FOCUS: FORENSIC SCIENCE

Introduction to Forensic Science

DONALD C. LEHMAN

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Forensic science plays a role in criminal and civil law.
1. Discuss the role of forensic scientists. Forensic scientists help determine cause of death,
2. Describe the role of medical examiners. identify perpetrators of crimes, identify bodily remains,
3. Describe chain of custody of forensic evidence. track the electronic transfer of money, investigate
4. Describe the organization and function of forensic internet fraud and identity theft, and reconstruct
laboratories in the United States. vehicular accidents. Laws regulate the safety and quality

Downloaded from http://hwmaint.clsjournal.ascls.org/ on November 8 2024

of our food and water, the potency of medications,
ABBREVIATIONS: DNA, deoxyribose nucleic acid motor vehicle emissions, and pesticides used on crops.
It would be impossible to monitor compliance with
INDEX TERMS: Chain of custody; Criminalistics; laws if not for accurate laboratory testing. Forensic
Forensic pathology; Forensic science, Medical examiner; science is becoming increasingly broad in its application
to law and criminal investigations.
Clin Lab Sci 2012;25(2):107
Crime laboratory analyses are only relevant if the
Donald C. Lehman, EdD, MT(ASCP), specimens received are properly collected, transported
SM(NRM), University of Delaware, Newark, DE and preserved. Crime scene evidence is often collected
19716. and transported by trained police officers. In cases of
personal assaults, such as rape, forensic nurses in
Address for Correspondence: Donald C. Lehman, emergency departments collect evidence from victims. A
significant difference between clinical and forensic
EdD, MT(ASCP), SM(NRM), Department of
specimens is maintaining chain of custody for forensic
Med-ical Technology. University of Delaware, evidence. The possession of physical evidence must
Newark, DE 19716, (302) 831-8432, account for every person who has handled the evidence,
[email protected] and the evidence must be maintained in such a way to
prevent tampering. If the chain of custody
Forensic science, sometimes referred to as criminalistics, documentation is not complete, the laboratory results
applies the knowledge of science to the definition and will not be permitted in a court of law.
enforcement of laws. Criminalistics is a branch of
forensic science that is involved in the collection, A common testing principle in forensic analysis is
analysis, and interpretation of physical evidence comparison. Physical evidence from an unknown source
produced by criminal activity.1 This field of study is collected at a crime scene, and this unknown or
involves several scientific disciplines: biology, chemistry, questioned specimen is compared to a specimen from a
and physics. Forensic science is not a branch of law known source or reference sample. For example, a DNA
enforcement, and forensic scientists are not law profile can be determined on a blood stain from a crime
enforcement officers. Despite how they are portrayed on scene. This profile can be compared to the DNA profile
television, forensic scientists do not interrogate and of a suspect. If the two profiles have a high probability
arrest suspects and do not usually investigate crime of a match, this places the suspect at the crime scene.
scenes. The main duties of a forensic scientist are to Without a reference sample for comparison, the DNA
analyze physical evidence, interpret the results and profile has little value. Ballistics, fingerprinting, and hair
testify in a court of law. Forensic scientists are expert and fiber analysis all rely on comparison testing.
witnesses who express opinions as to the significance of
laboratory findings. Medical examiners are pathologists trained to perform
postmortem examinations. Forensic pathology is a
VOL 25, NO 2 SPRING 2012 CLINICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 107
 FOCUS: F O R E N S I C S C I E N C E

specialization area performed by medical examiners to Britain has a national system of regional laboratories
determine the cause of death as well as the postmortem under the direction of the government’s home office.
interval, the length of time since death occurred. Both The United States does, however, have several federal
are often critical to crime investigations. During an agencies with forensic laboratories. The Federal Bureau
autopsy, medical examiners examine the body and of Investigation, a unit of the Department of Justice,
clothing, and they collect tissue and fluids for has one laboratory in Quantico, VA. This laboratory
microscopic examination and laboratory testing. A wide supports the investigation efforts of the Federal Bureau
variety of specimens can be analyzed. Toxicologic of Investigation, and if requested, will test certain types
testing can be performed on blood, gastric contents, and of physical evidence for other law enforcement agencies
cerebrospinal fluid for drugs of abuse and prescription and forensic laboratories.
medications. Vitreous humor, fluid in the eyes, can be
tested for potassium to help determine the postmortem The field of forensic science has changed substantially
interval. Many of the methodologies used in a forensic since the first laboratory was established in Lyons

Downloaded from http://hwmaint.clsjournal.ascls.org/ on November 8 2024

science laboratory are also used in clinical laboratories. France under the direction of Edmund Locard in 1910.
The first forensic laboratory in the United States was
The United States has no national system of forensic established by the Los Angeles Police Department in
laboratories; local law enforcement agencies operate 1923. Forensic science involves many areas of scientific
their own crime laboratories. The services each investigation. In this short series of articles, we discuss
laboratory provides depends on funding, personnel, DNA analysis, forensic microbiology and forensic
equipment, and crime statistics. The majority of toxicology.
forensic laboratories are publicly funded by a federal,
state, or local government unit. There are nearly 500 REFERENCES
public forensic laboratories in the United States and 50 1. Houck MM, Siegel JA. Introduction. In: Fundamentals of
to 100 private forensic laboratories.1 In contrast, Great Forensic Science, 2nd ed. Boston: Elsevier; 2010.

The Focus section seeks to publish relevant and timely continuing education for clinical laboratory practitioners. Section
editors, topics, and authors are selected in advance to cover current areas of interest in each discipline. Readers can obtain
continuing education credit (CE) through P.A.C.E.® by completing the continuing education registration form, recording
answers to the examination, and mailing a photocopy of it with the appropriate fee to the address designated on the form.
Suggestions for future Focus topics and authors, and manuscripts appropriate for CE credit are encouraged. Direct all
inquiries to the Clin Lab Sci Editorial Office, Westminster Publishers, 315 Westminster Court, Brandon MS 39047.
(601) 214-5028, (202) 315-5843 (fax). [email protected].

108 VOL 25, NO 2 SPRING 2012 CLINICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE