switch from one to the other with a simple proportion.

● To convert from degree measure to radian measure, multiply the

degree measure by 𝜋180∘

● To convert from radian measure to degree measure, multiply the

radian measure by 180∘𝜋

● The fractions above are equivalent to 1 because 180 degrees is

exactly pi radians.

● When we convert, we are multiplying the value by 1 and thus not

changing the angle at all!

● So these conversions are like multiplying something by 5/5 or

32/32...the value remains the same.
Consider the following examples.

Ex. 1 Convert 120° into radian measure.

120∘⋅𝜋180∘=120∘𝜋180∘=2𝜋3𝑜𝑟2.09𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

Ex. 2 Convert

7𝜋6

into degree measure.

7𝜋6⋅180∘𝜋=1260∘6=210∘

One way to determine the radian measure of an angle is to divide the arc length by the radius of the circle. Let's verify this by
looking at a quarter-circle and a semi-circle.

Ex. 3: Find the radian measure that is represented in the diagram.

𝐶=2𝜋𝑟

𝐴𝑟𝑐=(90∘360∘)2𝜋(3)

=3𝜋2

𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒=𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠=3𝜋23=𝜋2

The 3s above cancel so we know that a quarter-circle is pi over 2 radians.

Ex. 4: Find the radian measure that is represented in the diagram.

𝐶=2𝜋𝑟

𝐴𝑟𝑐=180∘360∘(2𝜋(7))=7𝜋

𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒=𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠=7𝜋7=𝜋

The 7s above cancel out so we have confirmed that a half-circle is pi radians.

● Radian measure is the arc length divided by

the radius.
● One quick way to remember this is by
considering that the arc length of a full circle
(its circumference) is 2𝜋𝑟
● .We would need to divide this by r to turn it into
2𝜋
● Dividing arc length by r works for any angle,
not just a full circle!
1) Scale factor: _____
Ratio of Perimeters: _____
Ratio of Areas: _____

2) Scale factor: _____

Ratio of Perimeters: _____
Ratio of Areas: _____

3) Consider a regular n-gon with side length s and apothem a. A similar

n-gon has side lengths 5s and apothem 5a.

Scale factor: _____

Ratio of Perimeters: _____
Ratio of Areas: _____

4) If two similar polygons have a scale factor of S, what is the ratio of the
perimeters of the two polygons?

5) If two similar polygons have a scale factor of S, what is the ratio of the
areas of the two polygons?
Engage: Circle Arcs & Angles
As we approach the topic of circles, we should first take a look at the terminology provided in the diagram below. Use the diagram
to create your own definition of the labeled items, then compare them with the actual definitions provided at the bottom of
the page.

In your journal, do your best to define the following terms using the diagram provided:

inscribed Arc – An angle whose vertex is on the circle and whose sides contain chords of the circle

Central Angle – An angle whose vertex is the center of the circle

Intercepted Arc – A part of a circle that lies between two lines or segment endpoints that intersect it

Chord – A segment that has both endpoints on the circle

Relationships and Theorems
The central angle will always be equal to the measure of its intercepted arc. You may have noticed that the inscribed
angles in Part 1 of the explore section were 1/2 the measure of the central angles.

-Inscribed Angle Theorem: Inscribed Angles are 1/2 the measure of their intercepted arc.

-Congruent Inscribed Angles: If two inscribed angles share an intercepted arc, then they are congruent.

-Chords and Arcs: If two chords are congruent within the same circle, their minor arcs are also congruent.

Example

Find the measure of the inscribed angle.

Hint: Refer to the Inscribed Angle Theorem.

Solution: ∠DEF = 57.5°, because 115/2 = 57.5

Example 2

Find the measure of Arc OM.

Hint: Start by solving for x. You will need to apply both theorems from this section so far.

Solution: Arc OM = 80°

100 – 3x = 2x

100 = 5x

20 = x

When substituting x, the inscribed angle measure is 40°, making its intercepted arc = 80°.
Example 3

Find the measure of Arc MN.

Solution: 8y – 15 = 6y + 7

2y – 15 = 7

2y = 22

y = 11

Answer: Arc MN = 73°

Elaborate: Inscribed Quadrilaterals
Imagine that you have two inscribed angles whose combined intercepted arcs make up the entire circle.

● An example of this is shown in the circle below, as ∠PSR and ∠PQR are inscribed angles and their intercepted
arcs (which meet at points P and R) make up the entire circle.

Example Problems
Sketch the figures and write and solve these example problems in your Geometry notebook. Recall, you may use your
notes to help you on practice quizzes and graded assignments.

Example 1

What must the combined intercepted arc measures of ∠PSR and ∠PQR be? What must the combined measures of
inscribed angles ∠PSR and ∠PQR be?

Answer: Since both intercepted arcs meet at common endpoints, they span the entire circle so the arc measures sum up
to 360°. We know the corresponding inscribed angles must be half of their arc measures, so ∠PQR + ∠PSR = 180°. Also,
using the same logic again, we can conclude that ∠QPS + ∠QRS = 180°.

For example, arc PQR could be 240 degrees and PSR could be 120 degrees (arcs add up to 360 when they span the entire
circle). In that case, angle PQR would be 60 degrees (half of 120) and angle PSR would be 120 degrees (half of 240), which
would make 60 + 120 = 180 degrees, of course. If two arcs span the entire circle, a quadrilateral is formed and the
inscribed angles would be half of 360 degrees.

Let's go ahead and put all this information into a tidy little statement, which is found below. Write it down in your
Geometry notebook.

● Inscribed Quadrilateral: If a quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle, each pair of opposing (inscribed) angles are
supplementary.
Now, this next example will lead to one more statement. Write the statement down in your Geometry notebook. You may
need to reference it on your next graded assignment and when reviewing for your final exam.

Example 2

Use the figure above to determine the angle measure of ∠PQR. We know that arc PR (in red above) is a semi-circle.
Hint: The segment with endpoints P and R is a diameter, since it goes through the center.

Answer: ∠PQR = 90°; Since segment PR is a diameter, this means we know arc PR measures 180 degrees and this means
we know the corresponding inscribed angle, ∠PQR has a measure of 180/2 = 90°.

Intercepted Diameter: If an inscribed angle intercepts a semi-circle, the inscribed angle must be a right angle.
The statement above implies that you know that drawing the diameter divides the circle into two semicircles.

We will now take a look at segments of circles as illustrated in the diagram below. Use the diagram to create your own
definition of the labeled items.

In your journal, do your best to define the following terms using the diagram provided:

Secant – A line passing through two points on a circle

Tangent – A line external to a circle, passing through one point on the circle

Point of Tangency – The point at which a tangent line and circle intersect

Chord – A segment connecting two points on a circle

Part 1 – Intersecting Chords

In this activity you will learn about the relationship between the products of segments formed by intersecting chords
within the same circle.

1. Look at the two circles provided that show intersecting chords.

2. Using your ruler, measure (in cm rounding to the nearest tenth) the four segments created by the intersecting
chords on each circle.
3. In the first circle, multiply the lengths of segments AP and BP, and then multiply the lengths of segments XP and
YP.
4. Repeat Step 3 in the second circle, multiplying QX and SX, and then RX and TX.
5. Write a conjecture, in your journal, for what you think the rule for intersecting chords may be.
Part 2 – Tangent Line to a Circle

In this activity you will learn about the relationship between a tangent line and radius or diameter.

1. Draw a tangent line to circle S where the point of tangency is point R.

2. Draw a radius that connects the center of the circle to point R.
3. Measure the angles formed at the intersection of the radius and tangent line.
4. Write a conjecture, in your journal, for what you think the rule for intersecting tangent lines and diameters may
be.

Part 3 – External Tangents

In this activity you will learn about the relationship of two external tangents of the same circle that meet at a common
point.

1. Draw two line segments tangent to circle Q that meet at point T.

2. Using your ruler, measure in centimeters, the lengths of both tangent line segments (from the point of tangency
to Point T).
3. Write a conjecture, in your journal, for what you think the rule for intersecting tangent lines and diameters may
be.
If you measured carefully on the previous page, you should have developed a conjecture for each of the 3 parts of the
activity. We will now introduce these conjectures as the next 3 theorems about properties of circles. As you read below,
make notes in your journal.

Intersecting Chords Theorem: When two chords intersect each other inside a circle, the products of their segments are
equal.

Example 1

If AP = 12 ft and BP = 11 ft and PY = 16.5 ft, what is the length of XP? Be sure to follow these steps to solve:

1. Label the given information on the diagram with the measurements you were given (You will be surprised at
how helpful and crucial this step is.)
2. Recognize that we have two intersecting chords and set up an equation using the theorem given above.

Answer: XP = 8

12(11) = 16.5(XP)

132 = 16.5(XP)

8 = XP

Tangent Line to a Circle Theorem: A line is tangent if it is perpendicular to a radius of the circle at its endpoint on the
circle.
Example 2: If line RT is tangent to circle X, what is the measure of ∠XRT?

Hint: Use the theorem related to tangent lines above and LABEL that angle accordingly. You can then use the Triangle
Angle Sum Theorem to find the missing angle.

Answer: 52°

Because the point of tangency meets at the radius, the angle formed at the intersection is 90°.

180 – 90 – 38 = 52
Elaborate: Secant Properties

Secant – Secant Rule: If two secant segments have endpoints on a circle and start at the same external point, the product
of the length of one secant segment and its external part is equal to the product of the length of the other secant segment
and its external part.
Example 1

LM × OM = NM × PM

Secant – Tangent Rule: If a secant and tangent share the same endpoint outside of a circle, then the product of the
lengths of the secant segment and its external segment equals the length of the tangent segment squared.

Example 2

JH × JK = JI²
Tangent – Chord Angle Rule: An angle formed by a tangent and a chord is equal to half the measure of the intercepted arc.

Example 1
Find the measure of ∠LMN using the rule for tangent-chord angles.

Answer: m∠LMN = 73°

12⋅146=73

Angles of Intersecting Chords Rule: The angles formed by two intersecting chords are 1/2 the measure of the sum of
corresponding intercepted arcs.

Example 2
Find the measure of ∠QUT using the rule for intersecting chords.

Answer: m∠QUT =60° (Note that we can also say m∠RUS=60° using the vertical angles theorem OR the Intersecting Chords
Rule.)
Exterior Angles formed by Secants and Tangents:

Each of the following three examples uses the same general rule:

-The measure of the exterior angle is formed by the segments is equal to 1/2 the difference of the intercepted arcs formed by the
segments.

Two Tangents A Secant and Tangent

Two Secants

x = 47°

x = 75°

12(165−71)=47
12(255−105)=75 x = 45°

12(130−40)=45
Explain: Circle Equations
Now let’s turn our attention to creating these circles. Just like lines, circles can be represented algebraically. The
algebraic equation for a circle is (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2, with the center being at the point (h, k) and the radius being "r".

Example 1

Answer: x² + (y – 2)² = 16

Follow this step-by-step process to write the equation of a circle:

1. Find the coordinates of the center to represent (h, k). In

this example it is (0, 2).

2. Determine the radius of the circle to represent r. We can

see that it is 4 units from the center to a point on the
circle such as (4, 2).

3. Now we substitute (h, k) and r in the equation. (x – 0)² + (y

– 2)² = 4²

4. We can restate this equation as x² + (y – 2)² = 4², because

x – 0 is just x.

We should also take into account what it would look like when we have a center with negative coordinates, and when we
need to find the radius when the diameter given. Use Example 2 below as a guide.

Example 2

What is the equation for a circle with the center (–4, 7) and a diameter of 10.

Answer: (x + 4)² + (y – 7)² = 5²

Notice that in the first expression, there is a plus sign. This is attributed to the rule that subtracting a negative like x – (–4)
is the same thing as adding a positive. Also, you can see that since we were given the diameter, we needed to divide by 2
to get the radius.

Try the Practice interactive tools below.

Can you write the equation when given the graph of a

circle?

Can you draw the circle when given its equation?

Now that you are familiar with Equations of Circles, you could also use a given equation to create a graph by working
backwards. Start with graphing the center (h, k) and then use a compass to set the radius and create a circle with the
point at the center drawn.

Use the following steps to graph circles using an equation:

1. Place a point on the center given by determining (h, k).

2. Take the square root if the radius has been squared on one side of the equation. Set your compass to the length
of the radius.
3. Place the point of your compass on the center drawn and create a circle using the radius you have set.

Example 1

Graph the circle represented by the equation (x + 3)² + (y – 4)² = 4

When calculating the probability of an event happening, it may be helpful to find the sample space using a list, table, or
tree diagram.

Sample Space – the list of all possible outcomes.

Suppose you had a spinner where 12/ is red and the other 1/2 blue.

Think of all the possible outcomes if you spin the spinner once, and then spin again.

The chart below illustrates three different methods you can use to examine your sample space. In this situation. The list,
table, and tree diagram each show the only four possible outcomes that make up this sample space.

Looking at the sample spaces, we can see that that the probability of getting blue 1st and red 2nd is 1 out of 4 or 25%
chance. On the other hand, the probability of getting a blue and red in any order has a higher likelihood which is 2 out of
4 or 50% chance.

Before we get into the specifics of calculating the probability of compound events, let’s review calculating the probability
of a single (or simple) event happening. Let’s assume there is a bag of lollipops that include the following flavors: 3
strawberry, 2 lime, and 5 grape. To calculate the probability of getting a grape lollipop, if drawing from the bag without
looking, you would do the following:

1. Create a fraction with the number of grape lollipops over the total number of lollipops, in this case 5/10

2. Always reduce that fraction, to get a better understanding of the situation in simplest form. 5/10=12

3. We can now say that there is a 1 out of 2 chance that you will draw a grape lollipop.

4. If we wanted to know this probability in percentage form, we simply take the numerator and divide by the
denominator and turn that decimal into a percent by moving the decimal two places to the right. 1 ÷ 2 = .5, so
there is a 50% chance that you will draw a grape lollipop.

A couple more items to note:

● Considering the method to find probability, you may have noticed that probabilities will always lie between 0 and
1, when in decimal form.

● Sometimes you will be asked to compare probabilities to evaluate which outcome is more likely. For example,
the probability of Janelle winning a game is 27 and the probability of Chris winning is 1349 Who is more likely to
win? Well, we would need to convert these probabilities into decimal form to evaluate.

● 2/7 = .285 or 28.5%

● 13/49= .265 or 26.5%, so Janelle is more likely to win.

Compound Event: Where two or more simple events happen, such as rolling a dice and then pulling a card from a deck.

Independent Event: A compound event where the probability of A happening does not affect the probability of B
happening, such as rolling a number cube and then rolling a number cube again.

Dependent Event: A compound event where the probability of A happening does affect the probability of B happening,
such as choosing a marble from a bag, keeping it, and then choosing another marble.

Example 1

Bianca is visiting the Texas Bob Bullock Museum in Austin, TX with her classmates. There is a bag with 20 slips that say
“Bus 1” and 20 slips that say “Bus 2”, whereby students will pick a slip at random that will determine the bus they ride. If
Bianca is the second person to draw a slip, what is the probability that she and the person before her will draw a slip that
says "Bus 1"?

Are these independent or dependent events?

Answer: The probability that Bianca and the first person both draw Bus 1 is

19/78, or approximately 24%. Bianca taking Bus 1 is dependent on the student before her so these are dependent events.
The calculation is shown below.

2040×1939 =3,801,560=19/7 or .24 or 24%

The next example will ilustrate a situation with independent events. Understanding the difference between dependent
events and independent events is important, so after reading example 2 below, make a note in your journal to
compare/contrast these two types of situations.

Example 2

On the way back from the museum, Bianca and her friend decided to play a card game, but they only played with the suit
of diamonds (13 cards). What is the probability that Bianca will pull a King, replace the card, and then pull a King again?

Hint: To find the probability of compound events, multiply the probability of the first event by the probability of the second
event. In this scenario, the second event will NOT be affected by the first event.

Answer: The probability that Bianca will draw a King twice in a row is

1169, so not very likely. This is an independent event.

113 × 113 = 1169 or .005 or 0.5% (meaning less than 1% chance)

Elaborate: Conditional and Geometric Probability
Conditional Probability: The probability of an event (B), given that another (A) has already occurred.

To calculate the probability, you take the probability of events A and B both happening and divide by the probability of
just event A happening. Note that the denominator represents the event that has already occurred, and the numerator
represents both events occurring.

Example 1

UT Geometry students took two exams. The teacher noticed that 66% of the students passed both exams, and 88%
passed the first exam. What is the probability that a student from the course chosen at random will pass the second test if
they passed the first test already?

Hint: Find the product of both ratios.

Passing both (Events A and B) = 0.66

Passing the first (Event A) = 0.88

0.660.88 = 0.60.8 = 3/4 =.75 =75%

Answer: Probability of the student passing the second exam, if they have already passed the first, is 75%.

Let’s do another example of conditional probability.

Example 2

A bag contains 3 green marbles and 2 yellow marbles. One marble is drawn without replacement. What is the probability
of selecting a yellow marble on the second draw, given that the first marble drawn was green?

Drawing green then yellow (events A and B) =

35×24= 620 =3/10= 0.3

The condition is drawing green first (event A) =

35 = 0.6

Answer: There is a 50% chance that you will draw a yellow marble on the second draw if the first marble drawn is green
and not replaced, because 0.3 divided by 0.6 is 0.5.

Explanation In a dependent event, the outcome of one event affects the outcome of another event. For example, if you
draw a card from a deck and don't replace it, the outcome of the second draw is dependent on the outcome of the first
draw. Independent events In an independent event, the outcome of one event doesn't affect the outcome of another event.
For example, if you flip a coin and then draw a card from a deck, the outcome of the coin flip is independent of the
outcome of the card draw.
Geometric Probability: Probability that involves a geometric measure such as length or area.

Example 3

If the central angle, ∠ABC, is 81°. If a point within the circle is chosen at random, what is the probability that it will land
inside the sector ABC?

Hint: The entire circle is 360°, which can be used as the sample space, so use 360 as your denominator.

Answer: The probability of the chosen point falling within sector ABC is

81/360 or 22.5%.

The probability of something happening and something not happening share a special relationship that you will use often.
If a basketball player hits 75% of her free throws, you know she must have missed 25% by subtracting 100% – 75%. Of
course, you can also just count up all of the missed shots and divide by the total shots, but if you have already found the
percent made, subtracting from 100% can often be faster. As you read through example 4, look for patterns and make a
note in your journal.

Example 4

What if we were to calculate the probability of the point NOT landing within sector ABC from Example 3 above? What
would that probability be?

Answer: The probability of the chosen point NOT falling within sector ABC is 279/360 or 77.5%.

Notice that if we sum the probability of the point landing within the sector and outside of the sector, we reach 100%
(22.5% + 77.5%). As mentioned in the Explain section, the probability of each event will sum to 1 or 100%.

● Look out for situations that tell you something has

already occurred. Phrases like "given that" can be
a clue.

● Recognize that is a CONDITION, find the probability

and use that probability as your denominator since
it already happened.

● Look out for whether you are asked if something

DID or did NOT occur.

● Check your answer by making sure the probability

of something happening plus not happening add
up to 100% (or 1.0 as a decimal).
In your journal, write down all the different ways can you arrange the letters F-U-N.

We could arrange it in the following ways:

FUN

FNU

NUF

NFU

UNF

UFN

In a previous lesson we illustrated how to use tables or tree diagrams as a strategy to organize your sample space. But if
there were more letters, the sample space would become very large and keeping track of it would be difficult. Imagine
trying to find all the ways to rearrange the letters in H-O-M-E-W-O-R-K! In this lesson we are going to learn how to use
formulas to quickly find the size of our sample spaces.
Explain: Calculating Permutations & Combinations
Consider the definition below. Write the definition into your notebook and take notes on the examples given below it.

● Definition: Permutation

○ An arrangement of objects or situations in which the order is important.

○ An example would be how many different ways a group of runners can finish in 1st, 2nd, and 3rd place.
The order matters, and there are several different ways it can end up.

We can use factorials to help calculate permutations. In the Engage section, you were asked to determine how many ways
you could arrange the letters F-U-N. While listing the different arrangements was fairly quick, it can get much more
extensive as we add to the number of letters. An easier way to find the permutation is using 3! (pronounced as "3
factorial"). That is to say: 3 · 2 · 1 = 6, which is the same amount of options we found in our Engage section.

The formula for permutations is as follows:

𝑛𝑃𝑟=𝑛!(𝑛−𝑟)!

n represents the number of objects available.

r represents the number of objects ordered.

Referring back to the example of rearranging the letters of F-U-N, we can use the formula to arrive at our answer. In this
example, n = 3 because there are three letters and r = 3 because we are ordering three letters.

3𝑃3=3!(3−3)!=3×2×11= 6/1 = 6

There are 6 possible arrangements.*

*You may have noticed that the formula is not always necessary, which is primarily attributed to the fact that 0! = 1. If you are rearranging all the
objects (and there are no repeats, such as letters or numbers) then you could just take the factorial of those objects...3 times 2 times 1 is 6.

Again, for shorter words it may seem quicker to list out the possible outcomes, however when we calculate the possible
outcomes for H-O-M-E-W-O-R-K, we can see that the list will get pretty large. Let’s use the formula to see how many ways
we can arrange the word HOMEWORK.

Before we do, it is important to note that there is a repeating letter in this word, so we will need to also divide by the
factorial of how many letters are repeats. In this case there two O’s, so the denominator will include a 2! as such:

8!(8−8)!⋅2!=8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1(1)×(2×1)=8×7×6×5×4×31=20,1601= 20,160

There are over 20 thousand possible arrangements!

You can see that if we tried to list out all of the different outcomes of rearranging the letters of HOMEWORK, it would take
quite a long time. HOMEWORK really is harder than FUN!

Consider the definition below. Write the definition into your notebook and take notes on the examples given below it.

● Definition: Combination

○ An arrangement of objects or situations in which the order is NOT important.

○ When order is NOT important, you can expect ABC is the same as BCA for example. This means you
should expect the number of combinations to be smaller than the number of permutations.

Consider this example.

Example 1: Imagine you have a planter on your front porch that can only fit 4 plants and you must determine how many
different plant combinations you can make. Consider that you are not being asked to determine the arrangement of the
plants, just determining WHICH plants will be in the planter, so the order/arrangement is not of concern for this example.

Factorials are also used in combinations. If we used the planter example and our neighborhood nursery had 10 plants to
choose from, we could have 210 combinations. See the application of the Combinations formula below.

10𝐶4=10!(10−4)!4!=10×9×8×7×6×5×4×3×2×16×5×4×3×2×1×4×3×2×1=210

There are 210 possible combinations.

The formula for combinations is as follows:

𝑛𝐶𝑟=𝑛!(𝑛−𝑟)!𝑟!

n represents the number of objects available.

r represents the number of objects chosen.

Read each example problem and write it into your notebook.

Example 2: Five friends go to the movies together. How many different ways can they be arranged in a row of five empty
seats? Is this a permutation or combination?

Hints:

● Use a factorial to solve.

● We count each different
seating order as a different
outcome.

Answer: The friends can arrange themselves in 120 different ways. This is a permutation, because each time the friends
rearrange their seats it is considered a new “ordering”.

5𝑃5=5!(5−5)!=5×4×3×2×11=120

There are 120 different ways the friends can be arranged in the row
Let's try one more example together. Take good notes in your notebook so you can reference them on your next graded
assignment.

Example 3: Liam is buying clothes for his brother, who has outgrown most of his current wardrobe. He has decided to get
his brother 3 t-shirts, 3 pairs of pants, 2 belts, and 2 pairs of shoes. How many different outfit combinations can his
brother make from his new clothing items?
Hint: Since we are choosing 1 item from each category, a quick way to solve this problem is simply multiplying each number of items by each
other.

Answer: Liam’s brother has 36 different outfit combinations he can make from his new clothes.

3 × 3 × 2 × 2 = 36

Let's apply what you just learned to find probabilities in a new way.

Finding probability using permutations

Finding the probability with permutation is not much different from finding permutations themselves. When using
factorials, the numerator will be represented by how many favorable outcomes* there are, and the denominator is how
many possible outcomes there are (which is the total number of objects).

*Favorable outcomes are the number of outcomes where order is not a concern. For example, there are 15 runners and
you are trying to order 1st, 2nd, and 3rd place. After the third runner finishes, there would be 12 runners remaining and 12!
unique orders in which these remaining runners could finish. Therefore, there are 12! “favorable” outcomes where we
would still get the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd place runners to finish the way that we wanted them to.

Example 1

Gina and her best friend made it into the talent show! There are nine acts in the show. The order is chosen at random.
What is the probability that Gina will go first and her best friend will go second?

Hint: There are 9 objects and only 2 that you are concerned with for ordering. Use factorials to calculate your answer by
considering favorable outcomes over possible outcomes.

Answer: There is a 1 out of 72 probability (or 1.39% chance) that Gina will go first and her best friend second. Since there
are only 2 places (first and second) in which you are concerned with a specific order, the numerator is 7! (representing the
contestants with whom order is not a concern, from our perspective). The denominator is 9! (representing all possible
orders of contestants).

7!9!=7×6×5×4×3×2×19×8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1=172

Finding probability using combinations

Much like permutations, finding the probability of combinations does not differ much from finding the number of possible
combinations. Using factorials, the numerator will be represented by the number of possible outcomes, and in the
denominator will be the factorial of favorable outcomes multiplied with the factorial of how many objects are being
chosen.

Example 2
Ben is at the Denver Art Museum in Denver, Colorado. He is seated at a table where you can create your own art. The
colors available are shown below. Ben will be using three of the colors, what is the probability that he will choose green,
orange, and fuchsia?

Hint: There are 8 colors and he will be choosing 3. he possible outcomes or objects is 8, favorable outcome is 5, and
number chosen is 3.

Answer: There is a 1 out of 56 probability (or 1.79% chance) that he will choose green, orange, and fuchsia.

We can solve the problem using the formula

8!(8−3)!3!

You will determine there are 56 possible combinations ,and therefore the chances of picking that particular color
combination (green, orange, and fuschia) is 1 out of 56.