Welcome to the second topic of this unit.

In this topic, we will explain a number of systems concept, describe the components of a
systems, classify systems and describe each type of a system.

The topic should take approximately 4 hours. There is also a multiple choice quiz to test
your mastery of content.

All the best!

Specific Objectives

By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:

a) Explain systems concept

b) Describe the components of a system

c) Describe the classification of systems

d) Explain system properties

e) Describe the types of systems

SYSTEM THEORY

This is a body of knowledge that allows study of systems in order to explain and in some
circumstances predict the behavior of complex systems.
It looks at a system as an entity that is composed of many interactive components called
subsystems, which are interdependent and operate jointly in an effort to achieve a
common objective. The subsystems are separated from one another by boundaries.
System

It is a collection of objects or components that work together to realize some objectives.

A system must have three basic constraints −

 A system must have some structure and behavior which is designed to achieve
a predefined objective.
 Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system
components.
 The objectives of the organization have a higher priority than the objectives
of its subsystems.

For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic library system,
human resources information system.

Subsystem

It is a system within a system.

This means that systems exist on more than one level and can be composed of
subsystems.

Example: software consists of modules (subsystems)

SYSTEM

Subsystem A Subsystem B Subsystem C

Subsystem A1

Subsystem A2
Importance of System Theory
 i. Recognizes that conflicts can arise within a system which may cause the system not
to achieve its goals
ii. Allows an individual to recognize that he or she is a sub-system within a larger
system
iii. Stresses that sub-systems should work together harmoniously for a system to achieve
its goals
iv. Allows systems to be studied

Components of a System

A system is made up of different components and this components are inter-linked and
work together with an objective to achieve. We may identify components as follows:
a) Input
An operational system takes in some form of input from the environment. The nature of
input is influenced by the nature of the system. The input is described as a data
collection, data capture or just data entry point.

b) Output
Output is the component that receives information that has been processed by the
system. The major objective of a system is to produce output that is of value to its users.
The output measures the system efficiency and usefulness.

c) Processor
It is the element of a system that is involved in the actual transformation of the input
data into information that is given out by output. This processor is the operational
element of a system.

d) Storage
Component that stores data that is not currently being used. In addition it supports the
other components by storing the processed information that is not required by the
output.

e) System control
Is in charge of coordinating the different components that make up the system. It is a
decision making unit that governs the input, output and the actual processing.
Fig 1: Pictorial representation of system components

f) Feedback

The system control in a system is done in two ways i. e feedback (A feedback is a check
within a system to see whether predetermined goals are being met. The checks are
conducted on a system to determine deviation. When a deviation is detected it is
reported to the appropriate component and a corrective measure is taken.

All systems require feedback usually to compare the current behavior with
predetermined goals , and gives back the information describing the gap between
actual and intended performance .Feedback may be positive or negative.).

i. Positive feedback
It is an attempt to increase a detected deviation. It helps the system to adjust but acting
in the same direction in which the deviation has occurred i.e. if a business organization is
making a profit in a day, it can increase the amount of stock, advertisements or open
more branches and this is a positive feedback that would sustain the system for longer
years.

ii. Negative feedback

Works on the principle of trying to reduce the fluctuation around a set standard. This
enables the business if it is making loses, the management will take a negative direction
so as to stop or prevent this fluctuation e.g. they would stop selling on credit, would
recover all the money that is outside, would also retrench people, would cut on expenses
etc.

Note: in addition to the above feedbacks, there is a special type of feedback known as
feed-forward. It refers to making adjustments on the system in advance to face expected
deviations. While feedback monitors the post results to detect and correct the
disturbance to the plan

Feed forward reacts to further coming changes by making adjustment to the

system in advance in order to alleviate foreseen problem in good time.

Information used here are changes in environment i.e. Anticipated inflation in a

country

Importance of feedback in a system

i. Find out any deviation. Occurrence of any deviation (positive or negative

leads to taking appropriate steps
ii. Helps increase efficiency of the system
iii. Monitors past results of the system
iv. To know the future outcomes and enable deal with them

g) Environment

 The environment is the “super system” within which an organization operates.

 It is the source of external elements that strike on the system.
 It determines how a system must function. For example, vendors and competitors
of organization’s environment, may provide constraints that affect the actual
performance of the business.

h) Boundaries and Interface

 A system should be defined by its boundaries. Boundaries are the limits that
identify its components, processes, and interrelationship when it interfaces with
another system.
 Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and control.
 The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in determining the
nature of its interface with other systems for successful design.
Characteristics of a System
A system has 9 characteristics.

 Components
A system is made up of components. A component is an irreducible part or aggregation
Of that make up a system, also called subsystems. We can repair or upgrade the
system by changing individual components without having to make changes throughout
the entire system.

 Interdependence

The components are interrelated. This means the dependence of one subsystem on one
or more subsystems. The function of one subsystem is tied to the function of other

 A Boundary
A system has a boundary within which all of its components are contained and which
establishes the limits of a system, separating the system from other systems. The
boundary is the line that makes the inside and outside of a system and that sends off
the system from its environments.
 A purpose
This is the overall goal or function of a system. A system must give priority to the
objectives of the organization as a whole as compared to the objectives of a subsystem.
 An Environment
This is everything external to a system that interacts with the system i.e. everything
Outside the system’s boundary, usually the system interacts with its environment,
exchanging, in the case of an information system, data and information.
 Interfaces
This is the point of contact where a system meets its environments or where
subsystems

Meet each other. E.g. The interface between an automated system and its users
(manual system) and interfaces between different information systems. It is the design
of good interfaces that permits different systems to work together without being too
dependent on each other.
Because an interface exists at the point where a system meets its environment, the
interface has several special, important functions outlined below:-

a) Security - protecting the system from undesirable elements that may

want to infiltrate it.
b) Filtering unwanted data both for elements leaving and entering the
system.
c) Coding and decoding incoming and outgoing messages.
d) Detecting and correcting errors in its interaction with the environment.
e) Buffering - providing a layer of slack between the system and its
environment, so that the system and its environment can work on
different cycles and at different speeds.
f) Summarizing raw data and transforming them into the level details and
format needed throughout the system.

 Constraint/ Controls

This is a limit to what a system can accomplish. A system must face constraints in its
functioning because there are limits – in terms of capacity, speed, or capabilities to
what it can do and how it can achieve its purpose within its environment.
 Input
This is whatever a system gets from its environment, e.g. raw data.
 Output
This is whatever a system returns to its environment in order to fulfill its purpose

System Analysis Terms and Concepts

a) Sensoring

This is measuring and recording done by a system device called a sensor

 b) Comparator

This is the way the comparison of the actual result and the plan is achieved .Modern
systems the comparison is done by computer programs

c) Effecter

Actions to be taken are affected after the study of comparison has been done by
the time comparator.

d) Activator

This is a decision element that evaluates in the light of feedback , alternative

course of action design to eliminate the deviant behavior of the operating system

e) Sub-optimization

This is a situation where the objectives of a subsystem conflict with the objectives
of the main system or a situation where the sub-system achieve their objectives
of the higher system.

f) Synergy

It is where two systems operate as one and produce more results that each
would achieve independently.

g) Symbiosis

It is where two systems operate as one , and if one ceases to exist , the other
cannot function . It is thus based on take and give relation.

h) Redundancy

It is where there is application between sub-systems such that if and specific

sub-subsystem ceased to exist , the whole system would continue

i) Factoring

Is the process of splitting disintegrating a system into sub systems/ units as a

mean of focusing on specific subsystem requirements

j) Decoupling
This is a process which in the subsystems are given autonomy and independence
ie the sub system operate independently thereby pursuing own objectives and
enhancing flexibility

Classification of Systems

a) Open versus closed system

An open system is able to communicate with its environment. It receives inputs from the
environment and gives output to the environment. It adapts to changes in the
environment. Examples include Banking system, business system, Education systems
etc.

A closed system does not interact with its environment. It does not receive any input nor
does it give output. They do not receive modification from the environment examples
include Scientific systems, computer programs.

Difference between Open Systems and Closed Systems

Open System Closed System

Interacts with the environment constantly Does not interact with the Environment
Has infinite scope Limited Scope
Relevant variables keep on interacting Self-Contained
Flexible and abstract Rigid and mathematical

b) Abstract and Physical Systems

Abstract systems are logical representation of actual systems. They can be in form of
simulations of actual systems or design models that represent the system.
e.g. Ahouse plan, DFD ERD, computer simulated games (for kids e.g. driving)

Physical systems are actual systems. This is a simple representation of a group of both
tagible and non tagible components. E.g. An organisation, A Car e.t.c.
c) Deterministic/mechanistic
Is a system where the end product is exactly known from their input.These systems
function according to some predetermined procedures and hence their future behavior
can be predicted accurately depending on the situations prevailing.

Examples – Orbit system (Future behavior of the planet can be accurately predicted),
computer systems etc.

d) Probabilistic/stochastic
These are systems whose output can only be predicted but not known precisely. These
systems operate on probability i.e chances, events and hence their future behavior
cannot be predicted definitely.

Examples – Social systems (Business and Economic systems) which can be affected by
factors which are unpredictable.

e) Cybernetic/adaptive
They are systems which adapt to their environment. They must react in order to survive.
They regulate their own behavior by accessing the feedback i.e access their output and
adjust the input. If they don’t react they die/perish.

Examples – Human, Plants, Organizations.

f) Open – Loop System vs Closed – Loop System

This is a system which does not act in a controlled manner, i.e. no feedback, and so no
measure of performance against standards.
A system that functions in a controlled manner e.g. A system accepts inputs, work upon
them according to some pre-defined processing rules, and produces outputs, so that it
can function in a controlled manner, must give feedback
g) Artificial Systems
These systems are created rather than occur by nature e.g. computer programs,
organization, etc.
They are usually made to support the objective of the designer and user.
Man–Made Information Systems

 It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for particular

organization, under Direct Management Control (DMC).
 This system includes hardware, software, communication, data, and application for
producing information according to the need of an organization.
 Man-made information systems are divided into three types −

 Formal Information System − It is based on the flow of information in the form

of memos, instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of management.
 Informal Information System − this is employee based system which solves
the day to day work related problems.
 Computer Based System – This is a system is directly dependent on the
computer for managing business applications. For example, automatic library
system, railway reservation system, banking system, etc.

System Properties
 Hard properties

These are attributes that enable data to be measured .e.g. Cost of an item, number of
employees in an organization etc.

A hard system refers to a system whose goals and objectives are clearly defined and the
outcomes from the systems processes are predictable and can be modelled accurately.
Example – Stock Management System.

Often engineering or science data has hard properties that can be measured.

 Soft properties

Are attributes that are not capable of precise measurement e.g. there is nothing an
individual can use to say a material is attractive.

A soft system refers to a system whose goals and objectives are not clearly defined
(conflicts) and whose outcome is unpredictable. The boundaries keep on changing. They
depend on human factors. Example – Political system.

Often, social and political data have soft properties.

Individual Assignment

1. There are two types of Information Systems; man-made and automated.

Differentiate between man-made and automated types of systems
2. Describe three components of an information system
3. Distinguish between deterministic and probabilistic systems