CELLS

● Cells: the basic structural and functional units of every organism

○ All cells:
1. Are bound by a plasma membrane
2. Contain cytosol
3. Contain chromosomes
4. Contain ribosomes
 CELLS

There are two types of cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
● Domains Bacteria and ● Protists, fungi,
Archaea animals, and plants
● DNA is in the nucleoid ● DNA is in the nucleus
region ● Contain membrane
● Generally smaller in bound organelles
size than eukaryotes
ORGANELLES
 ORGANELLES
Organelles: membrane bound structures in eukaryotes
Two classifications:
Endomembrane organelles
1. Nuclear envelope
2. Endoplasmic reticulum
3. Golgi complex
4. Lysosomes
5. Vesicles/Vacuoles
6. Plasma membrane
Energy organelles
1. Mitochondria
2. Chloroplasts
 COMPARTMENTALIZATION

● Compartmentalization in organelles allows for different

metabolic reactions to occur in different locations
○ Increases surface area for reactions to occur
○ Prevents interfering reactions from occuring in the
same location

Topic 2.10
 UNIQUE CELL COMPONENTS

Plants Animals
● Chloroplasts ● Lysosomes
● Central vacuole ● Centrosomes
● Cell wall ● Flagella
● Plasmodesmata
ENDOMEMBRANE
ORGANELLES
 NUCLEUS

● Contains chromosomes (genetic information)

○ Enclosed by the nuclear envelope
■ Double membrane
○ Has pores
■ Pores regulate entry and exit
of materials from the cell
 NUCLEUS
Contains a nucleolus
● Dense region of the nucleus where
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized
○ rRNA is combined with proteins to
form large and small subunits of
ribosomes
○ Subunits exit via nuclear pores

■ Assemble into ribosomes

● Ribosomes translate messages found on
mRNA into the primary structure of
polypeptides
 RIBOSOMES
● Comprised of ribosomal RNA and protein
○ Function: synthesize proteins

Note: some texts do not classify ribosomes

as organelles because they are not bound
by a membrane
 RIBOSOMES
● Can be found in two locations:
1. Cytosol
○ Proteins produced here generally
function only within the cytosol (i.e.
enzymes)
○ Known as “free ribosomes”
2. Bound to the endoplasmic reticulum or
nuclear envelope
○ Proteins produced here can be
secreted from the cell
■ Leave via transport vesicles
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
● A network of membranous sacs and tubes
○ Functions:
■ Synthesizes membranes
■ Compartmentalize the cell to keep proteins formed in
the rough ER separate from those of free ribosomes
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
● Two types: rough and smooth
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
1. Rough ER
○ Contains ribosomes bound to the ER membrane

2. Smooth ER
● Contains no ribosomes
● Synthesizes lipids,
metabolizes carbohydrates,
and detoxifies the cell
 GOLGI COMPLEX

Contains flattened membranous sacs called cisternae

● Separate the sacs from the cytosol
● Each cisternae is not connected
● Has directionality
○ Cis face:
■ Receives vesicles from the ER
○ Trans face:
■ Sends vesicles back out into cytosol to other
locations or to the plasma membrane for secretion
 GOLGI COMPLEX

Functions:
● Receives transport vesicles with materials from the ER
● Modifies the materials
● Sorts the materials Ensures newly
● Adds molecular tags formed proteins are
folded
● Packages materials into new transport correctly
vesicles or
that exit
the membrane via exocytosis modified correctly
 LYSOSOMES
Membranous sac with hydrolytic enzymes
● Function:
○ Hydrolyzes macromolecules in animal cells
○ Autophagy: lysosomes can recycle their own cell’s
organic materials
■ Allows the cell to renew itself
Peroxisomes
● Similar to lysosomes
● Membrane bound metabolic
compartment
○ Catalyze reactions that produce H2O2
■ Enzymes in peroxisomes then
break down H2O2 to water
 VACUOLES
Large vesicles that stem from the ER and Golgi
● Selective in transport
Types:
Food vacuole
● Form via phagocytosis (cell eating) and then are digested
by lysosomes
Contractile vacuole
● Maintain water levels in cells
Central vacuole
● Found in plants
○ Contains inorganic ions and water
○ Important for turgor pressure
 PRACTICE FRQ
1. Hepatitis C is a virus that attacks the liver and can cause
liver disease. Liver disease has been linked to a reduction
in albumin levels in patients analyzed. Albumin is an
important protein in humans. It functions primarily to
regulate oncotic pressure of blood, which is important for
the regulation of fluids in vessels of the body and tissue
repair. On average, patients with liver disease show a 10-
30% decrease in blood-albumin levels. (a) Identify the
organelle in liver cells that is most likely being affected by
hepatitis C and (b) justify your reasoning.
 PRACTICE FRQ

2. In humans, pancreatic cells synthesize the protein insulin in the

endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Patients diagnosed with type 1
diabetes have immune systems that mistakenly attack their
pancreatic cells. Therefore, these patients cannot produce the
hormone insulin and have to take medications to introduce insulin
into their bodies. (a) Describe how insulin would be produced in
a normal functioning (non-type 1 diabetes) pancreatic cell.
ENERGY ORGANELLES
 ENDOSYMBIONT THEORY
● Endosymbiont Theory: the theory that explains the similarities
mitochondria and chloroplasts have to a prokaryote
○ Theory states that an early eukaryotic cell engulfed
a prokaryotic cell
■ Prokaryotic cell became an endosymbiont (cell
that lives in another cell)
● Became one functional organism

Topic 2.11
 ENDOSYMBIONT THEORY
● Evidence:
● Double membrane
● Ribosomes
● Circular DNA
● Capable of functioning on their own

Topic 2.11
 MITOCHONDRIA

Site of cellular respiration

● Structure of the double membrane:
○ Outer membrane is smooth
○ Inner membrane has folds called cristae
■ Divides the mitochondria into two internal
compartments and increases the surface area
 MITOCHONDRIA

1. Intermembrane: space between inner and outer

membrane
2. Mitochondrial matrix: enclosed by inner membrane
● Location for the Krebs cycle
● Contains:
○ Enzymes that catalyze cellular
respiration and produce ATP
○ Mitochondrial DNA
○ Ribosomes
 MITOCHONDRIA

The number of mitochondria in a cell correlates with

metabolic activity
● Cells with high metabolic activity have more mitochondria
○ Example: cells that move/contract
 CHLOROPLAST
● Specialized organelles in photosynthetic
organisms
○ Site of photosynthesis
○ Contains the green pigment chlorophyll
● Inside of its double membrane:
○ Thylakoids
■ Membranous sacs that can organize
into stacks called grana
● Light dependent reactions occur
in grana
 CHLOROPLAST
● Stroma: fluid around thylakoids
○ Location for the Calvin cycle
○ Contains
■ Chloroplast DNA
■ Ribosomes
■ Enzymes
THE CYTOSKELETON
 CYTOSKELETON

● A network of fibers throughout the cytoplasm

○ Give structural support (especially for animal cells)
and mechanical support:
■ Anchor organelles
■ Allow for movement of vesicles and organelles
and/or the whole cell
● Movement occurs when the cytoskeleton
interacts with motor proteins
 CYTOSKELETON

There are 3 types of fibers in the cytoskeleton:

1. Microtubules
2. Microfilaments
3. Intermediate filaments
 MICROTUBULES
Hollow rod-like structures made of the protein tubulin
● Grow from the centrosome
○ Assist in microtubule assembly
 MICROTUBULES
Functions:
● Serve as structural support (think: tracks) for the movement
of organelles that are interacting with motor proteins
● Assist in the separation of chromosomes during cell division
● Cell motility (i.e. cilia and flagella)
 MICROFILAMENTS

Thin solid rods made of the protein actin

Functions:
● Maintain cell shape
○ Bear tension
● Assist in muscle contraction and cell motility
○ Actin works with another protein called myosin to
cause a contraction
● Division of animal cells
○ Contractile ring of the cleavage furrow
 INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

● Fibrous proteins made up of varying subunits

● Permanent structural elements of cells
Functions:
● Maintain cell shape
● Anchor nucleus and organelles
● Form the nuclear lamina
○ Lines the nuclear envelope